M«ch.  dept. 


-     -eering 
Library 


INDUSTRIAL   ENGINEERING 

PART   ONE 


INDUSTRIAL 
ENGINEERING 


A  HANDBOOK 

OF 

USEFUL   INFORMATION   FOR   MANAGERS, 
ENGINEERS,  SUPERINTENDENTS,  DESIGN- 
ERS, DRAFTSMEN  AND  OTHERS  ENGAGED 
IN  CONSTRUCTIVE  WORK 


BY 

WILLIAM  M.  BARR 

Author  of  "Pumping  Machinery,"  "Boilers  and  Furnaces,"  etc. 


PART  I 


NEW  YORK 

W.  M.  BARR  COMPANY,  INC. 

116  WEST  39TH  STREET 
1918 


Engineering 
Library 


Copyright,  1918 

by 
WILLIAM  M.  BARE 


COMPOSITION,  ELECTROTYPING  AND  PRINTING  BY 
PUBLISHERS  PRINTING  COMPANY,  NEW  YORK  CITY 


PREFACE 

IN  the  preparation  of  this  handbook  the  writer  attempts  a  systematic  arrangement 
of  a  considerable  volume  of  useful  information  for  engineers,  much  of  which  has  not 
been  readily  accessible  to  the  public.  The  collection  includes  separate  specifications 
relating  to  the  chemical  and  physical  properties  of  practically  all  of  the  materials 
entering  into  engineering  work  for  the  U.  S.  Government.  The  importance  and  economic 
value  of  the  data  thus  presented  will  be  recognized  by  manufacturers  and  engineers 
engaged  in  Government  work  not  only,  but  this  value  extends  into  every  department 
in  industrial  engineering. 

The  usefulness  of  this  handbook  will  not  rest  so  much  upon  the  extent  of  the  compila- 
tion as  upon  the  practical  nature  of  the  data  presented ;  a  feature  made  possible  through 
the  free  use  of  working  drawings  contributed  for  insertion  in  these  pages.  Selections 
from  these  drawings  appear  throughout  the  entire  work  in  carefully  prepared  illustrations 
accompanied  in  most  cases  by  tables  of  working  dimensions;  these  cover  a  wider  range 
of  detail  than  is  common  in  books  of  this  class.  It  has  been  the  constant  aim  of  the 
writer  that  such  data  shall  be  so  complete  that  principal  dimensions  given  in  any  table 
may,  with  suitable  adaptations,  be  used  directly  in  the  preparation  of  shop  drawings, 
and  without  the  labor  of  recalculating. 

Correct  proportions,  in  series,  cannot  be  had  by  selecting  PH  acceptable  detail  and 
making  one  of  its  dimensions  a  unit,  and  then  assigning  proportional  values  to  the 
other  dimensions,  except  within  very  narrow  limits.  Suppose  a  series  of  strap  joints  as 
in  the  table,  page  601;  diameters  ranging  from  a  3-inch  to  a  12-inch  pin;  the  writer's 
method  is  to  complete  two  designs  similar  in  detail,  one  for  the  smallest  and  the  other 
for  the  largest  diameter  of  pin,  then  measuring  the  proportional  differences  graphically 
obtained  for  intermediate  sizes. 

There  are  numerous  machine  details  which  are  now  designed  to  be  complete  in 
themselves,  and  with  very  slight  changes  made  to  fit  into  any  machine  where  such  a 
detail  is  demanded;  many  examples  of  this  kind  are  included  in  this  work;  in  all  cases 
the  nature  of  the  design  and  the  properties  of  materials  entering  into  it  are  fully  con- 
sidered and  the  proportions  fixed  once  for  all.  Pulleys  are  a  familiar  example;  they 
are  designed  for  single  or  double  belts,  as  also  double  extra  heavy  for  very  severe  service, 
but  once  designed  and  patterns  made,  no  further  changes  occur;  the  pulley  becomes 
one  of  many  units  in  a  plant  requiring  no  further  attention  on  the  part  of  the  designer 
than  the  mere  selection  of  size  and  strength. 

So-called  empiricism,  or  the  reliance  on  direct  observation  and  experience  to  the 
exclusion  of  theories,  or  assumed  principles  in  machine  design,  if  it  ever  existed,  is  no 
longer  in  use;  many  of  the  so-called  empirical  or  practical  rules  are  in  reality  founded 
upon  carefully  conducted  experiments,  or  the  result  of  long  and  methodical  observation 
in  the  working  of  machines,  the  ultimate  proportions  being  fixed  to  safely  carry  the 
load  regardless  of  conventional  factors  of  safety;  the  latter  are  not  believed  to  be  "factors 
of  ignorance"  so  much  as  they  are  generous  allowances  made  to  withstand  the  effect  of 
forces  too  complex  to  be  dealt  with  mathematically  or  physically.  Rigidity  depends 
largely  upon  the  form  and  details  of  construction.  The  chemical  and  physical  properties 
of  any  material  used  in  engineering  is  now  known  with  precision.  The  data  relating 
to  strength  of  materials  in  this  work  are  wholly  those  obtained  by  direct  experimept, 
mainly  in  testing  machines  owned  and  operated  by  the  U.  S.  Government. 

There  will  be  noticed  throughout  the  book  a  general  tendency  toward  steam-engine 
details,  due  in  large  measure  to  the  writer's  long  familiarity  with  that  subject.  Two 
satisfactory  types  of  steam-engines  are  now  in  use — the  modern  locomotive  engine  and 

[v] 


PREFACE 

the  triple  expansion  marine  engine;  both  of  these  use  steam  pressures,  seldom  less  than 
165  pounds  per  square  inch.  In  locomotive  design  the  present  proportions  are  the 
outcome  of  a  practical  acquaintance  with  the  success  or  failure  of  each  and  every  detail, 
covering  experiences  hi  thousands  of  locomotives  with  every  peculiarity  of  design, 
operating  on  road-beds  of  every  conceivable  variety,  often  under  conditions  that  would 
seem  to  invite  failure,  and  through  it  all  the  locomotive  stands  the  test  with  an  economic 
margin  that  invites  confidence  and  places  upon  its  design  and  proportions  the  seal  of 
approval.  Similarly  the  success  of  the  modern  triple  expansion  marine  steam-engine, 
the  designs  for  which  are  based  upon  accurate  knowledge  of  the  strength  and  elasticity 
of  materials  employed,  to  which  is  added  an  increment  in  size,  based  upon  experience, 
to  resist  stresses  occurring  at  irregular  intervals  with  a  suddenness  that  would  seem 
to  imperil  the  safety  of  the  engine;  the  proportioning  of  parts  that  will  completely 
absorb  such  shocks  without  harm  and  without  stoppage  in  service,  is  one  of  the  results 
of  thorough  technical  training  supplemented  by  experiences  which  can  only  be  had 
at  sea. 

There  has  been  no  attempt — in  fact,  the  writer  disavows  any  intention  of  making 
this  a  text-book  in  engineering.  The  designs  illustrated  and  accompanied  by  tables 
of  working  dimensions  are  based  mainly  upon  marine  and  railroad  practice,  than  which 
no  severer  working  tests  occur;  the  proportions  given  have  long  since  passed  the  experi- 
mental stage  and  are  known  to  be  ample  for  the  controlling  unit,  in  any  given  case. 
Machine  design  in  its  narrowest  applications  is  all  that  is  attempted  in  this  work;  it 
has  been  his  opinion  throughout  that  the  theory  of  machines,  applied  kinematics  or 
machines  considered  as  modifying  motion,  applied  dynamics  or  machines  considered 
as  modifying  both  motion  and  force,  are  subjects  requiring  special  mathematical  treats 
ment,  and  therefore  foreign  to  the  present  purpose:  he  contents  himself  with  the  simple 
presentation  of  some  acceptable  details  in  machine  construction. 

The  writer  is  under  obligations  to  many  professional  friends  contributing  and 
assisting  in  the  selection  of  material  for  these  pages.  His  thanks  are  especially  due 
officials  of  the  Navy  Department,  the  Bureau  of  Mines,  the  Bureau  of  Standards, 
Examiners  in  several  of  the  Departments  in  the  U.  S.  Patent  Office;  for  courtesies  in 
the  Library  of  Congress,  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  etc.  Extended  use  has  been 
made  of  official  reports  on  materials  forming  the  basis  of  engineering  specifications 
now  used  in  Government  contracts,  especially  those  relating  to  the  Navy.  Free  use 
has  also  been  made  of  the  Records  of  Tests  made  at  the  Watertown  Arsenal,  the  Wash- 
ington Navy  Yard,  and  other  Governmental  Laboratories.  In  this  connection  it  will 
be  understood  that  the  official  reports  and  specifications  appearing  in  this  book  are 
for  the  information  of  the  reader,  and  not  herein  officially  published. 

As  to  the  apparent  exclusion  of  excellent  work  done  by  several  Societies  in  Testing 
Materials,  as  well  as  to  results  of  tests  made  public  by  railroads,  steel  works,  forges, 
foundries,  and  other  industrial  plants,  it  occurs  only  through  lack  of  space;  preference 
is  given  the  Government  Specifications  based  upon  extended  chemical  and  physical 
investigations  because,  as  presented,  they  are  more  or  less  mandatory  in  their  application. 

Free  use  has  been  made  of  Valuable  contributions  to  the  various  engineering  societies, 
magazines,  and  trade  papers  covering  almost  every  department  of  technology.  The 
writer's  collection  of  such  material  is  large,  and  as  most  of  the  papers  have  been  pre- 
pared by  experts  their  value  is  correspondingly  great;  the  collection  thus  serves  to  sup- 
plement some  of  the  more  recent  books  authoritatively. 

With  the  development  of  the  subjects  selected  for  this  book  it  has  become  necessary 
to  divide  the  work  into  two  parts.  The  present  volume,  Part  I,  deals  mostly  with 
the  chemical  and  physical  properties  of  the  materials  used  in  engineering,  particularly 
such  as  are  called  for  in  Government  specifications;  these  specifications  are  so  numerous 
and  conform  so  minutely  to  the  official  terms,  that  the  space  occupied  by  them  is  more 
than  double  that  originally  assigned.  This  has  been  the  case  in  other  sections  as  well, 
but  the  expansion  of  the  work  is  believed  to  be  wholly  in  the  interest  of  and  will  prove 
doubly  useful  to,  the  reader. 

Part  II  is  in  active  preparation  for  early  publication. 

The  long  delay  after  the  preliminary  announcement  regarding  its  preparation  for 
early  publication  has  been  due  to  the  industrial  changes  which  have  taken  place  through- 

[vi]. 


PREFACE 

out  our  country  because  of  the  European  War,  an  occurrence  which  has  made  neces- 
sary many  changes  in  the  book,  including  the  rearrangement  and  rewriting  of  whole 
sections,  the  preparation  of  new  drawings,  the  calculating  of  new  tables,  all  of  which 
has  taken  much  time,  but  it  has  greatly  increased  the  value  and  importance  of  the  book. 
Complete  accuracy  is  not  expected  in  a  work  involving  so  much  detail  as  does  this, 
and  the  writer  can  only  say  with  respect  to  this  detail  that  the  present  work  represents 
an  extended  and  thoroughly  earnest  effort  on  his  part  to  secure  perfectly  reliable  ma- 
terial, arranging  it  in  convenient  sequence,  presenting  it  in  clearly  printed  pages  and 
carefully  indexing  the  whole  for  ready  reference. 

WILLIAM  M-  BARE. 
NEW  YORK, 
September,  1918. 


[vii] 


CONTENTS 

SECTION  1 

UNITS  AND  STANDARDS 

Unit  of  Time — Standard  of  Length — Unit  of  Mass — C.  G.  S.  System — Me- 
chanical and  Geometrical  Quantities — Units  of  Measurement  and  De- 
rived Units  in  use  in  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States — Fundamental 
and  Derived  Units  of  Length,  Mass,  Time,  and  Temperature — Geometric 
and  Dynamic  Units — Air  as  a  Standard — Water  as  a  Standard — Physical 
Constants  of  Metals — Melting  Points  of  Chemical  Elements — Specific 
Gravity  of  Metals,  Minerals,  and  other  substances — Horsepower — 
Kilowatt  as  a  Unit  of  Power — Table  of  Horsepowers  to  Kilowatts — Table 
of  Kilowatts  to  Horsepowers 1-38 


•SECTION  2 

WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 

Measures  of  Length — Measures  of  Surface — Measures  of  Volume — Measures 
of  Capacity — Avoirdupois  Weight — Troy  Weight —  Apothecaries'  Weights 
and  Measures — United  States  Money — Value  of  Foreign  Coins  in  United 
States  Money— Measures  of  Time — Longitude  and  Time  Compared — 
Metric  System  of  Weights  and  Measures — Tables  for  Interconversion  of 
Metric  and  United  States  Weights  and  Measures — Table  of  Admiralty 
Knots  to  Statute  Miles  and  Kilometers — Tables:  Pounds  per  Square 
Inch  to  Kilograms  per  Square  Centimeter;  Cubic  Feet  per  Second  to  Cubic 
Meters  per  Second.  Tables:  Wire  Gauges  in  use  in  the  United  States — 
United  States  Standard  Gauge  for  Sheet  and  Plate  Iron  and  Steel— Legal 
Weights  (in  pounds)  per  Bushel  of  Various  Commodities 39- 


SECTION  3 

MENSURATION  AND  MECHANICAL  TABLES 

Mensuration  of  Surfaces — Table  of  Useful  Functions  of  Pi  (TT) — Tables:  Diame- 
ter, Circumference,  Area  of  Circles,  and  Side  of  Equal  Square — Diameters 
and  Areas  of  Circles,  with  Squares,  Cubes,  Square  and  Cube  Roots — 
Reciprocals  of  Numbers — Lengths  of  Circular  Arcs — Areas  of  Circular 
Segments — Area  of  an  Irregular  Figure — Plane  Trigonometry — Trigono- 
metrical Formulae — Sines,  Cosines,  Tangents,  Cotangents,  Secants,  and 
Cosecants  of  Angles  0°  to  90° — Logarithmic  Sines-,  Cosines,  Tangents,  and 
Cotangents  of  Angles  from  0°  to  90°.  Mensuration  of  Solids — Logarithms 

of  Numbers 89-197 

[ix] 


CONTENTS 

SECTION  4 
PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

Acetylene  —  Acids  —  Air  —  Alcohol  —  Alkalis  —  Alloys  —  Aluminum  — 
Amalgams  —  Ammonia  —  Antimony  —  Arsenic  —  Asbestos  —  Austenite 
— Barium — Bessemer  Steel,  Acid  and  Basic — Bismuth — Blister  Steel — 
Borax  —  Boron  —  Cadmium  —  Calcium  —  Carbon  —  Cementite  — 
Chromium  —  Cobalt  —  Copper  —  Crucible  Steel  —  Ferrite  —  Gold  — 
Graphite  —  Harvey  Steel  —  Hydrogen  —  Ingot  Iron  —  Iridium  —  Iron 

—  Lead  —  Lithium  —  Magnesia  —  Magnesite  —  Magnesium  —  Manga- 
nese —  Martensite  — •  Mercury  —  Molybdenum  —  Nickel  —  Nitrogen  — 
Open-Hearth  Steel,  Acid  and  Basic — Talbot  Process — Oxides — Oxygen — 
Pearlite  —  Phosphorus  —  Platinum  —  Potassium  —  Semi-Steel  —  Silica 

—  Silicon  —  Silver  —  Sodium  —  Tin  —  Steel  —  Steel  Castings  — 
Sulphur  —  Tantalum  —  Titanium  —  Tungsten  —  Vanadium  —  Wulf  en- 
ite — Zinc. 

Alloy  Steels:  Simple  Tungsten  Steel — Simple  Chromium  Steel — Maganese 
Steel — Simple  Nickel  Steels — Properties  of  Ordinary  Nickel  Steel — 
Nickel-Chromium  Steels — Mayari  Steel — Silicon  Steels — High-Speed 
Tool  Steels — Stellite — Chromium-Vanadium  Steels — Heat  Treatment  of 
Alloy  Steels — Heat  Treatment  of  High  Speed  Tools — Theory  of  High 
Speed  Steels. 

Navy  Department  Requirements  for  Steel  Plates,  Shapes,  and  Bars — Rivet 
Steel — Steel  Castings — Wrought  Iron — Steel  Forgings — Reinforcement 
Steel  for  Concrete— Hull  Plating— Boiler  Plates— Special  Treatment  Steel 
Plates  for  Protective  Hull  Plating — Drill  Rod  Steel — Hot  Rolled  or 
Forged  Carbon  Steel  for  use  by  the  Naval  Gun  Factory — Cold-Rolled  and 
Cold-Drawn  Machinery  Steel,  Rods  and  Bars — Extra  Soft  Steel  for  use 
as  a  Wrought  Iron  Substitute— Steel  Rods  and  Bars  for  Stanchions,  Da- 
vits, and  Drop  and  Miscellaneous  Forgings — Spring  Steel — Tool  Steel. 

Fire  Clays  and  Fire  Bricks:  Nature  of  Refractory  Clays — Effect  of  the  Acces- 
sory Constituents  of  Fire  Clays  upon  the  Softening  Temperatures,  such 
as  Quartz,  Alumina,  Iron  Oxide,  Feldspar,  Mica,  Lime — Effect  of  Fluxes 
upon  Refractoriness — Load  Tests  of  Fire  Brick — Effect  of  Chemical 
Composition — Fire  Brick  and  Clay  Analysis — Chemical  Formulae — 
Results  of  Physical  Tests  at  1,300°  C,  and  with  a  load  of  75  pounds  per 
square  inch — Influence  of  Cold-Crushing  Strength. 

Structural  Timbers  Used  hi  Engineering:  Southern  Yellow  Pines:  Longleaf 
Pine,  Shortleaf  Pine,  Loblolly  Pine — Timbers  of  the  Pacific  Coast:  Doug- 
las Fir,  Western  Hemlock,  Western  Larch,  Redwood — Timbers  of  the 
New  England  and  Lake  States:  Norway  Pine,  Tamarack,  Spruce — 
Timber  Tests 199-302 

SECTION  5 

%. 

STEEL  BARS,  PLATES,  SHAPES,  BOLTS,  RIVETS 

Requirements  for  Navy  Department:  Physical  and  Chemical  Properties  of 
Boiler  Plates— Steel  Plates  for  Hulls  and  Hull  Construction— Steel 
Shapes  for  Hulls  and  Hull  Construction — Black  and  Galvanized  Sheet 
Steel— Corrugated  Galvanized  Sheet  Steel— Floor  Plates— Terneplate 
Roofing  Tin — Standard  Steel  Hull  Rivets  and  Rivet  Rods — Specifications 
for  Manufactured  Rivets— Small  Rivets  for  Sheet  Metal  Work— Tables: 
Weight  of  Rectangular  Steel  Plates— Weight  of  Circular  Steel  Plates- 
Weight  of  Square  and  Round  Steel  Bars— Strength  of  Round  Steel  Bars. 

[x] 


CONTENTS 

Screw  Threads:  Franklin  Institute  Standard;  United  States  Standard;  Table 
of  U.  S.  Standard  Bolts  and  Nuts  from  Y±  inch  to  12  inches — Maximum 
Working  Load  for  Tabular  Tensile  Strength — Weight  of  Hexagon  Bolt- 
Heads  and  Nuts— Round  Slotted  Nuts,  U.  S.  N.— Box  Wrenches,  U.  S.  N. 
— Lock  Nuts  and  Split  Pins,  U.  S.  N. — Spring-Cotters,  U.  S.  N. — Acme 
Thread  Screws,  U.  S.  N.— Square  Thread  Screws,  U.  S.  N.— Multiple 
Thread  Screws — Buttress  Thread  Screws — Knuckle  Thread  Screws — 
Sharp  V-Thread  Screws— S.  A.  E.  Standard  Screws— Whitworth  Standard 
Screws — British  Association  Standard  Thread — International  Standard 
Screw  Threads  (System  International) — Castle  Nuts — Cap  Nuts — Com- 
mercial Steel  Bolts  and  Nuts  for  U.  S.  N.— Bolts  and  Nuts,  U.  S.  Standard, 
Weight  per  100 — -Machinery  Bolts  and  Nuts  and  Material  for  the  same, 
U.  S.  N.— Iron  Bolts  and  Nuts,  U.  S.  N.— Deck  Bolts  and  Nuts,  U.  S.  N. 
— Holding  Down  Bolts  for  Gun  Mounts,  Torpedo  Tubes,  and  Turret 
Tracks,  U.  S.  N. — Bolts  of  Steel  or  Composition  Metals,  and  Nuts  of  Iron, 
Steel,  or  Composition  Metals — Studs  and  Nuts  and  Bars  for  Bolts  and 
Nuts,  U.  S.  N.— Standard  Taper  Bolts  and  Reamers— Machine  Bolts, 
Manufacturer's  Standard — Bolts  of  Uniform  Strength — Collar  Screws — 
Set  Screws — Cap  Screws — Studs — Hook  Bolts — Coach  Screws — Bolt 
Head  Dimensions — Upset  Bolt  Ends — Turnbuckles — Sleeve  Nuts — 
Washers— Foundation  Bolts— Eye  Bolt  Heads— Eye  Bolt  Pins— Eye 
Bolts  for  Flanges — Bolt  Ends  with  Slot  and  Cotter — Bolt  End  with 
Slot,  Gib  and  Key  —  Wrenches,  Open  End  —  Box  Wrenches,  Socket 
Wrenches— Spikes ..'...- ..  .303-420 

SECTION  6 

GENERAL   SPECIFICATIONS   FOR   INSPECTION   OF   MATERIAL.    NAVY 

DEPARTMENT 

General  Quality — Chemical  Properties — Analysis  by  Manufacturer — Analysis 
by  Government — Physical  Tests  and  Test  Pieces — Pulling  Speed — Types 
of  Test  Pieces — Standard  Size  for  Test  Pieces — Standard  Size  for  Test 
Pieces  for  Boiler  Plates  and  Steam  Pipes — Length  of  Test  Pieces— Flaws 
in  Text  Pieces — Bending  Test  Pieces— Special  Heat  Treatment — Material 
Exempt  from  Tests — All  Material  Subject  to  Inspection — Annealing — 
Weights — Methods  of  Checking — Contractors'  and  other  Orders  for  In- 
spection of  Material — Material  which  is  to  be  Inspected  without  Instruc- 
tions— Inspection  During  Manufacture^ — 'Contractors  to  Supply  Blue 
Prints — Information  to  be  Furnished  by  the  Manufacturer — Shipment 
of  Material — Invoices  to  be  prepared  by  Manufacturers — Inspection 
Stamps — Sealing  of  Cars — Acceptance  of  Material — Rejection  at 
Destination. 

General  Specifications  for  Inspection  of  Rubber  Material,  Navy  Department: 
Temperature  of  Room — Tests  of  Adhesion  of  Rubber  Parts  to  Cotton  or 
Fabric  Parts — Apparatus — Preparation  of  Test  Pieces — Tests  of  Rubber 
Parts — Making  of  the  Measurements;  Taking  of  Time;  Elongation — 
Tensile  Strength — Pressure  Tests — Composition:  Friction,  Material, 
Sample  for  Chemical  Analysis — Average  Reading  to  be  based  on  at  least 
Four  Determinations — Rejections  and  Replacements — Testing  Me- 
chanical Rubber  Goods,  Bureau  of  Standards:  Source  of  Crude  Rubber — 
Vulcanizing — Rubber  Substitutes — Reclaimed  Rubber — Manufacture — 
Breaking  Down  and  Washing — Drying — Compounding  and  Mixing — 
Sheeting — Friction — Cutting  the  Canvas — Rubber  Hose:  Tubes  and 
Covers;  Making  up  the  Hose,  Vulcanizing,  Cotton  Rubber-lined  Hose, 
Braided  Hose  with  Rubber  Tube  and  Cover — Rubber  Belting — Me-r 
chanical  Rubber  Goods — Physical  Testing  of  Rubber:  Tension  Test, 

[xi] 


CONTENTS 

Recovery,  Friction,  Steam  Pressure,  Packing,  Tires,  Tension  Test,  Test 
Piece;  Influence  of  Speed  on  Tensile  Strength  and  Elongation;  Influence 
of  Temperature  on  Strength,  Elongation,  and  Recovery;  Influence  of  Cross 
Section  on  Tensile  Strength  and  Elongation;  Influence  of  the  Direction 
in  which  Specimens  are  cut  on  Strength,  Elongation,  and  Recovery; 
Influence  of  Previous  Stretching  on  Strength,  Elongation,  and  Recovery; 
Influence  of  the  Form  of  Test  Specimen  on  the  Results  of  Tension  Tests — 
Friction  Test — Hydraulic  Pressure  Test — The  Chemistry  of  Rubber 421-442 

SECTION  7 
IRON  AND  STEEL  CASTINGS 

Foundry  Pig  Iron:  Carbon,  Silicon,  Manganese,  Spiegeleisen,  Ferromanganese, 
Silicon-Spiegel,  Oxygen  and  Manganese,  Sulphur,  Phosphorus — Grading 
Pig  Iron — Analysis  of  Standard  Pig  Iron — Foundry  Pig  Iron  for  U.  S.  N.: 
Grades,  Chemical  Requirements,  Purpose  for  which  used,  Sampling, 
Method  of  Analysis,  Penalties,  Locality,  Sow  Iron — Chemical  Changes 
in  the  Cupola:  Foundry  Coke,  Calorific  Value  of  Coke,  Excess  of  Air, 
Temperature  of  Escaping  Gases,  Slag,  Flux,  Limestone,  Fluorspar,  Fuel 
Efficiency  of  the  Cupola  Furnace — Iron  Castings  for  U.  S.  N.:  Physical 
Properties,  Grades,  Tensile  Strength,  Transverse  Breaking  Load,  Pur- 
poses for  which  Intended,  Hardness,  Quality  of  Material,  Tests,  Finish- 
Malleable  Cast  Iron:  Composition  and  Structure,  Manganese,  Phos- 
phorus, Silicon,  Open-Hearth  Furnace,  Cupola  Furnace,  Annealing — 
Specifications:  Chemical  Properties,  Physical  Properties,  Test  Lugs, 
Annealing,  Finish — Malleable  Iron  Castings  for  U.  S.  N.:  Open-Hearth 
or  Air-Furance,  Physical  and  Chemical  Properties,  Freedom  from  Defects, 
to  have  Sufficient  Anneal,  Test  Bars,  Appearance  after  Machining,  Pipe 
Flanges — Semi-Steel  Castings:  Chemical  Composition,  Physical  Prop- 
erties— Steel  Castings:  Specifications  for  Steel  Castings — Three  Classes: 
Hard,  Medium,  Soft — Physical  Properties  of  Each — Steel  Castings  for 
U.  S.  N.:  Process  of  Manufacture,  Chemical  and  Physical  Properties, 
Classification  on  Special,  A,  B,  and  C  Classes,  Physical  Properties  of  Each: 
Treatment  (a)  All  Castings  shall  be  Annealed,  (b)  Additional  or  Subse- 
quent Treatment,  (c)  Castings  treated  without  consent  of  the  Inspector, 
(d)  Cleaning — Test  Specimens — Rejection  after  Delivery — Percussive 
Test— Surface  Inspection — Welding,  when  permitted — Chemical  Analy- 
sis— Casting  Record — Annealing  Record — Ordnance  Castings. — Plum- 
bago for  U.  S.  N.  Foundry  use:  Volatile  Matter,  Ash,  Graphite  Carbon; 
for  Foreign  Shipment  (U.  S.  N.),  for  Domestic  Shipment  (U.  S.  N.).. .  .443^64 

SECTION  8 

IRON  AND  STEEL  FORCINGS.  CARBON  AND  HIGH-SPEED  STEELS.    HEAT 

TREATMENT 

Wrought  Iron :  Chemistry,  Analysis  of  Pig  and  Wrought  Irons,  Wrought  Iron 
and  Steel,  Texture  of  Wrought  Iron,  Malleability,  Tensile  Strength,  Duc- 
tility, Elastic  Limit,  Safe  Load,  Compression,  Welding,  Stiffening,  An- 
nealing, Effect  of  Low  Temperature' — Wrought  Iron  for  Blacksmith  use, 
U.  S.  N.:  Process  of  Manufacture,  Physical  and  Chemical  Requirement, 
Tests,  Nick  Test,  Drift  Test,  Completed  Forgings,  Special  Grade  of 
Wrought  Iron,  Physical  and  Chemical  Requirements,  Blacksmith  Grade, 
Elongation — Steel  Forgings  for  Hulls,  Engines,  and  Ordnance,  U.  S.  N.: 
Material,  Process,  Discard,  Surface  and  other  Defects,  Chemical  and 

[xii] 


CONTENTS 

Physical  Properties,  Nickel  Steel,  Physical  Test  Specimens,  Longitudinal 
Test  Specimens,  Transverse  Test  Specimens,  Individual  Tests,  (a)  Gen- 
eral, (b)  Special,  Test  by  Lot,  List  of  Forgings  Covered  by  the  Foregoing 
General  Requirements,  Testing  Miscellaneous  Bars,  Treatment  of  Forg- 
ings, Treatment  of  Hollow  Forgings,  Additional  Heat  Treatment— Ingots, 
Slabs,  Blooms,  and  Billets  for  U.  S.  N. :  Line  between  Blooms  and  Billets 
— Ingots,  Slabs,  Blooms,  and  Billets  to  be  forged  or  rolled  will  require 
tests  only  of  finished  objects.  Physical  and  Chemical  Requirements  for 
Blooms  and  Billets  for  Reforging — General  Requirements  for  Engine 
Forgings,  U.  S.  N.:  Treatment,  Kind  of  Ingot,  Test  Pieces  for  Line, 
Thrust,  and  Propeller  Shafts,  Test  Pieces  for  Crank  Shafts,  Test  Pieces 
for  Reverse  Shafts — Engine  Forgings:  Furnace,  Size  of  Ingot,  Defects, 
Piping,  Segregation — Reheating  the  Ingot — Recalescence — Forging — 
Hollow  Forgings — Bell's  Steam  Hammer — Heat  Treatment  of  Carbon 
Steel :  Carbon  and  Iron,  Molecular  Structure,  Tempering  and  Annealing, 
Elements  other  than  Carbon,  Carbon  Theory  of  Hardening  Steel — Solu- 
tion Theory-^-Allotropic  Theory  of  Hardening — Sorbite — Heating  Carbon 
Steel — Three  Factors  in  Heating  Steel:  Neutral  Atmosphere,  Uniformity 
in  Heating,  Temperature  of  the  Furnace — Carbon  Tool  Steel  and  Heat 
Treatment:  Color  Scale  Indicating  Temper  of  Carbon  Steel  Tools — 
Furnaces:  Tool  Tempering  Furnace — Muffle  Furnace — Oven  Furnace — 
Oil  Furnace — Gas  Furnace — Flameless  Combustion  Furnace — Electric 
Heating  Furnace — Heating  Baths:  The  Lead  Bath — Cyanide  of  Potas- 
sium Bath — Barium  Chloride  Bath — Disadvantages  of  Barium  Chloride 
Bath — Hardening  and  Tempering  High-Speed  Steel  Tools — Electric 
Hardening — Colors  of  Heated  Steel — Quenching  Baths:  Water,  Brine, 
Oil,  Tallow,  Air  Quenching — Quenching  and  Hardening  High-Speed  Steel: 
Mushet's  Self -hardening  Steel;  Heating  and  Hardening  the  Later  High- 
speed Tool  Steels;  Double  Hardening. — Annealing  Mild  Steel — Composi- 
tion and  Heat  Treatment  of  Carbon  Steel  other  than  Tool  Steels:  Compo- 
sition, Characteristics  and  Uses,  Heat  Treatment — Hardening  of  Carbon 
and  Low-Tungsten  Steels:  Hardening  Temperatures,  Change  Point, 
Length  of  Time  of  Heating,  Previous  Annealing,  Heating  in  Two  Furnaces, 
Change  of  Length  in  Hardening,  Miscellaneous  Results,  Effect  of  Tem- 
pering, Tensile  Strength — Composition  and  Heat  Treatment  of  Carbon 
and  Alloy  Steels:  Composition,  Characteristics  and  Uses,  Heat  Treatment, 
Chrome-Nickel  Steel,  Chrome- Vanadium  Steel — Case-Hardening:  Metals 
to  be  Case-Hardened,  Mild  Steel,  Nickel  Steel,  Chrome  Steel — Carbur- 
izing  Materials:  Bone,  Charred  Leather,  Cyanides,  Effect  of  Nitrogen, 
Carburizing  Gas,  Method  of  Case-Hardening,  Heating,  Case-Hardening 
Temperatures,  Quenching,  Cooling  and  Reheating — Case-Hardening 
Mixture — Cyanide  Process  of  Case  Hardening — Case  Hardening  for 
Colors 465-504 

SECTION  9 
NON-FERROUS  METALS  AND  ALLOYS 

Non-Ferrous  Metals  —  Copper  Group:  Copper,  Mercury,  Lead,  Bismuth — 
Tin  Group:  Tin,  Antimony,  Arsenic — Iron  Group:  Iron,  Ferro-Mangan- 
ese,  Manganese,  Nickel,  Cobalt — Zinc  Group:  Zinc,  Cadmium,  Mag- 
nesium, Aluminum  —  Alkaline-Earthy  Metals:  Calcium,  Barium, 
Strontium — Alkali  Metals:  Sodium,  Potassium — Non-Metals:  Boron, 
Carbon,  Hydrogen,  Lime,  Nitrogen,  Oxygen,  Phosphorus,  Calcium 
Sulphate,  Silicon,  Sulphur — Non-Ferrous  Alloys:  Physical  Properties, 
Chemical  Nature  of  Alloys,  Specific  Gravity,  Fusibility,  Liquation, 
Specific  Heat,  Eutectic  Alloys,  Occulsion,  Oxygen,  Deoxodizing  Copper — 

[xiii] 


CONTENTS 

Porosity  of  Brass  Castings — Fluxes  used  in  Melting  Non-Ferrous  Metals 
— Aluminum  Alloys — Amalgams. 

Chemical  and  Physical  Requirements  for  use  in  U.  S.  Navy:  Ingot  Copper — 
Copper  Sheets,  Plates,  Rods,  Bars,  and  Shapes — Sheet  Copper  for 
Sheathing  Bottoms  of  Wooden  Craft — Refined  Copper  for  use  in  making 
Cartridge  Cases — Silicon  Copper — Phosphor  Copper — Ingot  Tin — 
Phosphor  Tin— Slab  Zinc— Rolled  Zinc  Plates— Zinc  for  Boilers,  Salt- 
Water  Piping,  Etc. — Pig  Lead — Ingot  Aluminum — Gun  Metal — Valve 
Bronze — Journal  Bronze — Torpedo  Bronze — Manganese  Bronze — Phos- 
phor Bronze  Castings;  Rolled  or  Drawn  Bars — Vanadium  Bronze — 
Rolled  Bronze  Plates — Monel  Metal  Castings;  Sheets,  Plates,  Rods,  Bars. 
— Benedict  Nickel — German  Silver — Inspection  of  Copper,  Brass,  and 
Bronze — Standard  Requirements  for  Alloys  of  Copper,  Tin,  and  Zinc — 
Seamless  Brass  Pipe — Naval  Brass  Castings — Rolled  Naval  Brass  Sheets, 
Plates,  Rods,  Bars,  Shapes — Muntz  Metal  Castings — Muntz  Metal 
Sheets,  Plates,  Rods,  Bars,  and  Shapes — Commercial  Brass:  Castings, 
Rods,  Bars,  Shapes,  Sheets,  Plates,  Piping — Brass  Castings  for  Electrical 
Appliances — Anti-Friction  Metal  Castings — Solder:  Spelter,  Half-and 
Half — Crucibles — Kroeschell-Schwartz  Crucible  Furnace — Composition 
of  Some  Alloys  used  in  Engineering;  An  Alphabetically  Arranged  List  of 
100  Alloys  Covering  all  the  Ordinary  and  most  of  the  Special  Needs  of 
the  Engineer— Notes  on  Metals 505-568 

SECTION   10 

MACHINE  DETAILS,  PRINCIPALLY  THOSE  RELATING  TO  STEAM 

ENGINES 

Keyways  and  Keys:  Proportions — Length  of  Key — Square  Sunk  Key — Spe- 
cial Keys— Gib  Head  Key,  Table— Sliding  Key,  Table— Maximum  Load 
on  Key — Double  Keys,  Table  to  24  in.  Shaft — Kennedy  Double  Key, 
Table— Peters'  Double  Key,  Table  to  12-in.  Shaft— Keys  for  Screw 
Propellers— Bolt  End  with  Collar  and  Cotter,  Table— Bolt  End  for  Rigid 
Frame  Connection,  Table — Valve  Rod  End  with  Bushing,  Table — Valve 
Rod  End  with  Coupling,  Table — Valve  Rod  End,  Boxes  with  Key  Adjust- 
ment, Table— Valve  Rod  Knuckle,  Table— Strap  Joint  with  Gun-Metal 
Body  and  Steel  Strap,  Table — Rod  Coupling  with  Collar  and  Cotter, 
Table — Rod  Coupling  with  Single  Taper  Socket,  Table — Rod  Coupling 
with  Two  Abutting  Ends  and  Cotter,  Table— Rod  Coupling  with  Two 
Taper  Ends  and  Cotter,  Table— Screw  Coupling,  Adjustable,  Table- 
Cranks,  Cast  Iron,  Table — Crank  Pins,  Table  to  12-in.  Diam. — Connect- 
ing Rod  Box  Stub  End  with  Wedge  Adjustment  for  Crank  Pin,  1  to  6-in. 
Pin,  Table— Connecting  Rod  Stub  End  with  Strap  Joint,  Gib  and  Key,  1 
to  6-in.  Diam.,  Two  Designs,  Two  Tables — Connecting  Rod  Stub  End 
for  Crank  Pin,  with  Bolted  Strap,  Wedge  Block  and  Key,  Table  to  3-inch 
Pin — Another  Design  continuing  Proportions  up  to  12-inch  Crank  Pin! 
Connecting  Rod  Stub  End  for  Crank  Pin,  Two  Designs,  Forked  Pattern 
with  Back  Block,  Adjusting  Wedge  and  Liner,  Both  Sizes  for  3  to  8-inch 
Crank  Pin,  Two  Tables 569-607 

INDEX..  ....609-619 


PART   II 

In  Preparation  for  Early  Publication 


CONTENTS 

ION 

11.  MACHINE  TOOLS. 

12.  RIVETING  AND  FLANGING. 

13.  BOILER  DESIGN — CONSTRUCTION  DETAILS. 

14.  BOILERS  AND  FURNACES — CHIMNEYS. 

15.  HEAT  AND  STEAM. 

16.  FUEL  AND  COMBUSTION. 

17.  STEAM  ENGINES. 

18.  STEAM  TURBINES. 

19.  CONDENSING  APPARATUS. 

20.  FRICTION  AND  LUBRICATION. 

21.  MEASURING  AND  RECORDING  INSTRUMENTS. 

22.  WROUGHT  PIPES  AND  TUBES — WELDED  AND  RIVETED. 

23.  BRASS,  COPPER,  AND  LEAD  PIPES. 

24.  PIPE  FITTINGS — VALVES — TRAPS. 

25.  INSULATING  MATERIALS — PACKINGS. 

26.  EVAPORATING  AND  DISTILLING  APPARATUS. 

27.  GASES,  PROPERTIES  OF — GASOLENE — INDUSTRIAL  ALCOHOL. 

28.  GAS  PRODUCERS  AND  GAS  ENGINES — GASOLENE  ENGINES. 

29.  OIL  AND  OIL  ENGINES. 

30.  SHAFTING — PULLEYS — BEARINGS — COUPLINGS. 

31.  POWER  TRANSMISSION — BELTS — ROPES — GEARS. 

32.  SCREW  PROPELLERS — PADDLE  WHEELS. 

33.  FEED  WATER  PURIFICATION  AND  HEATING. 

34.  WATER  WHEELS — TURBINES. 

35.  PUMPING  MACHINERY. 

36.  CAST-IRON  PIPES — VALVES — HYDRANTS. 

37.  HYDRAULIC  MACHINES. 

38.  COMPRESSED  AIR. 

39.  HEATING  AND  VENTILATING. 

40.  PLUMBING  FIXTURES. 

41.  REFRIGERATING  MACHINERY. 

42.  HOISTING  AND  CONVEYING  MACHINERY. 

43.  COAL  HANDLING  AND  STORAGE. 

44.  FOUNDATIONS. 

45.  CONCRETE — CEMENT — MORTARS. 

46.  INDUSTRIAL  RAILWAYS. 

47.  CHAINS — ANCHORS — HEMP  ROPES — WIRE  ROPES. 

48.  CORROSION — PROTECTIVE  COATINGS — PAINTS. 

49.  FIRE  PROTECTION. 

50.  ELECTRICAL  MACHINERY. 


xv 


INDUSTRIAL  ENGINEERING 


SECTION  I 

UNITS  AND  STANDARDS 

A  unit  is  an  acknowledged  or  standardized  quantity  in  terms  of  which  other 
quantities  may  be  measured,  results  recorded,  comparisons  made,  and  measurements 
executed  in  experimental  demonstration.  The  fundamental  units  in  terms  of 
which  every  measurement  must  be  executed  are  those  of  Time,  Space,  and  Mass. 

Time. — Standards  of  time  are  derived  from  the  revolution  of  the  earth  about 
its  axis,  which  has  an  inclination  of  about  23°  28'  from  a  perpendicular  to  its  plane. 
The  motion  of  its  rotation  is  from  west  to  east.  The  Mean  Solar  Day  is  the  mean 
interval  which  elapses  between  the  sun's  crossing  the  meridian,  or  being  situated 
directly  south  of  a  place,  and  the  next  occasion  on  which  it  crosses  that  line.  Be- 
sides rotating  on  its  own  axis,  the  earth  describes- an  ellipse  around  the  sun;  the 
effect  of  these  combined  movements  is  to  alter  the  length  of  the  solar  day,  a  variation 
occurs  throughout  the  year  of  from  14  ^  minutes  fast  to  16%  minutes  slow.  A 
mean  solar  day  is  the  average  or  mean  of  all  the  solar  days  in  a  year;  it  is  divided 
into  24  hours,  each  hour  into  60  minutes  and  each  minute  into  60  seconds;  therefore, 
one  second  represents  24  X  60  X  60  =  86400  part  of  a  solar  day;  the  usual  sub- 
division of  seconds  is  decimal. 

The  Unit  of  Time  in  engineering  is  one  second  of  mean  solar  time.  For  con- 
venience, other  and  larger  units  are  often  used,  such  as  revolutions  per  minute, 
miles  per  hour,  and  so  forth. 

Space  is  a  necessary  representation  which  serves  for  the  foundation  of  all  ex- 
ternal intuitions.  It  is  not  a  conception  which  has  been  derived  from  outward 
experiences.  We  can  never  imagine  the  non-existence  of  space,  though  we  may 
easily  enough  think  that  no  objects  are  found  in  it.  Intuition  lies  at  the  root  of 
all  our  conceptions  of  space.  We  can  only  represent  to  ourselves  one  space  and 
that  an  infinite  given  quantity;  when  we  talk  of  divers  spaces,  we  mean  only  parts 
of  one  and  the  same  space.  We  conceive  of  space  as  having  three  dimensions, 
within  which  are  contained  all  objects  which  can  appear  to  us  externally.  Geometry 
is  a  science  which  determines  the  property  of  space  synthetically. 

When  a  single  point  moves  it  describes  a  line  and  the  shortest  distance  between 
two  points  is  a  straight  line;  a  representation  of  space  in  one  direction.  Points 
are  conceived  of  as  having  position  without  magnitude,  and  lines  as  having  length 
without  breadth  or  thickness.  A  straight  line  may  be  divided  into  any  number  of 
shorter  lines  and  one  of  these  may  be  chosen  as  a  unit  by  which  other  lines  may  be 
measured  in  terms  of  that  unit. 

Standard  of  Length. — The  British  standard  yard  is  defined  by  law  as  "  the 
distance  between  the  centers  of  the  transverse  lines  in  the  two  gold  plugs  in  the 
bronze  bar  deposited  in  the  office  of  the  Exchequer  "  at  the  temperature  of  62°  F. 
An  authorized  copy  of  this  standard  is  deposited  at  Washington.  This  standard 
yard  has  been  subdivided  into  three  equal  parts,  one  of  which  is  called  a  foot;  and 
into  36  equal  parts,  one  of  which  is  called  an  inch. 

The  Metric  System  is  based  upon  an  authorized  standard  of  length  called  a 
meter,  which  consists  in  that  distance,  at  the  temperature  of  melting  ice,  between 
the  ends  of  a  platinum  rod  preserved  in  the  French  Archives,  Paris.  An  authorized 
copy  of  this  standard  meter  has  been  deposited  at  Washington.  The  metric 
system  of  measurement  of  length  is  decimal. 

[1] 


UNITS  AND  STANDARDS 

The  equivalent  length  of  a  meter  in  British  measurements  as  adopted  by  the 
United  States  is  as  follows: 

Meter  =  39  .  37000  inches,  or  ..............  1  inch  =  0  .  02540  meter. 

=    3.28083  feet,  or  ...........  .  _____  1  foot   =  0  .  30480  meter. 

=     1.09361  yards,  or  ...........  ----  1  yard  =  0.91440  meter. 

Mass.  —  The  mass  of  a  body  is  the  quantity  of  matter  which  it  contains;  it 
must  be  carefully  distinguished  from  weight.  Mass  is  a  constant  quantity,  whilst 
weight  varies  with  the  force  of  gravity  which  produces  it.  Weight  varies  with 
the  latitude,  being  greatest  at  the  poles  and  least  at  the  equator;  weight  varies 
with  different  elevations  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  but  the  mass  of  a  body  is  its 
own  property,  it  is  the  same  under  all  circumstances,  it  is  unaffected  by  change  of 
latitude  or  by  altitude. 

We  are  accustomed  in  commercial  transactions  to  employ  mass  in  terms  of 
weight,  and  correctly  as  according  to  Newton's  Law  of  Gravitation,  which  tells  us 
that  in  any  locality  whatever  the  weights  of  bodies  are  equal  if  their  masses  are 
equal.  The  earth's  attraction  for  a  body  free  to  fall  in  a  vacuum  is  subject  to  a 
constant  downward  acceleration  of  about  32.2  feet  per  second,  at  the  level  of  the 
sea,  latitude  of  London,  but  it  is  not  the  same  at  all  points  of  the  earth's  surface. 
Inasmuch  as  gravity  varies  less  than  one-half  per  cent,  within  the  latitudes  covered 
by  engineering  practice,  weights  need  not  ordinarily  be  corrected  for  locations 
approximating  the  level  of  sea;  but  for  height  much  above  the  sea  level,  such  as 
mountains,  the  lesser  weight  of  the  atmosphere  or  barometric  changes  must  be 
taken  into  account. 

The  Unit  of  Mass  in  use  by  English  and  American  engineers  is  the  British 
standard  pound  avoirdupois,  an  arbitrary  standard  consisting  of  a  certain  piece 
of  platinum  deposited  in  the  office  of  the  Exchequer,  an  authorized  copy  of  which  is 
preserved  at  Washington.  This  standard  pound  contains  7,000  grains,  a  grain 
being  the  smallest  unit  employed  in  British  weight. 

When  used  for  comparing  or  verifying  other  standards,  it  is  directed  to  be 
used  when  the  thermometer  is  62°  F.,  and  the  barometer  at  30  inches. 


Then™  =  =217.39!  grains. 

g  oZ.Z 

An  avoirdupois  ounce  =  437.5  grains. 

437  5 

Then  oi>7  onV  =  2  .  01  =  the  British  unit  of  force  Poundal,  equivalent  to  one- 
J17  .  o91 

half  ounce  nearly.  This  unit  of  force  does  not  in  any  way  depend  on  local  variations 
in  the  force  of  gravity. 

For  all  practical  purposes,  the  engineer's  Unit  of  Force  is  the  avoirdupois  pound. 
A  pound-mass  equal  to  32.2  British  Units  of  Force. 

The  French  standard  of  weight  is  the  Kilogram  (=  1000  grams),  made  of 
platinum,  and  preserved  at  the  Archives  in  Paris.  This  standard  is  intended  to 
have  the  same  weight  as  a  cubic  decimeter  of  water  at  the  temperature  of  its  maxi- 
mum density  —  that  is,  3*  .9  C. 

A  gram  is  equal  to  the  1000th  part  of  a  kilogram  or  the  mass  of  one  cubic  centi- 
meter of  water  at  the  temperature  of  its  maximum  density. 

The  gram  is  chosen  as  a  unit  in  the  C.G.S.  System. 

C.  G.  S.  SYSTEM 

The  fundamental  units  in  this  system,  recommended  by  the  British  Association  and 
accepted  as  the  standards  of  references  throughout  the  scientific  world,  are:  a  definite 
length,  centimeter  (C);  a  definite  mass,  gram  (G);  a  definite  interval  of  time,  second 
(S).  These  standards  of  length,  mass,  and  time  are  permanent  and  do  not  change 
with  lapse  of  time. 

[2] 


G.  G.  S.  SYSTEM 

The  reason  for  selecting  the  centimeter  and  the  gram,  rather  than  the  meter  and 
the  gram,  is  that  since  a  gram  of  water  has  a  volume  of  approximately  one  cubic  centi- 
meter, the  selection  of  the  centimeter  makes  the  density  of  water  unity;  whereas  the 
selection  of  the  meter  would  make  it  a  million,  and  the  density  of  a  substance  would 
be  a  million  times  its  specific  gravity,  instead  of  being  identical  with  its  gravity,  as  in 
the  C.  G.  S.  System. 

The  adoption  of  one  common  scale  for  all  quantities  involves  the  frequent  use  of 
very  large  and  very  small  numbers.  Such  numbers  are  most  conveniently  written 
by  expressing  them  as  the  product  of  two  factors,  one  of  which  is  a  power  of  10,  and  it 
is  usually  advantageous  to  effect  the  resolution  in  such  a  way  that  the  exponent  of  the 
power  of  10  shall  be  characteristic  of  the  logarithm  of  this  number. 

Thus:  3,240,000,000  will  be  written  3.24  X  109,  and  0.00000324  will  be  written 
3.24  X  10-6. 

The  value  of  the  meter  in  British  inches,  adopted  by  the  Bureau  International  des 
Poids  et  Mesures,  is  39.3699.  This  makes 

1  yard  =  91.4404  centimeters. 
1  foot  =  30.4801  centimeters. 
1  inch  =  2.5400  centimeters. 

The  standard  pound  =  453.59  grams,  which  gives 
1  kilogram  =  2.20463  pounds. 

This  is  in  practical  correspondence  with  the  units  legalized  in  the  United  States. 

By  Act  of  Congress,  July  28,  1866,  the  legal  equivalent  of  1  meter  -  39.37  inches. 
This  makes 

1  yard  =  91.4402  centimeters. 

1  foot    =  30.4801  centimeters. 

1  inch   =    2.54001  centimeters. 

A  variation  from  the  International  Metric  System  so  slight  as  to  make  little  difference 
whether  American  or  European  units  or  products  are  employed. 

MECHANICAL   AND   GEOMETRICAL   QUANTITIES 

The  fundamental  units  are  abbreviated  thus:    L  =  length,  M  =  mass,  T  =  time. 
Example,  Area  =  L2,  Volume  =  L3,  Velocity  =  — ,  Acceleration  =  — ,  Momentum 

=  ~~^T)  Density  =  — ,  density  being  defined  as  mass  per  unit  volume.     Force  =  , 

since  a  force  is  measured  by  the  momentum  which  it  generates  per  unit  of  time,  and 
is  therefore  the  quotient  of  momentum  by  time.  Or,  since  a  force  is  measured  by  the 
product  of  a  mass  by  the  acceleration  generated  in  this  mass. 

Work  =  ,  being  the  product  of  force  and  distance. 

Kinetic  Energy  =  -—  being  half  the  product  of  mass  by  the  square  of  velocity. 
The  constant  factor  y%  can  be  omitted,  as  not  affecting  dimensions. 

Torque,  or  Moment  of  Couple  =  ~™-,  being  the  product  of  a  force  by  a  length. 

The  Dimensions  of  Angle,  when  measured  by  — rr—  are  zero.     The  same  angle  will 

radius 

be  denoted  by  the  same  number  whatever  be  the  unit  of  length  employed.     In  fact, 

arc          L 

we  have  — - —  =  — -  =  L  . 
radius       L 

The  work  done  by  a  torque  in  turning  a  body  through  any  angle  is  the  product  of 

[3] 


C.  G.  S.  SYSTEM 

the  torque  by  the  angle.    The  identity  of  dimensions  between  work  and  torque  is 
thus  verified. 

Angular  Velocity         =  — . 

Angular  Acceleration  =  — . 
Moment  of  Inertia      =  M  L2. 

Angular  Momentum  =  Moment  of  Momentum  =  ,  being  the  product  of  mo- 

ment of  inertia  by  angular  velocity,  or  the  product  of  momentum  by  length. 

Intensity  of  pressure;  or  intensity  of  stress  generally,  being  a  force  per  unit  of  area, 

.      ,  ,.          .        force  .,  M 

is  of  dimensions ,  that  is,  — — -. 

area  '  L  T2 

Intensity  of  force  of  attraction  at  a  point,  often  called  simply  force  at  a  point,  being 
force  per  unit  of  attracted  mass,  is  of  dimensions  —  —  or  — .  It  is  numerically  equal 
to  the  acceleration  which  it  generates,  and  has  accordingly  the  dimensions  of  acceleration. 

Curvature  (of  a  curve)  =  — ,  being  the  angle  turned  by  the  tangent  per  unit  distance 
Li 

travelled  along  the  curve. 

Tortuosity  =  — ,  being  the  angle  turned  by  the  osculating  plane  per  unit  distance 
Li       • 

travelled  along  the  curve. — J.  D.  Everett. 

C.  G.  S.  MECHANICAL  UNITS 

Value  of  g.  Velocity  is  the  rate  of  motion.  It  is  either  uniform  or  variable.  When 
variable,  the  rate  at  which  it  changes  is  called  acceleration  if  the  velocity  is  increasing, 
and  retardation  if  it  is  diminishing.  The  C.  G.  S.  unit  of  acceleration  is  the  accelera- 
tion of  a  body  whose  velocity  increases  in  every  second  by  the  C.  G.  S.  unit  of  velocity 
— namely,  by  a  centimeter  per  second.  The  apparent  acceleration  of  a  body  falling 
freely  under  the  action  of  gravity  in  vacuo  is  denoted  by  g.  The  value  of  g  in  C.  G.  S. 
units  is  about  978  at  the  equator,  about  983  at  the  poles,  and  about  981  at  Paris  or 
London.  The  value  at  sea  level  and  latitude  45°  employed  by  the  Bureau  of  Standards 
is  g  =  980.665  dynes. 

Unit  of  Force. — The  C.  G.  S.  unit  of  force  is  called  the  dyne.  It  is  the  force  which, 
acting  upon  a  gram  of  matter  for  a  second,  generates  a  velocity  of  a  centimeter  per 
second.  The  dyne  is  about  1.02  times  the  weight  of  a  milligram  at  any  part  of  the 
earth's  surface;  and  the  megadyne  is  about  1.02  times  the  weight  of  a  kilogram. 

The  force  represented  by  the  weight  of  a  gram  varies  from  place  to  place.  To  com- 
pute its  amount  in  dynes  at  any  place  where  g  is  known,  observe  that  a  mass  of  one 
gram  falls  in  vacuo  with  acceleration  g.  The  weight  (when  weight  means  force)  of 
one  gram  is  therefore  g  dynes,  and  the  weight  of  m  grams  is  m  g  dynes.  The  weight  of 
a  gram  at  any  part  of  the  earth's  surface  is  about  980  dynes. 

Force  is  said  to  be  expressed  in  gravitation  measure  when  it  is  expressed  as  equal 
to  the  weight  of  a  given  mass.  Such  specification  is  inexact  unless  the  value  of  g  is 
also  given.  For  purposes  of  accuracy  it  must  always  be  remembered  that  the  pound, 
the  gram,  etc.,  are,  strictly  speaking,  units  of  mass. 

Poundal. — The  name  poundal  has  been  given  to  the  unit  force  based  on  the  pound, 
foot,  and  second;  that  is,  the  force  which,  acting  on  a  pound  for  a  second,  generates  a 

velocity  of  a  foot  per  second.    It  is  —  of  the  weight  of  a  pound,  g  denoting  the  accelera- 

[4] 


C.  G.  S.  SYSTEM 

tion  due  to  gravity  expressed  in  foot-second  units,  which  is  about  32.2  feet  per  second, 
at  the  level  of  the  sea,  latitude  of  London. 

To  compare  the  poundal  with  the  dyne,  let  x  denote  the  number  of  dynes  in  a  poundal; 
we  then  have 

_  gm.  cm.  _  Ib.  ft. 
sec2  sec2 

x  =  J*L.     1*1=  453.59  X  30.4801  =  13,825. 
gm.      cm. 

Unit  of  Momentum  is  the  momentum  of  a  gram  moving  with  the  velocity  of  a 
centimeter  per  second. 

Unit  of  Work. — The  C.  G.  S.  unit  of  work  is  called  the  erg.  It  is  the  amount  of 
work  done  by  a  dyne  working  through  a  distance  of  a  centimeter.  The  gram-centi- 
meter is  about  980  ergs.  The  kilogrammeter  is  about  98,000,000  ergs. 

Unit  of  Energy. — The  C.  G.  S.  unit  of  energy  is  also  the  erg,  energy  being  measured 
by  the  amount  of  work  which  it  represents. 

Unit  of  Power. — The  C.  G.  S.  unit  of  power  is  the  power  of  doing  work  at  the  rate 
of  one  erg  per  second;  and  the  power  of  an  engine,  under  given  conditions  of  working, 
can  be  specified  in  ergs  per  second. 

Gravitation  Units  of  Work. — Work,  like  force,  is  often  expressed  in  gravitation 
measures,  such  as  the  foot,  pound  and  kilogrammeter,  these  varying  with  locality, 
being  proportional  to  the  value  of  g. 

1  gram-centimeter  =  g  ergs. 

1  kilogrammeter      =  100,000  g  ergs. 

1  foot-poundal        =  453.59  X  (30.4801)2  =  421,401  ergs. 

1  foot-pound  =  13,823  gram-centims.,  which,  if  g  =  981  =  1.356  X  107  ergs. 

1  joule  =  107  ergs. 

Work-rate,  or  Activity. — The  time  rate  of  doing  work  in  the  C.  G.  S.  System  is  one 
erg  per  second.  A  horsepower  is  defined  as  550  foot-pounds  per  second.  This  is 
7.46  X  109  ergs  per  second.  A  cheval  is  defined  as  75  kilogrammeters  per  second. 
This  is  7.36  X  109  ergs  per  second.  The  value  of  g  =  981. 

Watt.— A  work-rate  of  107  C.  G.  S.  is  called  a  watt,  and  1,000  watts  make  a  kilowatt. 

1  watt  =  107  ergs  per  second  =  .00134  horsepower  =  .737  foot-pounds  per 

second  =  .1019  kilogrammeters  per  second. 

1  kilowatt       =  1.34  horsepower. 

1  horsepower  =  550  foot-pounds  per  second  =  76.0  kilogrammeters  per  second  = 
746  watts  =  1.01385  cheval  =  .746  kilowatt. 

1  cheval  =  75  kilogrammeters  per  second  =  542.48  foot-pounds  per  second  = 
736  watts  =  .9863  horsepower  =  .736  kilowatt. 

Calorie.  Engineers  commonly  reckon  the  heat  value  of  fuels  in  terms  of  kilogram- 
calories.  The  kilogram  calorie  represents  the  energy  required  to  raise  the  temperature 
of  one  kilogram  of  cold  water  one  degree  Centigrade;  this  is  equivalent  to  raising  one 
kilogram  to  a  height  of  about  427  meters.  The  kilogram-calorie  is  sometimes  called 
the  kilogram-degree,  as  well  as  the  major  calorie. 

The  heat  unit  employed  in  physical  and  chemical  laboratories  is  a  metric  unit  also 
called  a  calorie;  it  is  the  heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  a  gram  of  cold  water 
one  degree  Centigrade.  This  is  the  gram-degree  or  minor  calorie. 

In  the  C.  G.  S.  System  the  primary  unit  of  heat  in  calorimetry  is  the  erg.  In  this 
system  the  unit  of  force  is  called  the  dyne;  the  force  which,  acting  upon  a  gram  for  a 
second,  generates  a  velocity  of  a  centimeter  per  second.  This  work  unit  is  called  a 
dyne-centimeter,  which,  for  convenience,  has  been  shortened  to  erg.  Since  the  erg 
is  a  very  small  unit  of  work,  the  joule  =  107  ergs  is  often  used.  But  it  is  the  practice 
to  employ  a  secondary  rather  than  the  primary  unit  of  heat,  and  this  unit  is  called 
a  therm.  It  has  the  same  value  as  the  gram-degree,  or  the  minor  calorie,  given  above. 
The  kilogram-degree,  or  major  calorie,  is  equal  to  1,000  therms.  The  pound-degree 
Cent,  is  453.6  therms,  and  the  pound-degree  Fahr.  is  252.0  therms. 

The  ratio  of  the  secondary  to  the  primary  unit  of  heat  is  commonly  called  the 

[5] 


BRITISH  THERMAL  UNIT 

"  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat,"  quite  often  "Joule's  equivalent,"  and  is  denoted 
by  the  symbol  J.     It  is  the  number  of  .units  of  work  required  to  raise  the  temperature 
of  unit  mass  of  water  1°.     In  the  C.  G.  S.  System  it  is  the  number  of  ergs  in  a  therm. 
The  following  values  of  J  will  be  useful  for  reference.     Taking  g  as  981, 

1  kilogram-degree         =  1000  therms. 

=    426.5  kilogrammeters. 
1  pound-degree  Cent.  =    453.6  therms. 

=  1399.4  foot-pounds. 
1  pound-degree  Fahr.  =    252.0  therms. 

=    777.4  foot-pounds. 

Taking  g  as  981.2,  its  value  at  Greenwich,  these  values  of  J  are  changed  to 

426.42,  1399.1,  777.3. 
At  Edinburgh,  taking  g  as  981.6,  they  will  be 

426.67,  1399.9,  777.7 
In  latitude  45°,  taking  g  as  980.62,  they  will  be 

426.67,  1399.9,  777.7. 

Unit  of  Heat.  The  British  thermal  unit  of  heat  (B.t.u.)  is  the  amount  of  heat 
required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  1  Ib.  of  water  1°  Fahr.  when  at  or  near  its  greatest 
density  (39.1°  F.).  This  is  sometimes  called  the  pound-degree  Fahrenheit  unit. 

In  the  pound-degree  Centigrade  unit  the  avoirdupois  pound  and  the  Centigrade 
scale  of  temperature  are  used. 

The  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat  as  experimentally  determined  by  Joule  was 
found  to  equal  772  foot-pounds  for  one  degree  Fahr.,  or  1,390  foot-pounds  for  a  degree 
Cent.,  communicated  to  one  pound  of  water  at  its  greatest  density.  In  honor  of  Joule, 
the  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat  is  usually  denoted  by  the  letter  J. 

Recent  investigations  by  Rowland  and  others  have  led  to  the  conclusion  that  778 
is  a  more  nearly  correct  value  (about  f  of  1  per  cent  greater)  and  that 
1  B.t.u.  =  778  foot-pounds  =  J. 

In  engineering  calculations,  the  former  equivalent  gives 

oo  ooo 
1  horsepower  =      '        =  42.74  thermal  units. 

The  later  equivalent  gives 

DO   OOO 

1  horsepower  =      '        =  42.42  thermal  units. 

77o 

UNITS  OF  MEASUREMENT  AND  DERIVED  UNITS  IN  USE  IN  GREAT 
BRITAIN  AND  THE  UNITED  STATES 

The  fundamental  units  of  length  and  mass  employed  in  engineering  work  are  not 
commonly  those  of  the  C.  G.  S.  System.  In  the  United  States  the  same  units  are 
employed  as  in  Great  Britain;  the  unit  of  length  being  the  yard,  or,  for  convenience, 
a  subdivision  of  the  yard  as  foot  or  inch.  The  unit  of  mass  is  the  avoirdupois  pound. 
The  unit  of  tune  is  the  second.  The  folio  whig  dimensional  formulae  are  from  the 
Smithsonian  Physical  Tables. 

Derived  Units.  Units  of  quantities  depending  on  powers  greater  than  unity  of 
the  fundamental  length,  mass  and  time  units,  or  on  combinations  of  different  powers 
of  these  units,  are  called  "  derived  units."  Thus,  the  units  of  area  and  volume  are 
respectively  the  area  of  a  square  whose  side  is  the  units  of  length  and  the  volume  of 
a  cube  whose  edge  is  the  unit  of  length.  Suppose  that  the  area  of  a  surface  is  expressed 
in  terms  of  the  foot  as  fundamental  unit,  and  we  wish  to  find  the  area-number  when 
the  yard  is  taken  as  fundamental  unit.  The  yard  is  three  times  as  long  as  the  foot, 
and  therefore  the  area  of  a  square  whose  side  is  a  yard  is  3  X  3  times  as  great  as  that 
whose  side  is  a  foot: 

Dimensional  Formulae.  It  is  convenient  to  adopt  symbols  for  the  ratio  of  length 
units,  mass  units  and  time  units,  and  adhere  to  their  use  throughout,  and  to  what 

[6] 


FUNDAMENTAL  AND  DERIVED  UNITS 

follows  the  small  letters  I,  m,  t,  will  be  used  for  these  ratios.  These  letters  will  always 
represent  simple  numbers,  but  the  magnitude  of  the  number  will  depend  upon  the 
relative  magnitude  of  the  units,  the  ratio  of  which  they  represent.  When  the  values 
of  the  numbers  represented  by  I,  m,  t,  are  known,  and  the  powers  of  I,  m,  t,  involved  in 
any  particular  are  also  known,  the  factor  for  transformation  is  at  once  obtained. 

Conversion  Factors.  In  order  to  determine  the  symbolic  expression  for  the  con- 
version factor  for  any  physical  quantity,  it  is  sufficient  to  determine  the  degree  to 
which  the  quantities,  length,  mass  and  time  are  involved  in  the  quantity.  Thus,  a 
velocity  is  expressed  by  the  ratio  of  the  number  representing  a  length  to  that  repre- 
senting an  interval  of  time,  or  — ,  an  acceleration  by  a  velocity-number  divided  by 

an  interval  of  a  time-number,  or  — ,  and  so  on,  and  the  corresponding  ratios  of  units 
must,  therefore,  enter  to  precisely  the  same  degree.  The  factors  would  thus  be  for 

the  above  cases,  —  and  — .     Equations  of  the  form  above  given  for  velocity  and  ac- 
t  t 

celeration  which  show  the  dimensions  of  the  quantity  in  terms  of  the  fundamental  units 
are  called  "  dimensional  equations." 

Area. — The  unit  of  area  is  the  square  the  side  of  which  is  measured  by  the  unit 
of  length.  The  area  of  a  surface  is  therefore  expressed  as  S  =  CL2,  where  C  is  a 
constant  depending  on  the  shape  of  the  boundary  of  the  surface  and  L  a  linear  dimension. 
For  example,  if  the  surface  be  a  square  and  L  be  the  length  of  a  side,  C  is  unity.  If 

the  boundary  be  a  circle  and  L  be  a  diameter,  C  =  — ,  and  so  on.     The  dimensional 

formula  is  thus  L2,  and  the  conversion  factor  Z2. 

Volume. — The  unit  of  volume  is  the  volume  of  a  cube  the  edge  of  which  is  measured 
by  the  unit  of  length.  The  volume  of  a  body  is  therefore  expressed  a?  V  =  CL3  where, 
as  before,  C  is  a  constant  depending  on  the  slope  of  the  boundary.  The  dimensional 
formula  is  L3  and  the  conversion  factor  is  Z3. 

Density. — The  density  of  a  substance  is  the  quantity  of  matter  in  the  unit  of  volume. 

M 

The  dimension  formula  is  therefore  —  or  M  L~3,  and  conversion  factor  ra  Z~3. 

NOTE. — The  specific  gravity  of  a  body  is  the  ratio  of  its  density  to  the  density  of  a 
standard  substance.  The  dimension  formula  and  conversion  factor  are  therefore 
both  unity. 

Velocity. — The  velocity  of  a  body  at  any  instant  is  given  by  the  equation  v  =  -r-=, 

or  velocity  is  the  ratio  of  a  length-number  to  a  time-number.  The  dimensional  formula 
L  T  - J,  and  conversion  factor  It"1. 

Angle. — Angle  is  measured  by  the  ratio  of  the  length  of  an  arc  to  the  length  of  the 
radius  of  the  arc.  The  dimension  formula  and  the  conversion  factor  are  therefore 
both  unity. 

Angular  Velocity. — Angular  velocity  is  the  ratio  of  the  magnitude  of  the  angle 
described  in  an  interval  of  time  to  the  length  of  the  interval.  The  dimension  formula 
is  therefore  T"1,  and  the  conversion  factor  is  t~l. 

dv 

Linear  Acceleration. — Acceleration  is  the  rate  of  change  of  velocity  or  a  =  7-.     The 

at 

dimension  formula  is  therefore  VT"1  or  LT~2,  and  the  conversion  factor  is  lt~z. 
Angular  Acceleration. — Angular  acceleration  is   the  rate    of    change    of   angular 

velocity.  The  dimensional  formula  is  thus  — — or  T~2,  and  the  conver- 
sion factor  is  t  ~ 2. 

Solid  Angle. — A  solid  angle  is  measured  by  the  ratio  of  the  surface  of  the  portion 

m 


FUNDAMENTAL  AND  DERIVED  UNITS 

of  a  sphere  inclosed  by  the  conical  surface  forming  the  angle  to  the  square  of  radius 
of  the  radius  of  the  spherical  surface,  the  center  of  the  sphere  being  at  the  vertex  of 


the  cone.     The  dimensional  formula  is  therefore  —  —  or  1,  and  hence  the  conversion 
factor  is  also  1. 

Curvature.  —  Curvature  is  measured  by  the  rate  of  change  of  direction  of  the  curve 
with  reference  to  distance  measured  along  the  curve  as  independent  variable.     The 

dimension  formula  is  therefore  :  -  -  or  L""1,  and  the  conversion  factor  is  Z"1. 

length 

Tortuosity.  —  Tortuosity  is  measured  by  the  rate  of  rotation  of  the  tangent  plane 
round  the  tangent,  to  the  curve  of  reference  when  length  along  the  curve  is  independent 


variable.       The  dimension  formula  is  therefore  .  or  L"1,  and  the  conversion 

length 
factor  is  l~l. 

Specific  Curvature  of  a  Surface.  —  This  was  denned  by  Gauss  to  be  at  any  point  of 
the  surface,  the  ratio  of  the  solid  angle  enclosed  by  a  surface  formed  by  moving  a  normal 
to  the  surface  round  the  periphery  of  a  small  area  containing  the  point,  to  the  magnitude 

of  the  area.     The  dimensional  formula  is  therefore  -  ;  -  or  L~2.  and  the  con- 

surface 
version  factor  is  l~\ 

Momentum.  —  This  is  the  quantity  of  motion  in  the  Newtonian  sense,  and  is,  at 
any  instant,  measured  by  the  product  of  the  mass-number  and  the  velocity-number  for 
the  body.  Thus,  the  dimension  formula  is  M  V  or  M  L  T-1  and  the  conversion  factor 
mlt~l. 

The  Moment  of  Momentum.  —  The  moment  of  momentum  of  a  body  with  reference 
to  a  point  is  the  product  of  its  momentum-number  and  the  number  expressing  the 
distance  of  its  line  of  motion  from  the  point.  The  dimensional  formula  is  thus  M  L2  T  -  * 
and  hence  the  conversion  factor  is  m  P  t~l. 

Moment  of  Inertia.  —  The  moment  of  inertia  of  a  body  round  any  axis  is  expressed 
by  the  formula  S  m  r2,  where  m  is  the  mass  of  any  particle  of  the  body  and  r  its  distance 
from  the  axis.  The  dimension  formula  for  the  sum  is  clearly  the  same  as  for  each 
element  and  hence  is  M  L2.  The  conversion  factor  is  therefore  m  I2. 

Angular  Momentum.  —  The  angular  momentum  of  a  body  round  any  axis  is  the 
product  of  the  numbers  expressing  the  moment  of  inertia  and  the  angular  velocity  of 
the  body.  The  dimensional  formula  and  the  conversion  factor  are  therefore  the  same 
as  for  moment  of  momentum  given  above. 

Force.  —  A  force  is  measured  by  the  rate  of  change  of  momentum  it  is  capable  of 
producing.  The  dimension  formulae  for  force  and  "  time-rate  of  change  of  momentum" 
are  therefore  the  same  and  are  expressed  by  ratio  of  momentum-number  to  time- 
number  or  M  L  T~2.  The  conversion  factor  is  thus  ml  t~z. 

NOTE.  —  When  mass  is  expressed  in  pounds,  length  in  feet,  and  tune  in  seconds,  the 
unit  of  force  is  called  the  poundal.  When  grams,  centimeters,  and  seconds  are  the 
corresponding  units,  the  unit  of  force  is  called  the  dyne. 

Moment  of  a  Couple,  Torque  or  Twisting  Motive.  —  These  are  different  names  for  a 
quantity  which  can  be  expressed  as  the  product  of  two  numbers  representing  a  force 
and  a  length.  The  dimension  formula  is  therefore  FL  or  M  L2T~2,  and  the  con- 
version factor  is  m  I2  t~2. 

Intensity  of  a  Stress.  —  The  intensity  of  a  stress  is  the  ratio  of  a  number  expressing 
the  total  stress  to  the  number  expressing  the  area  over  which  the  stress  is  distributed. 
The  dimensional  formula  is  thus  F  L~2  or  M  L-1  T~2,  and  the  conversion  factor 
isml-H-*. 

Intensity  of  Attraction,  or  "  Force  at  a  Point."  —  This  is  the  force  of  attraction  per 
unit  mass  on  a  body  placed  at  the  point,  and  the  dimensional  formula  is  therefore 
F  M"1  or  LT~2,  the  same  as  acceleration.  The  conversion  factors  for  acceleration 
therefore  apply. 

[8] 


FUNDAMENTAL  AND  DERIVED  UNITS 

Absolute  Force  of  a  Center  of  Attraction,  or  "  Strength  of  a  Center." — This  is  the 
intensity  of  force  at  unit  distance  from  the  center  and  is,  therefore,  the  force  per  unit- 
mass  at  any  point  multiplied  by  the  square  of  the  distance  from  the  center.  The 
dimensional  formula  thus  becomes  FL2  M"1  or  L3T~2.  The  conversion  factor  is 
therefore  l*t~2. 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. — A  modulus  of  elasticity  is  the  ratio  of  stress  intensity  to 
percentage  strain.  The  dimension  of  percentage  strain  is  a  length  divided  by  a  length, 
and  is  therefore  unity.  Hence  the  dimensional  formula  of  a  modulus  of  elasticity  is 
the  same  as  that  of  stress  intensity,  or  M  L~1T~2,  and  the  conversion  factor  is 
thus  also  ml~l  t~2. 

Work  and  Energy. — When  the  point  of  application  of  a  force  acting  on  a  body 
moves  in  the  direction  of  the  force,  work  is  done  by  the  force,  and  the  amount  is  measured 
by  the  product  of  the  force  and  displacement  number.  The  dimensional  formula  is 
therefore  FL  or  M  L2T~2.  The  work  done  by  the  force  either  produces  a  change 
in  the  velocity  of  the  body,  or  a  change  of  shape  or  configuration  of  the  body,  or  both. 
In  the  first  case  it  produces  a  change  of  kinetic  energy,  in  the  second  a  change  of 
potential  energy.  The  dimension  formulae  of  energy  and  work  representing  quantities 
of  the  same  kind  are  identical  and  the  conversion  factor  for  both  is  m  I2  <"2. 

Resilience. — This  is  the  work  done  per  unit-volume  of  a  body  in  distorting  it  to 
the  elastic  limit,  or  in  producing  rupture.  The  dimension  formula  is  therefore  M  L2 
X-2  L~3  or  M  L"1  T~2,  and  the  conversion  factor  is  m  l~l  t~*. 

Power,  or  Activity. — Power — or,  as  it  is  now  very  commonly  called,  activity — is 

dw 

defined  as  the  time-rate  of  doing  work,  or,  if  W  represents  work  and  P  power,  P  =  - — . 

d  t 

The  dimensional  formula  is  therefore  W  T  - l  or  M  L2  T  ~ 3  and  the  conversion  factor 
m  I2  t  ~ 3,  or  for  problems  in  gravitation-units,  more  conveniently  /  It  ~ l,  where  / 
stands  for  force  factor. 

EXAMPLE  1. — Find  the  number  of  gram- centimeters  in  one  foot-pound.  Here  the 
units  of  force  are  the  attraction  of  the  earth  on  the  pound  and  the  gram  of  matter, 
and  the  conversion  factor  is  / 1,  where  /  is  453.59  and  I  is  30.48. 

Hence  the  number  is  453.59  X  30.48  =  13,825. 

NOTE. — It  is  important  to  remember  that  in  problems  like  that  here  given  the  terms 
"pound  "  or  "gram"  refer  to  force  and  not  to  mass. 

2.  If  gravity  produces  an  acceleration  of  32.2  feet  per  second  per  second,  how  many 
watts  are  required  to  make  one  horse-power? 

One  horse-power  is  550  foot-pounds  per  second,  or  550  X  32.2  =  17,710  foot- 
poundals  per  second.  One  watt  is  107  ergs  per  second,  that  is,  107  dyne- centimeters 
per  second.  The  conversion  factor  is  ml2t~3,  where  m  =  453.59,  I  =  30.48,  and 
t  =  1,  and  the  result  has  to  be  divided  by  107,  the  number  of  dyne-centimeters  per 
second  in  the  watt. 

Hence,  17,710  mPt~3  -;-  107  =  17,710  X  453.59  X  30.482  -f-  107  =  746.3. 

3.  How  many  gram-centimeters  per  second  correspond  to  33,000  foot-pounds  per 
minute? 

The  conversion  factor  suitable  for  this  case  is  fl  t -1,  where  /  is  453.59,  I  is  30.48, 
and  t  is  60. 

Hence,  33,000  It-*  =  33,000  X  453.59  X  30.48  +  60  =  7,604,000,  nearly. 

HEAT  UNITS 

If  heat  be  measured  in  dynamical  units  its  dimensions  are  the  same  as  those  of 
energy,  namely,  ML2T~2.  The  most  common  measurements,  however,  are  made 
in  thermal  units,  that  is,  in  terms  of  the  amount  of  heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature 
of  unit  mass  of  water  one  degree  of  temperature  at  some  stated  temperature.  This 
method  of  measurement  involves  the  unit  of  mass  and  some  unit  of  temperature,  and 
hence  if  we  denote  temperature-numbers  by  9  and  their  conversion  factors  by  d,  the 
dimensional  formula  and  conversion  factor  for  quantity  of  heat  will  be  M9  and  mO 
respectively.  The  relative  amount  of  heat  compared  with  water  as  standard  substance 

[9] 


FUNDAMENTAL  AND  DERIVED  UNITS 

required  to  raise  unit  mass  of  different  substances  one  degree  in  temperature  is  called 
their  specific  heat  and  is  a  simple  number. 

Unit  volume  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  unit  mass  in  the  measurement  of  heat, 
the  units  being  then  called  thermometric  units.  The  dimensional  formula  is  in  that 
case  changed  by  the  substitution  of  volume  for  mass  and  becomes  L36,  and  here  the 
conversion  factor  is  to  be  calculated  from  the  formula  1*6. 

Coefficient  of  Expansion. — The  coefficient  of  expansion  of  a  substance  is  equal  to 
the  ratio  of  the  change  of  length  per  unit  length  (linear)  or  change  of  volume  per  unit 
volume  (voluminal)  to  the  change  of  temperature.  These  ratios  are  simple  numbers, 
and  the  change  of  temperature  is  inversely  as  the  magnitude  of  the  unit  of  tempera- 
ture. Hence,  the  dimensional  and  conversion-factor  formulae  are  9  —  1  d~l. 

Conductivity,  or  Specific  Conductance. — This  is  the  quantity  of  heat  transmitted 
per  unit  01  time  per  unit  of  surface  per  unit  of  temperature  gradient.  The  equation 

TT 

for  conductivity  is  therefore  with  H  as  quantity  of  heat  K  =  — — 

—  L2  T  and  the  dimensional 
L 

formula  =  T-TT>  which  gives  m  I  ~ 1 1  ~ l  for  conversion  factor. 

9  L  1       LI 

In  thermometric  units  the  formula  becomes  L2  T  ~  *,  which  properly  represents 
diffusivity .  In  dynamical  units  H  becomes  M  L2  T  ~~ 2  and  the  formula  changes  to 
M  L  T  - 3  0  — *.  The  conversion  factors  obtained  from  these  are  I2 1  ~ 1  and  mlt"3  6~1 
respectively. 

Similarly,  for  emission  and  absorption  we  have: 

Emissivity  and  Immissivity. — These  are  the  quantities  of  heat  given  off  by  or 
taken  in  by  the  body  per  unit  of  time  per  unit  of  surface  per  unit  difference  of  tem- 
perature between  the  surface  and  the  surrounding  medium.  We  thus  get  the  equation 
EL29T  =  H  =  M9.  The  dimensional  formula  for  E  is  therefore  M  L~2  T~l, 
and  conversion  factor  ml~zt~l.  In  thermometric  units  by  substituting  I*  for  m 
the  factor  becomes  I  t~l,  and  in  dynamical  units  m  t~s  0~l. 

Thermal  Capacity. — This  is  the  product  of  the  number  for  mass  and  the  specific 
heat,  and  hence  the  dimensional  formula  and  conversion  factor  are  simply  M  and  m. 

Latent  Heat. — Latent  heat  is  the  ratio  of  the  number  representing  the  quantity  of 
heat  required  to  change  the  state  of  a  body  to  the  number  representing  the  quantity  of 

M  9 
matter  in  the  body.     The  dimensional  formula  is  therefore,  or  9,  and  hence  the 

conversion  factor  is  simply  the  ratio  of  the  temperature  units  or  6.  In  dynamical  units 
the  factor  isl*t-*. 

NOTE. — When  9  is  given  the  dimension  formula  L2T~2,  the  formulae  in  thermal 
and  dynamical  units  are  always  identical.  The  thermometric  units  practically  suppress 
mass. 

Joule's  Equivalent. — Joule's  dynamical  equivalent  is  connected  with  quantity  of 
heat  by  the  equation  ML2T-2  =  JHorJM8. 

This  gives  for  the  dimensional  formula  of  J  the  expression  L2  T~2  9.  The  conver- 
sion factor  is  thus  represented  by  Z* 1~2  0.  When  heat  is  measured  in  dynamical  units 
J  is  a  simple  number. 

Entropy. — The  entropy  of  a  body  is  directly  proportional  to  the  quantity  of  heat  it 
contains  and  inversely  proportional  to  its  temperature.  The  dimensional  formula  is 

ivr  9 

thus  -  —  or  M,  and  the  conversion  factor  is  m.     When  heat  is  measured  in  dynamical 
9 

units  the  factor  ismPt~z  6~l. 

EXAMPLE. — Find  the  relation  between  the  British  thermal  unit,  the  calorie  and 
the  therm. 

Neglecting  the  variation  of  the  specific  heat  of  water  with  temperature,  or  defining 
all  the  units  for  the  same  temperature  of  the  standard  substance,  we  have  the  following 
definitions:  The  British  thermal  unit  is  the  quantity  of  heat  required  to  raise  the 

[10] 


FUNDAMENTAL  AND  DERIVED  UNITS 


temperature  of  one  pound  of  water  1°  F.  The  calorie  is  the  quantity  of  heat  required 
to  raise  the  temperature  of  one  kilogram  of  water  1~  O.  The  therm  is  the  quantity  of 
heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  one  gram  of  water  1°  C.  Hence: 

To  find  the  number  of  calories  in  one  British  thermal  unit,  we  have  ra  =  .45399 


and  8  =  — ; 


m  6  =  .45399  X  —  =  .25199. 
y 


To  find  the  number  of  therms  in  a  calorie,  m  =  1,000  and  0  =  1;  .".  m  0  =  1,000. 

It  follows  at  once  that  the  number  of  therms  in  one  British  thermal  unit  is  1,000 
X  .25199  =  251.99. 

If  Joule's  equivalent  be  776  foot-pounds  per  pound  of  water  per  degree  Fahr., 
what  will  be  its  value  in  gravitation  units  when  the  meter,  the  kilogram  and  the  degree 
Cent,  are  units? 


The  conversion  factor  in  this  case  is 


v   It 


t  ~  2  6 
_      or  1  0,  where  I  =  .3048  and  0  =  1.8; 

' 


:.  776  X  .3048  X  1.8  =  425.7. 

If  Joule's  equivalent  be  24,832  foot-poundals  when  the  degree  Fahr.  is  unit  of 
temperature,  what  will  be  its  value  when  kilogrammeter-second  and  degree-Centigrade 
units  are  used? 

The  conversion  factor  is  Z2£~20,  where  I  =  .3048,  t  =  1,  and  6  =  1.8;  .'.  24,832 
Xl2t~26  =  24,832  X  .30482  X  1.8  =  4,152.5. 

In  gravitation  units  this  would  give    '       '     =  423.3. 

9.ol 

FUNDAMENTAL   AND   DERIVED   UNITS   OF  LENGTH, 

MASS,  TIME,  AND   TEMPERATURE 
Fundamental:   Length  .........  Symbol:    L  ......  Conversion  factor:    I 

Mass  ....................  M  .....................     m 

Time  ____  ...  .............  T  ......................     t 

Temperature  .............  0  ......................     6 

GEOMETRIC   AND   DYNAMIC   UNITS 

Derived:  Area  ..............  ...........  .  .  .Conversion  factor:  P 

Volume  .........................................  .  I3 

Angle  ............................................ 

Solid  Angle  ................  ....  _____  .........  .....  . 

Curvature  ............  ..............  ..............  ~  l 

Tortuosity  .....  .-  .......  .  ............  ............. 

Specific  Curvature  of  a  Surface  .....................  -  2 

Angular  Velocity  .................................. 

Angular  Acceleration  .....  .......  ........  ............  It  ~  2 

Linear  Velocity.  .  .  ........  ......;  ...........  .....  .  I  t~l 

Linear  Acceleration  ...............................  ..  lt~z 

Density  .................................  .  .  .  ......  m  l~  3 

Moment  of  inertia  ......  .................  .........  m  P 

Intensity  of  attraction,  or  "  force  at  a  point  "  .  .  .  .....  It-* 

Absolute  force  of  a  center  of  attraction,  or  "strength  of 

a  center"  .....  .................  .  ........  .....  I3  1  ~  2 

Momentum  .........................  ...  ..........  mlt~l 

Moment  of  momentum,  or  angular  momentum  ........  m  Z2  t~l 

Force  ............................................  ml  t~2 

Moment  of  a  couple,  or  torque  ......................  mPt~2 

Intensity  of  stress  .................................  ml~l  t~2 

Modulus  of  elasticity  .......................  ........  ml~1t~2 

Work  and  energy  ......  ...........................  m  I'2  1  ~  2 

Resilience  ...............  .  ........................  m  l~lt~2 

Power,  or  activity  .................................  m  I2  1  ~  3 

111] 


UNITED  STATES  UNITS  AND  STANDARDS 


HEAT  UNITS 

Derived:  Quantity  of  heat  (thermal  units)  .  .  .Conversion  factor:  m  0 

Quantity  of  heat  (thermometric  units)  ...............  p  Q 

Quantity  of  heat  (dynamical  units)  ..................  mPt~z 

Coefficient  of  thermal  expansion  ....................  Q  -  1 

Conductivity  (thermal  units)  .......................  ml~l  t~l 

Conductivity  (thermometric  units),  or  diffusivity  ......  I2  t~l 

Conductivity  (dynamical  units)  ..................  m  1  1~3  0—1 

Emissivity  and  imissivity  (thermal  units)  ............  ml-2t~l 

Emissivity  and  imissivity  (thermodynamic  units)  ......  lt~l 

Emissivity  and  imissivity  (dynamical  units)  ..........  mt~3  0~l 

Thermal  capacity  .................................  m 

Latent  heat  (thermal  units)  ........................  0 

Latent  heat  (dynamical  units)  ......................  lzt~2 

Joule's  equivalent  .................................  p  t  ~  2  0 

Entropy  (heat  measured  in  thermal  units)  ............  m 

Entropy  (heat  measured  in  dynamical  units)  ......... 


UNITED   STATES   UNITS   AND    STANDARDS 

The  weights  and  measures  in  common  use  in  the  United  States  are  an  inheritance 
from  the  Colonial  period,  therefore  in  substantial  agreement  with  those  of  Great 
Britain;  certain  variations  occur  such  as  the  gallon  and  the  bushel,  which  will  be 
explained  further  on. 

Conformably  to  a  resolution  passed  by  the  U.  S.  Senate  in  1830,  the  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury  ordered  a  comparison  of  the  weights  and  measures  in  use  at  the 
principal  custom  houses  to  be  made,  and  appointed  F.  R.  Hassler,  Superintendent  of 
the  U.  S.  Coast  Survey,  to  make  the  investigation  and  report.  A  preliminary  report 
was  made  in  1831,  followed  by  a  more  complete  report  the  year  following.  As  was 
anticipated,  large  discrepancies  were  found,  but  the  average  value  of  the  different 
denominations  agreed  fairly  well  with  those  in  use  in  Great  Britain  at  the  time  of  the 
American  Revolution.  Mr.  Hassler  was  instructed  to  correct  this  irregularity  by  the 
construction  of  uniform  weights  and  measures  for  the  customs  service.  With  the 
exception  of  the  troy  pound-weight,  Congress  had  legalized  no  system  of  units  of 
weights  and  measures. 

The  avoirdupois  pound  adopted  by  Mr.  Hassler  as  the  standard  for  the  Treasury 
Department  was  derived  from  the  troy  pound  of  the  U.  S.  Mint  according  to  the  equiv- 

alent 1  avoirdupois  pound  equals  -1-—  pounds  troy.    This  was  the  accepted  relation 

5,7oO 

in  this  country  as  well  as  in  England. 

The  standard  yard  of  36  inches,  copied  from  the  English  yard,  was  incorporated 
as  the  standard  unit  of  length. 

Two  units  of  capacity,  the  wine  gallon  of  231  cubic  inches  and  the  Winchester 
bushel  of  2,150.42  cubic  inches,  were  adopted  because  they  represented  more  closely 
than  any  other  English  standards  the  average  capacity  measures  in  use  in  the  United 
States  at  the  date  of  Mr.  Hassler's  investigation. 

These  were  the  fundamental  standards  adopted  upon  the  recommendation  of  Mr. 
Hassler  by  the  U.  S.  Treasury  Department,  and  to  which  the  weights  and  measures  for 
the  customs  service  were  made  to  conform. 

AIR  AS  A  STANDARD 

The  atmosphere  varies  in  density  from  practically  nothing,  where  it  shades  off  into 
space,  to  that  produced  by  a  pressure  of  14.7  Ibs.  at  the  level  of  the  sea,  which  we 
call  atmospheric  pressure.  The  height  of  the  atmosphere  has  never  been  measured, 
but  observations  of  the  duration  of  twilight,  which  is  due  to  reflection  from  particles 
of  dust  and  air,  give  about  50  miles  as  the  limit. 

[12J 


AIR  AS  A  STANDARD 


1  atmosphere 
1  pound  per  square  inch 
1  pound  pressure  per  sq.  in. 
1  pound  pressure  per  sq.  in. 

1  Ib.  pressure  per  sq.  in.  32°  F. 


F.  = 


1  Ib.  pressure  per  sq.  in.  62' 
1  atmosphere  32°  F. 
1  inch  height  of  mercury 
1  atmosphere  62°  F. 

inch  height  of  mercury 

atmosphere 

pound  per  square  foot 

pound  pressure  per  sq.  ft. 

pound  pressure  per  sq.  ft. 


1  pound  pressure  per  sq.  ft.      = 


1  atmosphere 

1  foot  height  of  water  at  62°  F. 

1  atmosphere 

1  foot  height  of  water  at  32 

Ah-,  dry  and  pure,  32°  F. 

32°  F. 

32°  F. 

62°  F. 

62°  F. 

62°  F. 
1  atmosphere  at  32°  F. 


F. 


1  atmosphere 

1  short  ton  per  square  foot 

1  atmosphere 

1  long  ton  per  square  foot 


14.697       pounds  per  square  inch  (14.7). 

.0680      atmosphere. 

27.72         inches  or  2.31  feet  high  of  water  at  62°  F. 
1891  feet  high  of  air  of  uniform  density  at 

sea  level  and  62°  F. 

2.035        inches  high  of  mercury  or  51.7  milli- 
meters. 

2.04         inches  high  of  mercury. 
29.921        incLes  high  of  mercury. 

.0334      atmosphere,  32°  F. 
30  inches  high  of  mercury. 

.0333      atmosphere,  62°  F. 
2116.35          pounds  per  square  foot. 
.000473  atmosphere. 
.1925      inches  high  of  water  at  62°  F. 
13.13          feet  high  of  air  of  uniform  density  at 

sea  level  and  32°  F. 

.0141      inch  or  .359  millimeter  of  mercury  at 
sea  level  and  32°  F. 
At  62°  F.  the  height  is  .01417  inch. 
=        33.947       feet  of  water  in  height  at  62°  F. 
=  .0294      atmosphere. 

33.901        feet  high  of  water  at  32°  F. 
=  .0295      atmosphere. 

=          1.0000      specific  gravity. 
=  .080728  weight  in  pounds,  1  cubic  foot. 

=        12.387        vol.  of  1  pound  in  cubic  feet. 
.94263    specific  gravity  32°  =  1.000. 
.076097  weight  of  1  cu.  ft.  pounds. 
=        13.141        vol.  of  1  pound  in  cubic  feet. 
=  27801  feet  or  5.265  miles  high  of  uniform  dens- 

ity, equal  to  that  of  air  at  the  level  of 
the  sea. 

=          1.0582      short  tons  per  square  foot. 
.945        atmosphere. 
.945        long  tons  per  square  foot. 
1.0584      atmosphere. 


Weight  of  air  compared  with  water  at  the  level  of  the  sea  = 

Water  at  32°  F.  =  773.2    times  the  weight  of  air  at  32°  F. 
39°  1     =  773.27  times  the  weight  of  air  at  32° 
62°       =  772.4    times  the  weight  of  air  at  32° 
62°       =  819.4    times  the  weight  of  air  at  62° 
52°  3    =  820.0    times  the  weight  of  air  at  62° 

Weight  in  pounds  of  1  cubic  foot  of  air  containing  a  standard  amount  of  carbonic 
acid.     English  Board  of  Trade,  Standards  Department. 


Condition 

of  Air 

Temperatures  in  Degrees  Fahrenheit 

32° 

62° 

80° 

Dry  air.  .  .  . 

.08098 
.08093 
.08080 

.07632 
.07596 
.07578 

.07377 
.07313 
.07281 

Ordinary  air 
Moist  air 

(saturation 
(saturation 

=  f)  

=  1) 

The  standard  amount  of    carbonic  acid  mentioned  above  is  6  volumes  of  carbonic 
acid  to  10,000  volumes  of  air. 

[13] 


AIR  AS  A  STANDARD 


Metric  Measurements 

1  atmosphere  =  10332.9  kilograms  per  square  meter. 

1  kilogram  per  square  meter  .000097  atmosphere. 

1  atmosphere  =      760.0000      millimeters  of  mercury. 

1  millimeter  of  mercury  .001316  atmosphere. 

1  atmosphere  =        10.333        meters  high  of  water. 

1  meter  high  of  water  .0969      atmosphere. 

1  atmosphere  =          1.033        kilograms  per  square  centimeter. 

1  kilogram  per  square  centimeter  =  .969        atmosphere. 

1  atmosphere  1.013        megadynes  per  square  centimeter. 

1  megadyne  per  square  centimeter  =  .9872      atmosphere. 

One  liter  of  air,  under  one  atmosphere  of  760  millimeters,  at  0°  Centigrade,  at  sea 
level,  weighs  1.293  grams,  or  19.955  grains. 

The  collected  data  for  dry  air  as  given  in  C.  G.  S.  System  by  Professor  Everett  is: 

Expansion  from  0°  to  100°  C.  at  constant  pressure  as ....  1  to  1.367 

Specific  heat  at  constant  pressure 0.238 

Specific  heat  at  constant  volume 0.170 

Pressure-height  at  0°  C.  about  7.99  X  105  cm.,  or  about. .  26210.000  ft. 

Standard  barometric  column,  76  cm 29.922  ins. 

Standard  pressure  =  1033.3  grams  per  square  centimeter, 

or  14.7  pounds  per  square  inch, 

or  2117.0  pounds  per  square  foot, 

or  1.0136  X  106  dynes  per  square  centimeter. 

Standard  density,  at  0°  C.  =        0.001293  gram  per  cubic  centimeter. 

or  0.0807  prunds  per  cubic  foot. 

Standard  bulkiness  773.0  cubic  centimeters  per  gram, 

or  12.39  cubic  foot  per  pound. 

Specific  Heat  of  Air. — The  specific  heat  of  air  is  the  ratio  of  the  amount  of  heat 
required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  one  pound  of  air  through  one  degree  at  32°  F.  Air, 
in  common  with  other  gases,  has  two  specific  heats:  (1)  Specific  heat  at  constant  pres- 
sure; the  application  of  heat  to  air  expands  it:  if  the  air  is  free  to  expand,  work  is  done  in 
heating  the  air  and  in  overcoming  the  external  pressure  of  the  atmosphere;  (2)  if  the  air 
is  confined  so  that  its  volume  cannot  change  and  heat  is  applied,  the  effect  is  rise  in 
temperature,  and  this  is  called  specific  heat  at  constant  volume.  The  former  requires 
more  hea  than  the  latter  because  external  work  is  performed  in  addition  to  the  rise 
in  temperature.  When  air  is  heated  at  constant  volume,  only  internal  work  is  done. 

Regnault  found  the  specific  heat  at  constant  pressure  to  be  .2375  water  =  1. 
Then,  one  cubic  foot  of  air  at  32°  F.  =  .08098  pound,  the  reciprocal  of  which  =  12.3487 
cubic  feet  under  one  atmosphere  of  pressure  and  32°  F. 

The  specific  heat  of  air  at  constant  volume  =  .1689. 

Ratio  of  the  specific  heats  of  air: 

Constant  pressure,  .2375  _ 
Constant  volume,  .1689   " 

which  agrees  with  the  values  obtained  indirectly  from  the  velocity  of  sound.  Assum- 
ing that  the  value  332  meters  (1089  feet)  per  second  is  good  for  the  velocity  of  sound, 
the  ratio  of  the  specific  heats  must  pe  near  to  1.4063.  According  to  the  Smithsonian 
Physical  Tables,  1.4065  may  be  taken  as  fairly  representing  our  present  knowledge  of 
the  subject. 


[14] 


CONVERSION  FACTORS  FOR  WATER 

WATER   AS  A   STANDARD 

Reduction  factors:  1  cubic  foot  of  water  at  4°  C.,  or  39°  2  F.  =  62.4  pounds. 
1  cubic  inch  of  water  =  0.0361111  pounds. 
1  cubic  centimeter  of  water  at  4°  C.  =  1  gram. 

Reciprocal 

1  gram  of  water  =  15.432356  grains 0.0647989 

=;    0.811532  U.  S.  Apoth.  scruples 1 .232237 

=    0 . 270511  U.  S.  Apoth.  dram 3 . 696707 

=    0.0610234  cubic  inch 16.387163 

=    0.0352740  ounce,  av 28.349492 

=    0 . 0338138  U.  S.  liquid  ounce 29 . 573724 

=    0.0321507  ounce,  troy 31 . 103521 

=    0.00267923  pound,  troy.  . 373.241566 

=    0.00220462  pound,  av : . . .  453.592428 

WATER  AS  A  STANDARD 

Reciprocal 

1  cubic  inch  of  water  =  252.777778  grains 0.00395604 

=    16.387163  grams 0.0610234 

=      0.577778  ounce,  av 1.730769 

=      0.554113  U.  S.  liquid  ounce 1 .804688 

=      0.526620  ounce,  troy 1 .898901 

=      0.043885  pound,  troy 22.786814 

=      0.036111  pound,  av 27.692307 

=      0.034632  U.  S.  liquid  pint 28.875000 

=      0.0288326  English  pint 34.683000 

=      0.017316  U.  S.  liquid  quart 57.750000 

=      0.0163872  liter 61.023378 

=      0.0163872  kilogram 61 .023378 

=      0.0144163  English  quart 69 .366000 

=      0.004329  U.  S.  gallon 231 .000000 

=      0.00360408  English  gallon 277.463000 

=      0.0005787  cubic  foot 1728.000000 

WATER  AS  A  STANDARD 

Reciprocal 

1  pound  of  water  =  453 .592428  grams 0.00220462 

=    27.692307  cubic  inches 0.0361111 

=     15 .344695  U.  S.  liquid  ounces 0.0651691 

=  1 .215278  pounds,  troy 0.822857 

=      0.959041  U.  S.  liquid  pint 1 .042708 

=      0.798440  English  pint : 1 .252442 

=      0.479520  U.  S.  liquid  quart 2.085417 

=      0.453592  liter 2.204622 

=      0.453592  kilogram 2.204622 

=      0.399220  English  quart 2 .504883 

=      0.119880  U.  S.  gallon 8.341667 

=      0.0998054  English  gallon 10.019497 

=      0.0160256  cubic  foot^x 62 .400000 

=      0.000593542  cubic  yard. . .  .v.  .v. 1684.800000 

=      0.00050000  short  ton 2000.000000 

=      0 . 000453592  cubic  meter . 2204 . 622341 

=      0.000453592  metric  ton 2204.622341 

=      0.00044643  long  ton 2240.000000 

[15] 


CONVERSION  FACTORS  FOR  WATER 
WATER  AS  A  STANDARD 

Reciprocal 

1  liter  of  water  =  61 .023378  cubic  inches 0.0163872 

=    2 . 679228  pounds,  troy 0 . 373242 

=    2. 204622  pounds,  av 0.453592 

=    2.113364  U.  S.  liquid  pints 0.473179 

=     1 .759464  English  pints 0.568354 

=     1 .056681  U.  S.  liquid  quarts 0.946359 

=     1.000000  kilogram 1.000000 

=    0.879732  English  quart 1 . 136708 

=    0.264170  U.  S.  gallon 3.785434 

=    0.219933  English  gallon 4.546831 

=    0.0353145  cubic  foot 28.317016 

=    0.00130793  cubic  yard 764.559444 

=    0.00110231  short  ton 907 . 184872 

=    0.00100000  metric  ton 1000.000000 

=    0.00098421  long  ton 1016.047057 

WATER  AS  A  STANDARD 

United  States  GaUons 

Reciprocal 

1  gallon  of  water  =  231 .000000  cubic  inches 0.004329 

=     10. 137461  pounds,  troy.  . 0.098644 

=      8.341667  pounds,  av 0. 119880 

=      8.000000  U.  S.  liquid  pints 0.125000 

=      6.660324  English  pints 0. 150143 

=      4.000000  U.  S.  liquid  quarts 0.250000 

=      3.785434  liters 0.264170 

=      3.785434  kilograms ' 0.264170 

=      3.330162  English  quarts 0.300286 

=      0.832543  English  gallon 1.201139 

=      0.133681  cubic  foot 7.480519 

=      0.00495113  cubic  yard 201 .974025 

=      0.00417083  short  ton 239.760231 

=      0.00372396  long  ton 268.531457 

=      0.00378543  cubic  meter 264. 170467 

=      0.00378543  metric  ton 264. 170467 

WATER  AS  A  STANDARD 

Imperial  Gallon  of  Great  Britain 

Reciprocal 

1  gallon  of  water  =  277.463000  cubic  inches 0.00360408 

=     12. 176472  pounds,  troy 0.0821256 

=     10.019497  pounds,  av 0.0998054 

=      9.609108  U.  S.  liquid  pints 0. 104068 

=      8.000000  English  pints 0. 125000 

=      4.804554  U.  S.  liquid  quarts 0.208136 

=      4.546831  liters 0.219933 

=      4.546831  kilograms 0 .219933 

=      4.000000  English  quarts 0.250000 

=      1 .201139  U.  S.  gallons.  . 0.832543 

=      0.160569  cubic  foot 6.227843 

=      0.0059470  cubic  yard 168.152150 

=      0.00500975  short  ton 199.610819 

=      0.00454477  metric  ton 220.033235 

=      0.00447299  long  ton 223.564117 

[161 


CONVERSION  FACTORS  FOR  WATER 

WATER  AS  A  STANDARD 

Reciprocal 

1  cubic  foot  of  water  =  1728.000000  cubic  inches 0.000578704 

=      75.833333  pounds,  troy 0.0131868 

=      62.400000  pounds,  av . 0.0160256 

=      59.844047  U.  S.  liquid  pints 0.0167101 

=      49.822679  English  pints 0.0200712 

=      29.922112  U.  S.  liquid  quarts 0.0334201 

=      28.317016  liters 0.0353145 

=      28.317016  kilograms 0.353145 

=      24.911340  English  quarts 0.0401424 

7.480495  U.  S.  gallons 0. 133681 

6.227857  English  gaUons 0.160569 

0.370370  cubic  yard 27.000000 

0.031200  short  ton 32.051282 

0.0283170  cubic  meters* 35.314455 

0.0283042  metric  ton 35.330486 

0.0278571  long  ton 35.897436 

This  line  and  the  one  following  show  the  relation  of  a  cubic  foot  to  a  cubic  meter 
figured  in  feet  and  inches,  also  the  relation  of  a  cubic  foot  of  water  =  1728  cubic  inches 
weighing  62.4  pounds — to  a  metric  ton.  The  figures  should  in  both  cases  be  alike, 
the  difference  is  due  to  the  cumulative  effect  of  unending  decimals.  In  the  case  of  the 
metric  ton  we  have  the  fractions:  1  meter  =  3.280833333  feet,  and  1  kilogram  =  2.204- 
622341  pounds.  Without  attempting  to  adjust  fractional  differences,  the  recognized 
metric  ton  =  2204 . 622341  pounds  is  here  employed. 


WATER  AS  A  STANDARD 

Reciprocal 

1  cubic  yard  of  water  =  1684.800000  pounds 0.000593485 

=    764.212640  liters 0.000130854 

=    201 .974025  U.  S.  gallons 0.00495113 

=     168. 152150  English  gallons 0.00594700 

=      27.000000  cubic  feet 0.0370370 

.842400  short  tons 1.187085 

=  .764213  metric  ton 1 .308536 

.752143  long  ton 1 .329534 


WATER  AS  A  STANDARD 

1  cubic  meter  of  water  at  4°  C.  =  1  metric  ton 

Reciprocal 

1  cubic  meter  of  water  =  2204.622341  pounds 0.000453592 

=  1000.000000  liters 0.001000000 

=  1000.000000  kilograms 0.001000000 

=    264.170467  U.  S.  gallons 0.00378543 

=    219.933389  English  gallons 0.00454683 

=      35.314455  cubic  feet 0.0283170 

1 .307943  cubic  yards 0.764560 

1.102311  short  tons 0.907185 

1.000000  metric  ton 1.000000 

=    '   0.984206  long  ton 1.0160471 

[17] 


CONVERSION  FACTORS  FOR  WATER 
WATER  AS  A  STANDARD 

Reciprocal 

1  short  ton  of  water  =  2000.000000  pounds 0.0005000 

=    907.184872  liters 0.00110231 

=    907. 184872  kilograms 0.00110231 

=    239.760231  U.  S.  gallons 0.00417083 

=     199.610819  English  gallons 0.00500975 

=      32.051283  cubic  feet 0.031200 

1 . 187085  cubic  yards 0.842400 

0.892858  long  ton 1 . 120000 

0 . 907185  metric  ton .  .  .  1 . 10231 1 


WATER  AS  A  STANDARD 

Reciprocal 

1  long  ton  of  water  =  2240.000000  pounds 0.000446429 

=  1016.047057  liters 0.00098421 

=  1016.047057  kilograms 0.00098421 

=    268.531457  U.  S.  gallons 0.00372396 

=    223.564117  English  gallons 0.00447299 

=      35.897436  cubic  feet 0.0278571 

1 .329535  cubic  yards 0.752143 

1 . 120000  short  tons 0.892858 

1.016047  metric  tons  . .  0.984206 


[18] 


PROPERTIES  OF  METALS 


PHYSICAL  CONSTANTS  OF  METALS 


Metal. 

Symbol. 

Atomic 
Weight. 

Atomic 
Volume. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Specific 
Heat. 

Melt- 
ing 
Point. 
°C. 

Coefficient 
of  Linear 
Expansion. 

Thermal 
Conduc- 
tivity in 
cal.  cm. 
sees. 

Electrical 
Conduc- 
tivity. 
Ag.=100. 

Aluminium     . 

Al 

27'1 

10-6 

2-56 

0-218 

657 

0-0000231 

0-502 

57-3 

Antimony 

Sb 

120-2 

17-9 

6-71 

0-051 

630- 

0-0000105 

0-042 

4-6 

Arsenic   . 

As 

75-0 

13-2 

5-67 

0-081 

450 

0-0000055 

,  . 

47 

Barium    . 

Ba 

137-4 

36-3 

3-78 

0-047 

850 

.  . 

.  . 

13 

Bismuth  . 

Bi 

208-0 

21-2 

9-80 

0-031 

266 

0-0000162 

0-019 

1-3 

Cadmium 

Cd 

112-4 

13-2 

8-60 

0-056 

322 

0-0000306 

0-219 

147 

Caesium   . 

Cs 

132-8 

71-1 

1-87 

0-048 

26 

.. 

37 

Calcium  . 

Ca 

40-1 

25-5 

1-57 

0-170 

780 

.  . 

22-1 

Cerium    . 

Ce 

140-2 

21-0 

6'68 

0-045 

623 

%  . 

•.• 

Chromium 

Cr 

52-0 

7-7 

6-80 

0*120 

1482 

ff 

.. 

Cobalt    . 

Co 

59-0 

6-9 

8*50 

0-103 

1464 

0-00*00123 

.  . 

15-6 

Columbian!     . 

Cb 

93-5 

7'4 

1270 

0-071 

>t 

tm 

Copper    . 

Cu 

63-6 

71 

8-93 

0-093 

1084 

0-0000167 

0-924 

94  :0 

Gallium  . 

Ga 

699 

11-8 

5-90 

0-079 

30 

.  . 

.  . 

(ilucinum 

Gl 

91 

4'7 

1-93 

0-621 

.. 

Gold 

Au 

197-2 

10-2 

19-32 

0-031 

1065 

0-0000144 

0-700 

66-8 

Indium  •. 

In 

114-8 

15-5 

7-42 

0-057 

155 

0-0000417 

,  . 

16-5 

Iridium  . 

Ir 

1931 

8-6 

22-42 

0-033 

1950 

0-0000070 

Iron 

Fe 

55-8 

7-1 

7-8G 

0-110 

1505 

0-0000121 

0-147 

16:2 

Lanthanum    . 

La 

1390 

22-4 

6*20 

0'045 

810 

,  < 

.. 

Lead 

Pb 

2071 

18-2 

11-37 

0-031 

327 

0-0000292 

0-084 

7'2 

Lithium  . 

Li 

6-9 

13-0 

0-54 

0-941 

186 

17-5 

Magnesium     . 

Mg 

24-3 

14-0 

1-74 

0-250 

633 

0-0000269 

0-343 

337 

Manganese     . 

Mn 

64-9 

6-9 

8'  00 

0'120 

1207 

.  . 

.  . 

Mercury  . 

Hg 

200-6 

14-7 

13-59 

0-032 

-39 

0-0000610 

0-020 

1-6 

Molybdenum  . 

Mo 

96-0 

11-2 

8-60 

0-072 

2500 

Nickel     . 

Hi 

58-7 

6-7 

8-80 

0-108 

1427 

0-0000127 

0-141 

21-2 

Osmium 

Os 

1909 

8-5 

22-48 

0-031 

2500 

0-0000065 

15-5 

Palladium 

Pd 

1067 

9-3 

11-50 

0-059 

1535 

0-0000117 

0-168 

145 

Platinum 

Pt 

195-2 

9-1 

21-50 

0-032 

1710 

0-0000089 

0-1G6 

13-4 

Potassium 

K 

39-1 

45-5 

0-86 

0-170 

62 

0-0000841 

.. 

80-8 

Rhodium 

Rh 

102-9 

8-5 

12-10 

0-058 

1660 

0-0000085 

.  . 

Rubidium 

Rb 

85-5 

65-9 

1-53 

0-077 

38 

.. 

.. 

Ruthenium     . 

Ru 

101-7 

8-3 

12-26 

0-061 

1800 

0-0000096 

Silver      •       • 

Ag 

107-9 

10-2 

10-53 

0-056 

961 

0-0000192 

0-993 

lOO'O 

Sodium   . 

Na 

23-0 

23-8 

0'97 

0-290 

95 

0-0000710 

0-365 

37'3 

Stro'ntium 

Sr 

87-6 

34-5 

2-54 

t 

800 

6-7 

Taritalum 

Ta 

181-5 

16-7 

10-80 

0-036 

2910 

0-0000079 

.  . 

8-9 

Tellurium 

Te 

127-5 

20-4 

625 

0-049 

440 

0-0000167 

.  . 

6-8 

Thallium 

Tl 

204-0 

17-2 

11-85 

0-033 

303 

0-0000302 

.. 

8'3 

Thorium 

Th 

232-4 

20-9 

11  10 

0-028 

, 

.  . 

.. 

Tin 

Sn 

119-0 

16-3 

7'2'J 

0-055 

232 

0-0000223 

0-155 

ii-3 

Titanium 

Ti 

48-1 

9-9 

4-87 

0-130 

.. 

Tungsten 

W 

184-0 

9-6 

1910 

0-034 

3100 

.. 

i:7 

Uranium 

u 

238-5 

12-8 

18-70 

0-028 

.  . 

.. 

Vanadium 

V 

510 

9'3 

5-50 

0-125 

1680 

.. 

••  • 

Yttrium  . 

Yt 

89-0 

23-4 

3-80 

.  . 

.. 

tf 

Zinc 

Zn 

65-4 

9-1 

7-15 

0-094 

419 

0-0000291 

0-269. 

25-2 

Zirconium 

Zr 

90-6 

21'8 

4-15 

0*066 

1500 

v 

•• 

[19] 


CHEMICAL  ELEMENTS 


MELTING  POINTS  OF  THE  CHEMICAL  ELEMENTS 

BUREAU  OF  STANDARDS 


Element 

P 

C 

Element 

P 

C 

Helium  
Hydrogen  
Neon 

<-456 
-434 
—423    • 

<-271 

-259 
-253? 

Praseodymium. 
Germanium.  .  . 
SILVER.  . 

1725 
1756 
1761 

940? 
958 
960  5 

Fluorine 

—369 

—  223 

Glucinum.  . 

>AK 

Oxygen. 

-360 

-218 

? 

Nitrogen  

—346 

—  210 

GOLD  

1945.5 

1063.0 

Argon 

—306 

—  188 

COPPER 

1981  5 

1083  0 

Krypton  

—  272 

—  169 

Manganese.    . 

2237 

1225 

Xenon 

—  220 

—  140 

Yttrium 

? 

Chlorine 

—  150  5 

—  101  5 

|      2370- 

Samarium.   .  .  . 

1  1300-1400 

MERCURY  .  .  . 
Bromine 

-  37.7 
+  18  9 

—  38.7 
—     7  3 

Scandium 

(     2550 

? 

Caesium.  . 

79 

26 

Silicon  

2588 

1420 

Gallium  

86 

30 

NICKEL  

2646 

1452 

Rubidium. 

100 

38 

Cobalt 

2714 

1490 

Phosphorus.  .  .  . 
Potassium  

111.4 
144 

44 
62.3 

Chromium.  .  .  . 
IRON  

2750 

2768 

1510 
1520 

Sodium  

207  5 

97  5 

PALLADIUM. 

2820 

1549 

Iodine. 

236  5 

113  5 

Zirconium 

3100 

1700? 

fSi     235.0 

112.8 

Thorium. 

f  >3090 

>1700 

Sulphur  

j  Sn    246  .  6 
[Sui  244  2 

119.2 

106  8 

Vanadium 

{     <Pt. 
3150 

<Pt. 
1730? 

Indium  

311 

155 

PLATINUM   . 

3191 

1755 

Lithium 

367 

186 

Beryllium 

>3270 

>  1800? 

Selenium  

422-428 

217-220 

Ytterbium. 

? 

TIN  

449.4 

231.9 

Titanium  

3450 

1900? 

Bismuth 

520 

271 

Rhodium 

3525 

1940 

Thallium  
CADMIUM.... 
LEAD  

576 
609.6 
621.1 

302 
320.9 
327  4 

Ruthenium.  .  .  . 
Columbium 
(Niobium)  .  . 

>3550 
4000 

>1950 
2200? 

ZINC 

786  9 

419  4 

(      4000-    ] 

Tellurium.        .  . 

846 

452 

Boron  

4500 

2200-2500 

ANTIMONY... 
Cerium.  . 

1166 
1184 

630.0 
640 

Iridium  
Uranium. 

4170 

2300? 
? 

Magnesium.  .  .  . 
ALUMINIUM 

1204 
1217  7 

651 

658  7 

Molybdenum  .  . 
Osmium 

4500 
4900 

2500? 
2700? 

Calcium       .... 

1490 

810 

Tantalum  

5160 

2850 

Lanthanum  .... 
Strontium. 

1490 

810? 
>Ca<Ba? 

TUNGSTEN.  . 

5430 
[   >6500 

3000 

Neodymium.  .  .  . 
Arsenic 

1544 
1560 

840? 
850? 

Carbon  

for 
!p=  1  At. 

>3600 
forp  =  lAt. 

Barium.  . 

1560 

850 

The  values  of  the  melting  points  used  by  the  Bureau  of  Standards  as  standard  tem- 
peratures for  the  calibration  of  thermometers  and  pyrometers  are  indicated  in  capitals. 
The  other  values  have  been  assigned  after  a  careful  survey  of  all  the  available  data. 

As  nearly  as  may  be,  all  values,  in  particular  the  standard  points,  have  been  reduced 
to  a  common  scale,  the  thermodynamic  scale.  For  high  temperatures,  and  for  use  with 
optical  pyrometers,  this  scale  is  satisfied  very  exactly  by  taking  c2  =  14,500  in  the 
formula  for  Wien's  law  connecting  I,  monochromatic  luminous  intensity  of  wave 
length  A,  and  T,  absolute  temperature:  log  I/I.  =  Ci  A  log  e  (1/T2  — 1/T).  For  all 
purposes,  except  the  most  accurate  investigations,  the  thermodynamic  scale  is  identical 
with  any  of  the  gas  scales. 

[20] 


SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  OF  METALS 
WEIGHT  AND  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  OF  METALS 


Metal 

Specific 
Gravity 

WEIGHT 

Metal 

Specific 
Gravity 

WEIGHT 

Cu. 
In. 

Cu. 

Ft. 

Cu. 
In. 

Cu. 
Ft. 

Aluminum  
Antimony  

2.  56  to    2.80 
6.  70  to    6.72 
3.  75  to    4.00 
9.  70  to    9.90 
8.  54  to    8.67 

1.88  to    1.90 
1.58 
6.  62  to    6.72 
6.  52  to    6.73 
8.  50  to    9.10 

7.10to    7.40 
8.  80  to    8.95 
6.54 
5.93 
5.46 

1.86  to    2.06 
19.  26  to  19.  34 
7.  27  to    7.42 
21.  78  to  22.  42 
7.21 

7.77 
7.8   to    7.9 
6.  05  to    6.16 
11.  34  to  11.36 

.097 
.242 
.140 
.354 
.311 

.068 
.057 
.241 
.239 
.318 

.262 
.321 
.236 
.214 
.197 

.071 
.697 
.266 
.798 
.260 

.280 
.284 
.220 
.410 

167 

418 
242 
612 
537 

118 
99 
416 
414 
549 

452 
554 
408 
370 
341 

122 
1,204 
459 
1,379 
450 

485 
490 
381 
708 

Lithium  
Magnesium  .... 
Manganese  .... 
Mercury  

0.59 
1.69  to    1.75 
6.  86  to    8.03 
13.596 
8.  40  to    8.60 

8.9    to    9.2 
21.  40  to  22.  40 
11.0   to  12.0 
21.  20  to  21.  70 
0.85  to    0.88 

11.  00  to  12.  10 
11.  00  to  11.40 
10.  40  to  10.57 
0.97  to    0.99 
2.50to    2.58 

11.8    to  11.  9 
7.  29  to    7.30 
5.30 
9.4   to  10.1 
19.12 

18.  33  to  18.65 
7.04to    7.16 
7.19 
4.14 

.021 
.062 
.269 
.491 
.307 

.327 
.791 
.416 

.774 
.031 

.417 
.405 

.378 
.035 
.091 

.428 
.263 
.192 
.352 
.690 

.668 
.256 
.260 
.149 

37 
107 
465 
848 
530 

565 
1,366 
718 
1,338 
54 

721 

699 
654 
61 
158 

739 
455 
331 
608 
1,193 

1,154 
443 
449 
258 

Barium 

Bismuth  

C  admium 

Molybdenum.  .  . 
Nickel      

CsBsium 

Calcium 

Osmium  

C6rium 

PaUadium  

Chromium 

Platinum    .    . 

Cobalt  

Potassium  
Rhodium 

Columbium 

Copper 

Ruthenium.  .  .  . 
Silver  

Didymium  
Gallium  

Sodium  
Strontium  

Germanium 

Glucinium 

Thallium 

Gold 

Tin    .      ... 

Indium  
Iridium 

Titanium  
Thorium 

Iron  cast 

Tungsten  ...... 
Uranium  

Iron,  wrought.  .  . 
Iron  (steel)  
Lanthanum  
Lead  

Zinc,  cast 

Zinc,  wrought  .  . 
Zirconium  

WEIGHT  AND  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  OF  VARIOUS  SUBSTANCES 


Substance 

Specific 
Gravity 

WEIGHT 

Substance 

Specific 
Gravity 

WEIGHT 

Cu. 
In. 

Cu. 
Ft. 

Cu. 
In. 

Cu. 
Ft. 

Alabaster  

2.76 

1.72 
1.31 
4.50 
2.90 

2.55 
2.20 
1.75 
1.90 
2.51 

.100 
.062 
.042 
.163 
.105 

.092 
.079 
.063 
.069 
.091 

172 

107 
82 
281 
181 

159 
137 
109 
119 
157 

Clay 

1.92 
2.26 
1.60 
2.10 
4.20 

2.90 
1.60 
1.40 
1.90 
2.55 

.069 
.082 
.058 
.076 
.152 

.105 
.058 
.050 
.069 
.092 

120 
141 
100 
131 
262 

181 
100 
87 
119 
159 

Alum   .  . 

Concrete,  stone  
Concrete,  cinder.  .  . 
Concrete,  slag  
Copper  ore 

Asphaltum  

Barytes 

Basalt  

Bauxite  . 

Dolomite  
Earth,  argillaceous. 
Earth,  light  vege  .  . 
Earth,  potters'  .... 
Feldspar 

Bluestone  

Borax 

Brick.  .  .  . 

Chalk,  air-dried  

[21 


SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  OF  MINERALS 
WEIGHT  AND  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  OF  VARIOUS  SUBSTANCES — (Con/.) 


Substance 

Specific 
Gravity 

WEIGHT 

Substance 

Specific 
Gravity 

WEIGHT 

Cu. 
In. 

Cu. 
Ft. 

Cu. 
In. 

Cu. 

Ft. 

Flint  . 

2.63 
2.50 
2.60 
2.66 
2.93 

2.20 

.095 
.090 
.094 
.096 
.106 

.079 
.056 
.064 
.108 
.072 

.108 
.032 
.187 
.137 
.184 

.100 
.082 
.269 
.100 
.097 

.103 
.095 
.150 
.108 
.097 

.063 
.100 
.060 
.059 
.032 

.027 
.017 

164 
156 
162 
166 
183 

137 
95 
110 
187 
125 

187 
56 
324 
237 
318 

172 
141 
465 
172 
168 

178 
165 
259 
187 
168 

109 
172 
103 
102 
56 

47 
29 

Phosphate  rock.  .  .  . 
Phosphorus 

3.20 
1.80 
1.09 
2.31 
2.75 

1.38 
2.90 
2.18 
.64 
2.66 

2.65 
1.92 
2.30 

2.30 
2.30 
2.80 
2.60 

2.80 
2.73 

.116 

.065 
.039 
.083 
.100 

.050 
.105 
.079 
.023 
.096 

.095 
.069 
.083 
.057 
.064 

.068 
.083 
.083 
.101 
.094 

.101 
.098 

200 
112 
68 
144 
172 

86 
181 
136 
40 
166 

165 
120 
144 
98 
110 

118 
144 
144 
175 
162 

175 
170 
10 
50 

168 

125 
168 
75 
119 
418 

170 
253 

Glass,  common  .  .  

Glass,  flint  

Pitch 

Granite,  gneiss  

Porcelain 

Granite,  gray  

Porphyry 

Graphite  

Portland  cmt.,  loose 
Portland  cmt.,  set  . 
Potash  

Gravel,  loose  

Gravel,  packed  
Greenstone  

s'oo 

2.00 

3.00 
.90 
5.20 
3.80 
5.09 

2.75 
2.26 
7.45 
2.75 

2.69 

2.86 
2.65 
4.15 
3.00 
2.70 

1.75 
2.75 
1.65 
1.63 

.89 

.76 
.46 

Pumice 

Gypsum  

Quartz 

Hornblende  

Rock  crystal 

Ice  melting 

Salt,  common  solid 
Salt  rock 

Iron  ore,  hematite 

Iron  ore,  limonite  
Iron  ore,  maepietic  

Sand,  dry,  loose.  .  . 
Sand,  packed  

Sand,  wet  
Sandstone 

Iron  slag  

Lava.  . 

Lead  ore  

Schist,  rough  
Schist,  slate.    . 

Lime,  loose  

Limestone  carboniferous 

Limestone,  magnesian  .  . 
Limestone,  marble  .  .  . 

Serpentine  

Shale,  slate  

Slate 

Manganese  ore  

Snow,  loose  .    . 

Magnesite  

Snow,  compact  .... 
Soapstone,  talc.  .  .  . 

Sulphur  
Talc,  steatite  
Tar,  bituminous  .  .  . 
Tile           .    .    . 

2.70 

2.00 
2.70 
1.20 
1.90 
6.70 

2.72 
4.05 

!097 

.072 
.097 
.043 
.069 
.242 

.098 
.146 

Marble  

Marl  

Mica 

Mortar  

Mud  

Paraffine      .  . 

Tin  ore 

Peat,  dense  

Trap 

Peat,  fibrous  

Zinc  ore  

WEIGHT  AND  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  OF  AMERICAN  COALS 

Specific 
Gravity 

Pounds 
Cubic  Foot 

Anthracite,  Lehigh  Co.,  Pa  

1.57 
1.36 
1.40 

1.41 

98 

85 

87 
88 

Anthracite,  Carbon  Co    Pa 

Semi-  Anthracite,  Wilkesbarre,  Pa  

Semi-Bituminous  Cumberland  Md 

[22] 


SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  OF  COALS  AND  WOOD 


WEIGHT  AND  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  OF  AMERICAN  COALS — (Cont.) 


Specilc 
Gravity 

Pounds 
Cubic  Foot 

Semi-Bituminous,  Blossburg,  Pa  

.32 

82 

Bituminous  Pennsylvania 

35 

84 

Block  Coal   Indiana                              

29 

80 

Brown  Coal  Kentucky      

.17 

73 

Caking  Coal  short  flame 

33 

83 

Caking  Coal  long  flame                .        

.30 

81 

Caking  Coal  gas        

.29 

80 

Cannel  Coal  Indiana 

1  23 

77 

Coke  Connellsville.                    

1.28 

80 

Coke,  loose  per  cubic  foot  

50 

Lignite  Kentucky              ^ 

1  20 

75 

Lignite  Texas                                 .        

1.23 

77 

Lignite,  Colorado  

1.28 

80 

Peat  light  fibrous                                                                     .  . 

20 

Peat  dense        .                      .          .      .        

41 

Peat,  comoressed.  hard  .  . 

75 

WEIGHT  AND  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  OF  VARIOUS  KINDS  OF  WOOD 


Wood 

Specific 
Gravity 

WEIGHT 

Wood 

Specific 
Gravity 

WEIGHT 

Cubic 
Inch 

Cubic 
Foot 

Cubic 
Inch 

Cubic 
Foot 

Apple  
Ash    

.75 
.74 
.46 
.80 
.64 

.38 
.51 
.78 
.66 
.24 

.48 
1.21 
.58 
.54 
.83 

.51 
.99 
.53 
.75 

.53 
1.25 
.46 
.71 

.027 
.027 
.017 
.029 
.023 

.014 
.019 
.028 
.024 
.009 

.017 
.044 
.021 
.020 
.030 

.019 
.036 
.019 
.027 

.019 
.045 
.017 
.025 

47 
46 
29 
50 
40 

24 
32 
49 
41 
15 

30 
76 
36 
34 
52 

32 
62 
33 

47 

33 

78 
29 
44 

Mahogany,  Hond. 
Mahogany,  Spa.  . 
Maple 

.56 

.85 
.69 
.64 
.95 

.74 
.62 
.75 
.61 
.54 

.83 
.48 
.42 

.48 

.48 

.42 
.51 
.50 

.72 

.77 
.98 
.67 
.50 

.020 
.031 
.025 
.023 
.034 

.027 
.023 
.027 
.022 
.020 

.030 
.017 
.015 
.017 
.017 

.015 
.019 
.018 
.026 

.028 
.035    . 
.024 
.018 

35 

53 
43 
40 
59 

46 
39 
47 
38 
34 

52 
30 
26 
30 
30 

26 
32 
31 
45 

48 
61 
42 
31 

Basswood 

Beech.. 

Oak,  red  

Birch  

Oak,  live  

Butternut 

Oak,  white       .    . 

Cedar  

Pine,  loblolly  
Pine,  long  leaf  .  .  . 
Pine,  Norway.  .  .  . 
Pine,  Oregon  .... 

Pine,  pitch  

Cherry  

Chestnut 

Cork  

Cvoress  . 

Ebony  
Elm.  .  .  

Pine,  red  

Pine,  white  
Pine,  yellow  
Poplar 

Fir,  Douglas.  .  . 
Gum,  blue.  .  .  r  . 

Gum,  red  

Redwood,  Cal.  .  . 
Spruce 

Gum,  water.  .  .  . 
Hemlock  
Hickory 

Sycamore  

Tamarack 

Larch  .    . 

Teak,  Indian  .... 
Teak,  African.  .  .  . 
Walnut 

Lignum  vitae.  .  . 
Linden 

Locust  

Willow  

NOTE.    Weights  are  approximate  only.    Green  timber  may  have  as  much  as  50%  moisture.    Well- 
seasoned,  air-dried  timber  may  have  15  to  20%  moisture. 

[23] 


SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  OF  LIQUIDS  AND  GASES 
WEIGHT  AND  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  OF  VARIOUS  LIQUIDS 


Liquid 

I?: 

WEIGHT 

Liquid 

Gpr; 

WEIGHT 

U.S. 
Gal. 

Cu. 
In. 

Cu. 
Ft. 

U.S. 
Gal. 

Cu. 
In. 

Cu. 
Ft. 

Acetone 

0.792 
1.207 
1.519 
1.800 
.811 

.802 
.793 
.792 
.830 
.808 

.899 
3.187 
.960 
1.293 
1.480 

.736 
1.260 
.840 
.665 

1.495 
1.600 
.996 

6.55 
10.03 
12.70 
14.97 
6.82 

6.68 
6.55 
6.55 
6.95 
6.68 

7.49 
26.60 
8.02 
10.88 
12.30 

6.15 
10.56 
6.95 
5.48 

12.43 
13.37 
8.34 

.028 
.043 
.055 
.065 
.030 

.029 
.028 
.028 
.030 
.029 

.032 
.115 
.035 
.047 
.053 

.027 
.046 
.030 
.024 

.054 
.058 
.036 

49 
75 
95 
112 
51 

50 
49 
49 
52 
50 

56 
199 
60 
81 
92 

46 
79 
52 
41 

93 
100 
62 

Oil,  castor  
Oil,  cocoanut  .... 

.969 
.925 
.926 
1.070 
.920 

.942 
.913 
918 

8.02 
7.75 

7.75 
8.96 
7.62 

7.89 
7.62 
7.62 
7.49 
7.09 

7.75 
7.62 
8.02 
7.62 
7.22 

7.35 

6.68 
6.68 
8.56 

10.16 
7.22 
8.34 

.035 
.034 
.034 
.039 
.033 

.034 
.033 
.033 
.032 
.031 

.034 
.033 
.035 
.033 
.031 

.032 
.029 
.029 
.037 

.044 
.031 
.036 

60 
58 
58 
67 
57 

59 
57 
57 
56 
53 

58 
57 
60 
57 
54 

55 
50 
50 
64.3 

76 
54 
62.4 

Acid,  hydrochloric  .  .  . 
Acid,  nitric  

Oil,  cottonseed  
Oil,  creosote  
Oil,  lard 

Acid,  sulphuric  
Alcohol,  amyl  

Alcohol,  butyl  

Oil,  linseed  
Oil,  mineral  (lub.).. 
Oil  olive 

Alcohol,  ethyl 

Alcohol,  methyl.  .  . 

Alcohol,  octyl 

Oil,  palm  
Oil  pine 

.905 
.855 

.924 
.914 
.955 
.920 
.873 

.878 
.800 
.800 
1.025 

1.210 

.858 
1.000 

Alcohol,  propyl.  . 

Benzine   .  . 

Oil,  poppy  
Oil  rapeseed 

Bromine  

Carbolic  acid  

Oil,  resin  
Oil,  whale  

Carbon  disulphide.  .  . 
Chloroform  

Oil,  turpentine 

Ether  

Oil,  petroleum  
Oil,  petr.  (light)  .  .  . 
Pyroligneous  acid.  . 
Sea  water 

Glycerine  

Naphtha  (wood)  
'Naphtha  (petroleum). 

Nitroglycol  . 

Soda  lye 

Nitroglycerin  

Toluene  
\Vater  pure 

Oil,  anise-seed 

WEIGHT  AND  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  OF  VARIOUS  GASES 


Gases 

I?: 

WEIGHT 

Gases 

1?: 

WEIGHT 

Cu. 
Ft. 

Cu.  Ft. 
perLb. 

Cu. 
Ft. 

Cu.  Ft. 
per  Lb. 

Ah-  (32°  F.)  
Acetylene  C2H2 

1.000 
.898 
.592 
1.529 
.967 
2.422 
.967 
.400 

.0807 
.0724 
.0478 
.1234 
.0780 
.1955 
.0780 
.0323 

12.387 
13.812 
20.921 
8.104 
12.821 
5.115 
12.821 
30.960 

Gas  natural  

.475 
.069 
.559 
.971 
1.039 
1.527 
1.106 
2.247 

.0383 
:0056 
.0451 
.0784 
.0838 
.1232 
.0893 
.1813 

26.110 
178.571 
22.173 
12.755 
11.933 
8.117 
11.198 
5.516 

H  y  drogen 

Ammonia,  NHa 

Marsh  gas,  CH 

Carbon  dioxide,  CO2  .  . 
Carbon  monoxide,  CO. 
Chlorine,  C12O  

Nitrogen  

Nitric  oxide,  NO  
Nitrous  oxide,  N2O.  .  . 
Oxygen 

Ethylene,  C2H4   .  .  . 

Gas,  illuminating  

Sulphur  dioxide,  SO2  . 

[24] 


HORSEPOWER  AS  A  UNIT  OF  POWER 

HORSEPOWER 

BUREAU  OF  STANDARDS 

James  Watt,  the  inventor  of  the  modern  steam  engine,  adopted  the  term  "horse- 
power" as  a  unit  for  expressing  the  power  of  his  steam  engines,  and  defined  its  value  in 
gravitational  units,  viz.,  foot-pounds  per  minute.  The  value  was  derived  from  experi- 
ments made  about  the  year  1775. 

Some  heavy  horses  of  Barclay  &  Perkins's  brewery,  London,  were  caused  to  raise 
a  weight  from  the  bottom  of  a  deep  well  by  pulling  horizontally  on  a  rope  passing  over 
a  pulley.  It  was  found  that  a  horse  could  raise  a  weight  of  100  pounds  while  walking 
at  the  rate  of  2.5  miles  per  hour.  This  is  equivalent  to  22,000  foot-pounds  per  minute. 
Watt  added  50  per  cent  to  this  value,  giving  33,000  foot-pounds  per  minute,  or  550 
foot-pounds  per  second.  The  addition  of  50  per  cent  was  an  allowance  made  for  friction, 
so  that  a  purchaser  of  one  of  his  engines  might  have  no  ground  for  complaint.  The 
figure  thus  arrived  at  by  Watt  is  admitted  to  be  in  excess  of  the  power  of  an  average 
horse  for  continuous  work,  and  is  probably  at  least  twice  the  power  of  the  average  horse 
working  six  hours  per  day. 

Since  the  time  of  Watt,  his  value  has  been  in  general  use  in  England  and  the  United 
States,  and  550  foot-pounds  per  second  is  known  as  the  English  horsepower. 

The  Pound  as  a  Unit  of  Force  has  generally  been  used  as  a  "gravitational"  unit, 
the  characteristic  of  the  gravitational  units  being  that  their  magnitudes  vary  with 
locality  as  g  varies.  Thus,  a  pound  force  is  equal  to  the  force  of  gravity  on  a  pound 
mass  at  any  place  where  measurements  happen  to  be  made.  The  one  advantage  of 
the  gravitational  system  is  that  a  given  mass  exerts  the  same  number  of  pounds  of 
force  no  matter  what  its  location.  But  by  this  mode  of  definition  the  magnitude  of  the 
pound  force  is  not  constant,  as  it  varies  with  g.  A  few  writers,  on  the  other  hand,  have 
defined  the  pound  force  as  a  fixed  unit,  taking  it  as  equal  to  the  force  of  gravity  on  a 
pound  mass  at  some  one  particular  place — e.  g.,  Paris,  or  45°  latitude  and  sea  level — thus 
destroying  the  gravitational  character  of  the  unit. 

The  unit  of  force  can  be  made  definite  and  fixed,  however,  without  abolishing  the 
gravitational  system.  This  is  done  by  recognizing  the  difference  between  the  absolute 
and  the  gravitational  pound  by  the  use  of  the  terms  "standard"  and  "local,"  re- 
spectively. The  principle  involved  is  that  contained  in  the  definition  of  "standard 
weight"  by  the  International  Conference  on  Weights  and  Measures  in  1901.  The 
statement  by  the  conference  is  given  herewith: 

The  term  weight  designates  a  quantity  of  the  same  nature  as  a  force;  the  weight 
of  a  body  is  the  product  of  the  mass  of  that  body,  by  the  acceleration  of  gravity;  in 
particular,  the  standard  weight  of  a  body  is  the  product  of  the  mass  of  that  body  by 
the  standard  acceleration  of  gravity. 

The  number  adopted  in  the  International  Service  of  Weights  and  Measures  for  the 
value  of  the  standard  acceleration  of  gravity  is  980.665  centimeters  per  second  (Proces- 
Verbaux  des  Seances,  Comite  International  des  Poids  et  Mesures,  p.  172,  1901). 

By  analogy  with  "standard  weight,"  the  "standard  pound  force"  may  be  defined 
as  equal  to  the  force  of  gravity  on  a  pound  mass  at  a  place  where  g  has  the  standard 
value,  980.665  centimeters  per  second  per  second  or  32.1740  feet  per  second  per  second. 
Likewise  the  "local  pound  force"  in  any  given  locality  may  be  defined  as  equal  to  the 
force  of  gravity  on  a  pound  mass  in  that  given  locality. 

The  Standard  Value  of  g,  980.665  centimeters  per  second  per  second,  was  originally 
intended  to  represent  the  latitude  of  45°  and  sea  level.  It  has  been  widely  used  as  a 
standard  value  for  barometric  reductions,  etc.,  since  1901,  and  there  is  no  reason  why 
it  should  not  continue  in  use  as  a  standard  value,  although  the  accepted  theoretical 
value  for  45°  and  sea  level  is  now  a  few  parts  in  100,000  different.  The  value,  980.665, 
is  the  result  of  a  calculation  made  by  the  International  Committee  on  Weights  and 
Measures  (Proces-Verbaux  des  Seances,  p.  165,  1901)  from  Defforges'  absolute  deter- 
mination (Ibid.,  p.  181,  1891;  Memorial  du  Depdt  General  de  la  Guerre  15,  (1),  1894) 
of  g  at  the  International  Bureau  in  1888. 

In  calculating  the  equivalent  of  the  horsepower  in  various  units  for  different  latitudes, 
the  following  formula  is  used:  g  =  978.038  (1  +  0.005302  sin2  ?  —  0.000007  sin2  2^), 

[25] 


ENGLISH  AND  AMERICAN  HORSEPOWER 

where  ^  is  the  latitude.  This  formula  is  accepted  by  the  United  States  Coast  and 
Geodetic  Survey,  and  is  the  result  of  observations  all  over  the  United  States  with 
Hayford's  corrections  for  "isostatic  compensation."  It  is  referred  to  the  absolute 
determination  of  g  at  Potsdam  about  1900. 

TABLE  1 

VARIOUS  VALUES  ADOPTED  FOB  THE  HORSEPOWER 
[Foot-pounds  given  in  terms  of  the  local  foot  and  pound] 


Foot- 
Pounds  per 
Second 

English 
Horse- 
power 

Kilogram- 
meters  per 
Second 

Authority* 

England  and  United  States  

550 

1   0000 

76  041 

v 

Austria  (old)  . 

430 

1   0010 

76  119 

H 

Switzerland  

500 

0  9863 

75  000 

A 

Sweden  . 

600 

0  9856 

74  943 

N 

Russia  

550 

1  0000 

76  041 

N 

Prussia  .  . 

480 

0  9906 

75  325 

H 

Saxony  

530 

0  9869 

75  045 

H 

Baden 

500 

0  9863 

75  000 

jj 

Wurtemburg. 

525 

0  9890 

75  204 

H 

Bavaria  

460 

0  9888 

75  190 

K 

Modern  Germany 

Austria  

0  9863 

75  000 

v 

France 

Italy,  etc  

*V=various.  H=Des  Ingenieurs  Taschenbuch-HUtte  II  (Berlin,  1902).  A=F.  Autenheimer, 
Mechanische  Arbeit  (Stuttgart,  1871),  p.  15.  N  =J.  W.  Nystrom,  Elements  of  Mechanics  (Philadelphia, 
1875),  p.  63.  K=Karnarsch  und  Heeren's  Technisches  Worterbuch  VI  (1883),  p.  637;  and  Alexander's 
Weights  and  Measures  (Baltimore,  1850). 

After  the  metric  system  had  come  into  use  in  France,  Germany  and  Austria  the 
values  of  the  horsepower  in  the  various  countries  were  reduced  to  kilogrammeters  per 
second,  with  the  results  shown  in  the  table.  The  values  range  from  75  to  76  kilogram- 
meters  per  second,  averaging  only  a  little  more  than  75.  Hence,  this  round  value,  75, 
has  been  adopted  generally  on  the  Continent  as  the  value  of  the  horsepower. 

The  English  value,  550  foot-pounds  per  second,  is,  however,  equivalent  to  76.041 
kilogrammeters  per  second,  and  hence  it  is  that  there  is  a  difference  of  nearly  1.5  per 
cent  between  the  value  generally  used  in  English  and  American  practice  and  that  used 
in  continental  practice.  Reduced  to  watts,  the  English  horsepower  is  generally  taken 
as  746  watts,  although  the  precise  equivalent,  in  watts,  of  550  foot-pounds  per  second 
depends  on  the  acceleration  of  gravity,  and  hence  on  the  latitude  and  altitude. 

TABLE  2 

VALUE  OF  THE  ENGLISH  AND  AMERICAN  HORSEPOWER  (746  WATTS)  IN  LOCAL  FOOT- 
POUNDS PER  SECOND  AT  VARIOUS  LATITUDES  AND  ALTITUDES 


LATITUDE 


Altitude 

0° 

(Equator) 

30° 

45° 

60° 

90° 
(Pole) 

Sea  level  

551  70 

550.97 

550.24 

549.52 

548.79 

5000  feet 

551  86 

551  13 

550  41 

549.68 

548.95 

10,000  feet  

552.03 

551.30 

550.57 

549.85 

549.12 

AV/j  \J\J\J     IV/dJ  ....* •  /•  J—  .  \J*J  *J*J  J.  .  *J\J  W\J  .  *J  I  f_^JCcf   -  <-«-*  U^fiS  .     I  *- 

The  foregoing  table  may  be  put  in  the  following  approximate  form  for  ease  of 
remembering. 

[26] 


CONTINENTAL  HORSEPOWER 


TABLE  3 
ENGLISH  AND  AMERICAN  HORSEPOWER  (746  WATTS)  AT  VARIOUS  LATITUDES 


Latitude 

Local  Foot- 
Pounds  per 
Second 
(Approx.) 

90°  pole                                                       

549 

50°  London                            

550 

(39°  W^ashington)                '                                                  .        

(550.5) 

30°  New  Orleans                                              

551 

0°,  equator                      .        

552 

The  value  of  the  English  horsepower  may  also  be  given  in  metric  units  for  various 
latitudes  and  altitudes,  as  follows: 

TABLE  4 
VALUE  OF  THE  ENGLISH  AND  AMERICAN  HORSEPOWER  (746  WATTS)  IN  LOCAL  KILO- 

GRAMMETERS   PER  SECOND    AT  VARIOUS   LATITUDES   AND   ALTITUDES 


LATITUDE 

0° 
Equator 

30° 

45° 

60° 

90° 
(Pole) 

Sea  level                      

76  .  275 

76  .  175 

76.074 

75.973 

75.873 

1500  meters   (=    5000  feet 
approximately)  

76  .  297 

76  .  197 

76  .  096 

75.995 

75.895 

3000  meters  (=  10,000  feet 
approximately)  

76.320 

76  .  220 

76.119 

76  .  018 

75.918 

By  interpolation  one  can  take  out  of  these  tables  the  proper  value  of  the  horse- 
power in  gravitation  measure  (either  foot-pounds  or  kilogrammeters  per  second)  for 
any  latitude  and  altitude. 

Continental  Horsepower. — It  is  unfortunate  that  the  value  of  the  horsepower  on 
the  Continent  of  Europe  was  not  taken  as  76  kilogrammeters  per  second  instead  of 
75,  in  order  that  it  might  agree  with  the  English  value,  as  was  originally  intended.  It 
is  perhaps  unlikely  that  a  change  of  76  could  now  be  made,  or  that  an  agreement  could 
be  reached  by  which  the  continental  and  the  English  horsepower  would  correspond 
to  the  same  number  of  watts.  It  is  to  some  extent  customary  for  continental  writers 
to  distinguish  the  two  horsepowers  by  the  words  "English"  and  "metric."  The  Bureau 
calls  the  latter  the  "continental  horsepower." 

German  writers  speak  of  the  "Englische  Pf  erdestarke  "  and  the  "metrische  Pf  er- 
destarke." The  term  "  Pf  erdestarke  "  is  now  the  preferred  name  for  the  horsepower  in 
Germany,  the  old  term  " Pf erdekraf t "  being  unsuitable  because  "Kraft"  means  "force." 

In  France,  the  old  term  "  f orce-de-cheval "  has  been  given  up  for  "  cheval-vapeur." 

Poncelet. — There  is  another  unit  of  power  which  has  been  used  in  Europe,  the 
"poncelet,"  or  100  kilogrammeters  per  second.  This  unit  was  named  in  honor  of  Jean 
Victor  Poncelet,  who  introduced  the  teaching  of  kinematics  at  the  Sorbonne  in  1838. 
This  unit  was  adopted  in  France  shortly  before  1846.  It  was  adopted  as  a  unit  of  power 
in  1889  by  the  "Congres  international  de  m£canique  appliquee."  Its  use  is  still  per- 
mitted in  the  electrical  regulations  issued  by  the  "Association  alsacienne  des  Pro- 
prie"taires  d'Appareils  a  Vapeur."  It  has  not,  however,  been  much  used  in  practice. 
This  is  probably  due  in  part  to  the  fact  that  the  horsepower  had  so  firm  a  hold  as  the 
unit  of  power,  and  in  part  to  the  very  near  equivalence  of  the  poncelet  to  the  kilowatt. 
The  poncelet  is  open  to  the  same  objection  as  the  horsepower  when  the  latter  is  rigidly 
defined  as  a  certain  number  of  foot-pounds  or  kilogrammeters  per  second,  viz.,  that 
the  power  it  represents  varies  from  place  to  place. 

[27] 


HORSEPOWER  AN  UNSUITABLE  UNIT 


Equivalents  of  the  Continental  Horsepower. — The  continental  horsepower  is  generally 
given  either  as  75  kilogrammeters  per  second  or  as  736  watts.  These  two  equivalents 
are  independent  definitions  and  are  likely  to  cause  confusion  unless  one  of  them  is 
assigned  to  some  definite  place  on  the  earth's  surface.  The  unit,  to  be  definite,  should 
represent  the  same  rate  of  work  at  all  places.  The  continental  horsepower,  then,  should 
be  taken  as  736  watts,  which  is  equivalent  to  75  local  kilogrammeters  per  second  at 
latitude  52°  30',  or  Berlin.  The  number  of  kilogrammeters  per  second  expressing  this 
amount  of  power  will  be  smaller  than  75  at  more  northern  latitudes  and  larger  at  lower 
latitudes.  The  values  at  various  latitudes  at  sea  level  are  given  in  Table  5 : 

TABLE  5 
CONTINENTAL  HORSEPOWER  (736  WATTS)  IN  LOCAL  KILOGRAMMETERS  PER  SECOND 


LATITUDE 

Altitude 

0° 
Equator 

30° 

45° 

60° 

90° 
(Pole) 

Sea  level                          .  .    . 

75   253 

75  153 

75  054 

74  955 

74  856 

1500  meters  
3000  meters 

75.275 
75  297 

75.175 
75  197 

75.076 
75  098 

74.977 
74  999 

74.878 
74  900 

Horsepower  an  Unsuitable  Unit. — On  account  of  the  variation  with  g,  and  because 
the  equivalents  of  the  horsepower  are  not  decimal  multiples  of  any  of  the  fundamental 
units,  and,  further,  because  its  definition  and  value  are  different  on  the  Continent  of 
Europe  from  its  definition  and  value  in  England  and  America,  it  has  long  been  felt  that 
the  horsepower  is  an  unsuitable  unit  for  many  purposes.  Modern  engineering  practice 
is  constantly  tending  away  from  the  horsepower  and  toward  the  watt  and  kilowatt. 
In  Germany,  it  has  been  proposed  to  call  the  kilowatt  "Neupferd"  (new  horsepower), 
to  make  its  use  appeal  more  strongly  to  those  who  have  become  firmly  attached  to  the 
horsepower.  The  objection  to  the  horsepower  has  been  particularly  strong  in  electrical 
engineering.  The  International  Congress  of  Electricians  at  Paris,  in  1889,  recommended 
that  the  power  of  machines  be  expressed  in  kilowatts  instead  of  in  horsepower.  A  more 
definite  and  powerful  action  with  a  view  to  the  elimination  of  the  horsepower  was  taken  by 
the  International  Electro-technical  Commission  at  Turin,  Italy,  in  1911.  This  body,  com- 
posed of  the  representatives  of  great  electrical  interests  all  over  the  world,  recommended 
that  in  all  countries  electrical  machinery,  including  motors,  be  rated  in  kilowatts  only. 

Kilowatt  as  the  Unit  of  Power. — It  is  considered  desirable  that  the  watt  and  kilo- 
watt be  used  as  the  units  of  power,  whenever  possible,  for  all  kinds  of  scientific,  en- 
gineering, and  other  work.  It  is  not  unlikely  that  the  unit  of  horsepower  will  ultimately 
go  out  of  use.  In  the  meantime,  however,  it  is  desirable  that  its  definition  be  uniform. 
If  the  horsepower  is  to  represent  the  same  amount  of  power  at  different  places,  its  relation 
to  the  watt  must  be  a  constant  number,  and  the  number  of  local  foot-pounds  or  kilogram- 
meters  per  second  which  it  represents  must  vary  from  place  to  place.  Table  2  and  others 
of  this  circular  show  clearly  this  variation  with  locality. 

It  might  be  feared  that  some  confusion  could  arise  because  of  the  independent 
definitions  of  the  mechanical  watt  and  the  "international"  electrical  watt.  The  watt 
and  kilowatt  are  defined  primarily  in  purely  mechanical  terms,  and  not  electrically  at 
all.  That  they  have  been  used  mainly  in  electrotechnical  work  is  merely  accidental,  and 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  they  are  metric  units  and  so  fit  in  naturally  with  the  metric  units 
in  which  all  electrical  quantities  are  universally  expressed.  Any  kind  of  power  may 
properly  be  measured  in  kilowatts.  For  example,  in  the  case  of  the  hydraulic  power 
furnished  by  a  flowing  stream,  the  power  is  given  in  kilowatts  by  multiplying  0.163 
into  the  product  of  the  head  in  meters  by  the  flow  in  cubic  meters  per  minute;  the  power 
is  likewise  given  in  kilowatts  by  multiplying  0.000188  into  the  product  of  the  head 
in  feet  by  the  flow  in  gallons  per  minute.  The  watt  is  defined  directly  in  terms  of  the 
fundamental -units  of  mass,  length,  and  time,  in  the  "meter-kilogram-second"  system, 
thus:  "The  watt  is  the  power  developed  by  the  action,  with  a  velocity  of  1  meter  per 
second,  of  a  force  capable  of  giving  to  a  mass  of  1  kilogram  in  one  second  a  velocity 

[28] 


KILOWATT  AS  THE  UNIT  OF  POWER 


of  1  meter  per  second."  The  "international  watt,"  however,  is  defined  in  terms  of 
concrete  electrical  standards,  which  electrical  standards  represent  practically,  as  nearly 
as  the  limitations  of  experiment  allow,  the  absolute  electrical  quantities  in  terms  of 
their  theoretical  relations  to  length,  mass,  and  time.  The  international  watt  thus 
defined  is  the  closest  concrete  realization  of  the  theoretical  absolute  or  mechanical  watt 
which  we  have.  We  cannot  at  the  present  time  say  whether  the  international  watt 
is  greater  or  less  than  the  absolute  or  mechanical  watt,  but  the  difference  is  probably 
not  greater  than  a  few  parts  in  10,000.  Consequently,  there  is  in  reality  no  confusion 
between  the  mechanical  watt  and  the  international  electrical  watt. 

It  is  recommended  that  engineering  societies  and  other  interests  concerned  recognize 
the  value  of  the  "English  and  American  horsepower"  as  746  watts  (or  550  foot-pounds 
per  second  at  50°  latitude  and  sea  level,  approximately  the  latitude  of  London),  em- 
ploying Table  2  to  obtain  the  value  in  foot-pounds  per  second  at  other  places.  It  is 
likewise  recommended  that  the  value  of  the  "continental  horsepower"  be  taken  uni- 
formly as  736  watts  (or  75  kilogrammeters  per  second  at  latitude  52°  30',  the  latitude 
of  Berlin),  and  that  the  value  in  kilogrammeters  per  second  at  other  places  be  obtained 
from  such  a  table  as  Table  5. 

It  is  probably  not  generally  known  that  these  values  were  adopted  by  a  committee 
of  the  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science  in  1873.  This  was  a  com- 
mittee which  recommende4  the  C.  G.  S.  System,  and  on  it  were  Sir  W.  Thomson,  Carey 
Foster,  Clerk  Maxwell,  J.  D.  Everett,  and  others  (B.  A.  Report,  1873,  p.  222).  The 
committee  in  its  report  said:  "One  horsepower  is  about  three-fourths  of  an  erg-ten  per 
second.  More  nearly,  it  is  7.46  erg-nines  per  second;  and  one  force-de-cheval  is  7.36 
erg-nines  per  second."  (One  erg-nine  =  100  watts.) 

The  Standards  Committee  of  the  American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers  adopted, 
on  May  16,  1911,  the  following  rule,  which  was  inserted  in  the  Standardization  Rules 
of  the  Institute: 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  a  horsepower  defined  as  550  foot-pounds  per  second  repre- 
sents a  power  which  varies  slightly  with  the  latitude  and  altitude  (from  743.3  to  747.6 
watts),  and  also  in  view  of  the  fact  that  different  authorities  differ  as  to  the  precise 
value  of  the  horsepower  in  watts,  the  standards  committee  has  adopted  746  watts  as 
the  value  of  the  horsepower.  The  number  of  foot-pounds  per  second  to  be  taken  as  one 
horsepower  is,  therefore,  such  a  value  at  any  given  place  as  is  equivalent  to  746  watts; 
the  number  varies  from  552  to  549  foot-pounds  per  second,  being  550  at  50°  latitude 
(London),  and  550.5  at  Washington.  The  Standards  Committee,  however,  recommends 
that  the  kilowatt  instead  of  the  horsepower  be  used  generally  as  the  unit  of  power. 

The  same  value,  746  watts,  is  used  by  the  Bureau  of  Standards  as  the  exact  equivalent 
of  the  English  and  American  horsepower.  The  Bureau  recommends  the  use,  whenever 
possible,  of  the  kilowatt  instead  of  the  horsepower. 

HORSEPOWERS  TO  KILOWATTS 
Reduction  factor:  1  horsepower  =  0.746  kilowatts 


Horse-    Kilo- 
powers  watts 

Horse-         Kilo- 
powera        watts 

Horse-         Kilo- 
powers        watts 

Horse-         Kilo- 
powers       watts 

Horse-         Kilo- 
powers        watts 

Horse-         Kilo- 
powers        watts 

0 

10=    7.460 

20=   14.920 

30=  22.380 

40=  29.840 

50=-  37.300 

1=  0.746 

1      8.206 

1       15.666 

1       23.126 

1       30.586 

1      38.046 

2       1.492 

2      8.952 

2       16.412 

2      23.872 

2      31.332 

2      38.792 

3      2.238 

3      9.698 

3       17.158 

3      24.618 

3      32.078 

3      39.538 

4      2.984 

4     10.444 

4       17.904 

4      25.364 

4      32.824 

4      40.284 

5      3.730 

5     11.190 

5       18.650 

5      26.110 

5      33.570 

5      41.030 

6      4.476 

6     11.936 

6       19.396 

6      26.856 

6      34.316 

6      41.776 

7      5.222 

7     12.682 

7      20.142 

7      27.602 

7      35.062 

7      42.522 

8      5.968 

8     13.428 

8      20.888 

8      28.348 

8      35.808 

8      43.268 

9      6.714 

9     14  .  174 

9      21.634 

9      29.094 

9      36.554 

9      44.014 

[29] 


HORSEPOWERS  TO  KILOWATTS 


HORSEPOWERS  TO  KILOWATTS 


Horse-    Kilo- 
powers  watts 

Horse-         Kilo- 
powers       watts 

Horse-         Kilo-    Horse-         Kilo-    Horse-         Kilo- 
powers        watts    powers        watts    powers        watts 

Horse-         Kilo- 
powers        watts 

60=44.760 
1  45.506 
2  46.252 
3  46.998 
4  47.744 

100=  74.60 
1      75.35 
2      76.09 
3       76.84 
4      77.58 

140  =  104.44 
1     105  .  19 
2     105.93 
3     106.68 
4     107.42 

180.=  134.  28 
1     135.03 
2     135.77 
3     136.52 
4     137.26 

220  =  164.12 
1  164.87 
2  165.61 
3  166.36 
4  167.10 

260  =  193.96 
1  194.71 
2  195.45 
3  196.20 
4  196.94 

5  48.490 
6  49.236 
7  49.982 
8  50.728 
9  51.474 

5      78.33 
6      79.08 
7      79.82 
8      80.57 
9      81.31 

5     108.17 
6     108.92 
7     109.66 
8     110.41 
9     111.15 

5     138.01 
6     138.76 
7     139.50 
8     140.25 
9     140.99 

5  167.85 
6  168.60 
7  169.34 
8  170.09 
9  170.83 

5  197.69 
6  198.44 
7  199.18 
8  199.93 
9  200.67 

70  =  52.220 
1  52.966 
2  53.712 
3  54.458 
4  55.204 

110=  82.06 
1       82.81 
2      83.55 
3      84.30 
4      85.04 

150  =  111.90 
1     112.65 
2     113.39 
3     114.14 
4     114.88 

190  =  141.74 
1     142.49 
2     143.23 
3     143.98 
4     144.72 

230  =  171.58 
1  172.33 
2  173.07 
3  173.82 
4  174.56 

270  =  201.42 
1  202.17 
2  202.91 
3  203.66 
4  204.40 

5  55.950 
6  56.696 
7  57.442 
8  58.188 
9  58.934 

5      85.79 
6      86.54 

7      87.28 
8      88.03 
9      88.77 

5     115.63 
6     116.38 
7     117.12 
8     117.87 
9     118.61 

5     145.47 
6     146.22 
7     146.96 
8     147.71 
9     148.45 

5  175.31 
6  176.06 
7  176.80 
8  177.55 
9  178.29 

5  205.15 
6  205.90 
7  206.64 
8  207.39 
9  208.13 

80  =  59.680 
1  60.426 
2  61.172 
3  61.918 
4  62.664 

120=  89.52 
1       90.27 
2       91.01 
3      91.76 
4      92.50 

160  =  119.36 
1     120.11 
2     120.85 
3     121.60 
4     122.34 

200  =  149.20 
1     149.95 
2     150.69 
3     151.44 
4     152.18 

240  =  179.04 
1  179.79 
2  180.53 
3  181.28 
4  182.02 

280  =  208.88 
1  209.63 
2  210.37 
3  211.12 
4  211.86 

5  63.410 
6  64.156 
7  64.902 
8  65.648 
9  66.394 

5      93.25 
6      94.00 
7       94.74 
8      95.49 
9      96.23 

5     123.09 
6     123.84 
7     124.58 
8     125.33 
9     126.07 

5     152.93 
6     153.68 
7     154.42 
8     155.17 
9     155.91 

5  182.77 
6  183.52 
7  184.26 
8  185.01 
9  185.75 

5  212.61 
6  213.36 
7  214.10 
8  214.85 
9  215.59 

90=67.140 
1  67.886 
2  68.632 
3  69.378 
4  70.124 

130=  96.98 
1       97.73 
2      98.47 
3      99.22 
4      99.96 

170  =  126.82 
1     127.57 
2     128.31 
3     129.06. 
4     129.80 

210  =  156.66 
1     157.41 
2     158.15 
3     158.90 
4     159.64 

250  =  186.50 
1  187.25 
2  187.99 
3  188.74 
4  189.48 

290  =  216.34 
1  217.09 
2  217.83 
3  218.58 
4  219.32 

5  70.870 
6  71.616 
7  72.362 
8  73.108 
9  73.854 

5     100.71 
6     101.46 
7     102.20 
8     102.95 
9     103.69 

5     130.55 
6     131.30 
7     132.04 
8     132.79 
9     133.53 

5     160.39         5     190.23 
6     161.14         6     190.98 
7     161.88         7     191.72 
8     162.63         8     192.47 
9     163.37         9     193.21 

5  220.07 
6  220.82 
7  221.56 
8  222.31 
9  223.05 

[30] 


HORSEPOWERS  TO  KILOWATTS 


HORSEPOWERS  TO  KILOWATTS 


Horse-    Kilo- 
powers  watts 

Horse-         Kilo- 
powers        watts 

Horse-         Kilo- 
powers       watts 

Horse-         Kilo- 
powers        watts 

Horse-         Kilo- 
powers        watts 

Horse-         Kilo- 
powers       watts 

300  =  223.80 
1     224.55 
2    225.29 
3     226.04 
4    226.78 

340  =  253.64 
1     254.39 
2     255.13 
3     255.88 
4     256.62 

380  =  283.48 
1     284.23 
2     284.97 
3     285.72 
4    286.46 

420  =  313.32 
1     314.07 
2     314.81 
3    315.56 
4    316.30 

460  =  343.16 
1     343.91 
2    344.65 
3     345.40 
4    346.14 

500  =  373.00 
1     373.75 
2    374.49 
3    375.24 
4    375.98 

5    227.53 
6    228.28 
7     229.02 
8     229.77 
9     230.51 

5    257.37 
6    258.12 
7     258.86 
8    259.61 
9     260.35 

5    287.21 
6    287.96 
7    288.70 
8    289.45 
9     290.19 

5    317.05 
6    317.80 
7    318.54 
8    319.29 
9    320.03 

5    346.89 
6    347.64 
7    348.38 
8    349.13 
9    349.87 

5    376.73 
6    377.48 
7    378.22 
8    378.97 
9    379.71 

310=231.26 
1     232.01 
2     232.75 
3     233.50 
4    234.24 

350  =  261.10 
1     261.85 
2     262.59 
3     263.34 
4     264.08 

390  =  290.94 
1     291.69 
2     292.43 
3     293.18 
4    293.92 

430  =  320.78 
1     321.53 
2     322.27 
3     323.02 
4    323.76 

470  =  350.62 
1     351.37 
2    352.11 
3    352.86 
4    353.60 

510  =  380.46 
1     381.21 
2    381.95 
3     382.70 
4    383.44 

5     234.99 
6     235.74 
7     236.48 
8     237.23 
9    237.97 

5     264.83 
6     265.58 
7     266.32 
8    267.07 
9    267.81 

5     294.67 
6     295.42 
7    296.16 
8     296.91 
9    297.65 

5     324.51 
6     325.26 
7     326.00 
8    326.75 
9    327.49 

5    354.35 
6    355.10 
7    355.84 
8    356.59 
9    357.33 

5    384.19 
6     384.94 
7    385.68 
8    386.43 
9    387.17 

320  =  238.72 
1     239.47 
2     240.21 
3     240.96 
4    241.70 

360=  268.56 
1      269.31 
2      270.05 
3      270.80 
4      271.54 

400  =  298.40 
1     299.15 
2     299.89 
3     300.64 
4    301.38 

440  =  328.24 
1     328.99 
2    329.73 
3    330.48 
4    331.22 

480=  358.08 
1      358.83 
2      359.57 
3      360.32 
4      361.06 

520=387.92 
1     388.67 
2    389.41 
3    390.16 
4    390.90 

5    242.45 
6     243.20 
7     243.94 
8    244.69 
9     245.43 

5      272.29 
6      273.04 
7      273.78 
8      274.53 
9      275.27 

5     302.13 
6     302.88 
7     303.62 
8    304.37 
9    305.11 

5    331.97 
6    332.72 
7    333.46 
8    334.21 
9    334.95 

5      361  81 
6      362.56 
7      363.30 
8      364.05 
9      364.79 

5    391.65 
6    392.40 
7    393.14 
8    393.89 
9    394.63 

330=246.18 
1     246.93 
2     247.67 
3     248.42 
4    249.16 

370=  276.02 
1      276.77 
2      277.51 
3      278.26 
4      279.00 

410=305.86 
1     306.61 
2     307.35 
3     308.10 
4    308.84 

450  =  335.70 
1     336.45 
2    337.19 
3    337.94 
4    338.68 

490=  365.54 
1      366.29 
2      367.03 
3      367.78 
4      368.52 

530  =  395.38 
1     396.13 
2    396.87 
3     397.62 
4    398.36 

5     249.91 
6     250.66 
7     251.40 
8    252.15 
9    252.89 

5      279.75 
6      280.50 
7      281.24 
8      281.99 
9      282.73 

5    309.59 
6    310.34 
7    311.08 
8    311.83 
9    312.57 

5    339.43 
6    340.18 
7    340.92 
8    341.67 
9     342.41 

5      369.27 
6      370.02 
7      370.76 
8      371.51 
9      372.25 

5    399.11 
6    399.86 
7    400.60 
8     401.35 
9    402.09 

[31] 


HORSEPOWERS  TO  KILOWATTS 


HORSEPOWERS  TO  KILOWATTS 


Horse-    Kilo- 
powers  watts 

Horse-         Kilo- 
powers        watts 

Horse-         Kilo- 
powers        watts 

Horse-         Kilo- 
powers        watts 

Horse-         Kilo- 
powers       watts 

Horse-         Kilo- 
powers        watts 

540=402.84 
1  403.59 
2  404.33 
3  405.08 
4  405.82 

580=432.68 
1     433.43 
2    434.17 
3    434.92 
4    435.66 

620=462.52 
•  1     463.27 
2     464.01 
3     464.76 
4    465.50 

660  =  492.36 
1     493.11 
2     493.85 
3     494.60 
4    495.34 

700=522.20 
1     522.95 
2     523.69 
3     524.44 
4    525.18 

740  =  552.04 
1     552.79 
2     553.53 
3     554.28 
4    555.02 

5  406.57 
6  407.32 
7  408.06 
8  408.81 
9  409.55 

5    436.41 
6    437.16 
7    437.90 
8    438.65 
9    439.39 

5    466.25 
6     467.00 
7"  467.74 
8    468.49 
9    469.23 

5    496.09 
6    496.84 
7    497.58 
8     498.33 
9    499.07 

5    525.93 
6    526.68 
7     527.42 
8    528.17 
9    528.91 

5    555.77 
6    556.52 
7    557.26 
8    558.01 
9    558.75 

550  =  410.30 
1  411.05 
2  411.79 
3  412.54 
4  413.28 

590=440.14 
1    440.89 
2    441.63 
3    442.38 
4    443.12 

630=469.98 
1    470.73 
2    471.47 
3    472  22 
4    472.96 

670=499.82 
1     500.57 
2    501.31 
3     502.06 
4    502.80 

710  =  529.66 
1     530.41 
2     531.15 
3     531.90 
4     532.64 

750  =  559.50 
1     560.25 
2     560.99 
3     561.74 
4     562.48 

5  414.03 
6  414.78 
7  415.52 
8  416.27 
9  417.01 

5    443.87 
6    444.62 
7    445.36 
8    446.11 
9    446.85 

5    473.71 
6    474.46 
7    475.20 
8    475.95 
9    476.69 

5    503.55 
6    504.30 
7    505.04 
8    505.79 
9    506.53 

5     533.39 
6    534.14 
7     534.88 
8    535.63 
9    536.37 

5     563.23 
6     563.98 
7    564.72 
8    565.47 
9    566.21 

560=417.76 
1  418.51 
2  419.25 
3  419.99 
4  420.74 

600=  447.60 
1      448.35 
2      449.09 
3      449.84 
4      450.58 

640  =  477.44 
1     478.19 
2     478.93 
3    479.68 
4    480.42 

680=507.28 
1     508.03 
2     508.77 
3     509.52 
4     510.26 

720=  537.12 
1      537.87 
2      538.61 
3      539.36 
4      540.10 

760  =  566.96 
1     567.71 
2     568.45 
3     569.20 
4     569.94 

5  421.49 
6  422.42 
7  422.98 
8  423.73 
9  424.47 

5      451.33 
6      452.08 

7      452  '.82 
8      453.57 
9      454.31 

5    481.17 
6    481.92 
7    482.66 
8    483.41 
9    484.15 

5    511.01 
6    511.76 
7    512.50 
8    513.25 
9    513.99 

5      540.85 
6      541.60 
7      542.34 
8      543.09 
9      543.83 

5    570.69 
6    571.44 
7    572.18 
8    572.93 
9    573.67 

570=425.22 
1  425.97 
2  426.71 
3  427.46 
4  428.20 

610=  455.06 
1      455.81 
2      456.55 
3      457.30 
4      458.04 

650=484.90 
1     485.65 
2     486.39 
3    487.14 
4    487.88 

690=514.74 
1     515.49 
2    516.23 
3    516.98 
4    517.72 

730=  544.58 
1      545.33 
2      546.07 
3      546.82 
4      547.56 

770  =  574.42 
1     575.17 
2    575.91 
3    576.66 
4    577.40 

5  428.95 
6  429.70 
7  430.44 
8  431.19 
9  431.93 

5      458.79 
6      459.54 
7      460.28 
8      461.03 
9      461.77 

5    488.63 
6    489.38 
7    490.12 
8    490.87 
9    491.61 

5    518.47 
6    519.22 
7    519.96 
8    520.71 
9    521.45 

5      548.31 
6      549.06 
7      549.80 
8      550.55 
9      551.29 

5    578.15 
6    578.90 
7    579.64 
8    580.39 
9     581.13 

[32] 


HORSEPOWERS  TO  KILOWATTS 


HORSEPOWERS  TO  KILOWATTS 


Horse-    Kilo- 
powers  watts 

Horse-         Kilo- 
powers       watts 

Horse-         Kilo- 
powers        watts 

Horse-         Kilo- 
powers        watts 

Horse-         Kilo- 
powers        watts 

Horse-         Kilo- 
powers       watts 

780  =  581.88 
1  582.63 
2  583.37 
3  584.12 
4  584.86 

820  =  611.72 
1     612.47 
2    613.21 
3    613.96 
4    614.70 

860=641.56 
1     642.31 
2    643.05 
3    643.80 
4    644.54 

900  =  671.40 
1     672.15 
2    672.89 
3     673.64 
4    674.38 

940  =  701.24 
1     701.99 
2    702.73 
3    703.48 
4    704.22 

980  =  731.08 
1     731.83 
2    732.57 
3    733.32 
4    734.06 

5  585.61 
6  586.36 
7  587.10 
8  587.85 
9  588.59 

5    615.45 
6    616.20 
7    616.94 
8    617.69 
9    618.43 

5    645.29 
6    646.04 
7    646.78 
8    647.53 
9    648.27 

5    675.13 

6    675.88 
7    676.62 
8    677.37 
9    678.11 

5    704.97 
6    705.72 
7    706.46 
8    707.21 
9    707.95 

5    734.81 
6    735.56 
7    736.30 
8    737.05 
9    737.79 

790=589.34 
1  590.09 
2  590.83 
3  591.58 
4  592.32 

830=619.18 
1     619.93 
2    620.67 
3    621.42 
4    622.16 

870=649.02 
1     649.77 
2    650.51 
3    651.26 
4    652.00 

910=678.86 
1     679.61 
2    680.35 
3    681.10 
4    681.84 

950  =  708.70 
1     709.45 
2    710.19 
3    710.94 
4    711.68 

990=738.54 
1    739.29 
2    740.03 
3    740.78 
4    741.52 

5  593.07 
6  593.82 
7  594.56 
8  595.31 
9  596.05 

5    622.91 
6    623.66 
7    624.40 
8    625.15 
9    625.89 

5    652.75 
6    653.50 
7    654.24 
8    654.99 
9    655.73 

5    682.59 
6    683.34 
7    684.08 
8    684.83 
9    685.57 

5    712.43 
6    713.18 
7    713.92 
8    714.67 
9    715.41 

5    742.27 
6    743.02 
7    743.76 
8    744.51 
9    745.25 

800=596.80 
1  597.55 
2  598.29 
3  599.04 
4  599.78 

840=  626.64 
1      627.39 
2      628.13 
3      628.88 
4      629.62 

880  =  656.48 
1     657.23 
2    657.97 
3    658.72 
4    659.46 

920=686.32 
1    687.07 
2    687.81 
3     688.56 
4    689.30 

960=716.16 
1    716.91 
2    717.65 
3    718.40 
4    719.14 

1000=  746 
2000  =  1492 
3000  =  2238 
4000=2984 
5000=3730 

5  600.53 
6  601.28 
7  602.02 
8  602.77 
9  603.51 

5      630.37 
6      631.12 
7      631.86 
8      632.61 
9      633.35 

5    660.21 
6    660.96 
7    661.70 
8    662.45 
9    663.19 

5    690.05 
6    690.80 
7    691.54 
8    692.29 
9    693.03 

5    719.89 
6    720.64 
7    721.38 
8    722.13 
9    722.87 

6000=4476 
7000  =  5222 
8000=5968 
9000=6714 
10000=7460 

810=604.26 
1  605.01 
2  605.75 
3  606.50 
4  607.24 

850=  634.10 
1      634.85 
2      635.59 
3      636.34 
4      637.08 

890=663.94 
1     664.69 
2    665.43 
3    666.18 
4    666.92 

930=693.78 
1     694.53 
2    695.27 
3    696.02 
4    696.76 

970=723.62 
1    724.37 
2    725.11 
3    725.86 
4    726.60 

5  607.99 
6  608.74 
7  609.48 
8  610.23 
9  610.97 

5      637.83 
6      638.58 
7      639.32 
8      640.07 
9      640.81 

5    667.67 
6    668.42 
7    669.16 
8    669.91 
9    670.65 

5    697.51 
6    698.26 
7    699.00 
8    699.75 
9    700.49 

5    727.35 
6    728.10 
7    728.84 
8    729.59 
9    730.33 

[33] 


KILOWATTS  TO  HORSEPOWERS 


KILOWATTS  TO  HORSEPOWERS 
Reduction  factor:  1  kilowatt  =  1.3404826  horsepower 


Kilo-           Horse- 
watts          powers 

Kilo-       Horse- 
watts      powers 

Kilo-       Horse- 
watts      powers 

Kilo-       Horse- 
watts      powers 

Kilo-       Horse- 
watts      powers 

Kilo-       Horse- 
watts      powers 

0 
1             1.34 
2          2.68 
3          4.02 
4          5.36 

40=     53.62 
1        54.96 
2        56.30 
3        57.64 
4        58.98 

80=   107.24 
1       108.58 
2       109.92 
3       111.26 
4       112.60 

120=   160.86 
1       162.20 
2       163.54 
3       164.88 
4       166.22 

160=   214.48 
1       215.82 
2       217.16 
3       218.50 
4       219.84 

200=   268.10 
1       269.44 
2       270.78 
3       272.12 
4       273.46 

5          6.70 
6          8.04 
7          9.38 
8        10.72 
9        12.06 

5        60.32 
6        61.66 
7        63.00 
8        64.34 
9        65.68 

5       113.94 
6       115.28 
7       116.62 
8       117.96 
9       119.30 

5       167.56 
6       168.90 
7       170.24 
8       171.58 
9       172.92 

5       221.18 
6       222.52 
7       223.86 
8       225.20 
9       226.54 

5       274.80 
6       276.14 

7      277.48 
8      278.82 
9      280.16 

10=     13.40 
1        14.75 
2        16.09 
3        17.43 
4        18.77 

50=     67.02 
1        68.36 
2        69.71 
3        71.05 
4        72.39 

90=   120.64 
1       121.98 
2       123.32 
3       124.66 
4       126.01 

130=   174.26 
1       175.60 
2       176.94 
3       178.28 
4      179.62 

170=  227.88 
1       229.22 
2      230.56 
3      231.90 
4       233.24 

210=  281.50 
1       282.84 
2      284.18 
3      285.52 
4      286.86 

5        20.11 
6        21.45 
7        22.79 
8        24.13 
9        25.47 

5        73.73 
6        75.07 
7        76.41 

8        77.75 
9        79.09 

5       127.35 
6       128.69 
7       130.03 
8       131.37 
9       132.71 

5       180.97 
6       182.31 
7       183.65 
8       184.99 
9       186.33 

5      234.58 
6       235.92 
7      237.27 
8      238.61 
9      239.95 

5      288.20 
6      289.54 
7      290.88 
8       292.23 
9       293.57 

20=     26.80 
1        28.15 
2        29.49 
3        30.83 
4        32.  17 

60=     80.43 
1        81.77 
2        83.11 
3        84.45 
4  -     85.79 

100=   134.05 
1       135.39 
2       136.73 
3       138.07 
4       139.41 

140=   187.67 
1       189.01 
2       190.35 
3       191.69 
4       193.03 

180=  241.29 
1       242.63 
2      243.97 
3      245.31 
4      246.65 

220=  294.91 
1       296.25 
2      297.59 
3       298.93 
4      300.27 

5        33.51 
6        34.85 
7        36.19 
8        37.53 
9        38.87 

5        87.13 
6        88.47 
7        89.81 
8        91.15 
9        92.49 

5       140.75 
6       142.09 
7       143.43 
8       144.77 
9       146.11 

5       194.37 
6       195.71 
7       197.05 
8       198.39 
9       199.73 

5       247.99 
6       249.33 
7       250.67 
8       252.01 
9       253.35 

5      301.61 
6      302.95 
7      304.29 
8      305.63 
9      306.97 

30=     40.21 
1        41.55 
2        42.90 
3        44.24 
4        45.58 

70=     93.83 
1        95.17 
2        96.51 
3        97.86 
4        99.20 

110=   147.45 
1       148.79 
2       150.13 
3       151.47 
4       152.82 

150=  201.07 
1       202.41 
2       203.75 
3       205.09 
4       206.43 

190=  254.69 
1       256.03 
2       257.37 
3       258.71 
4       260.05 

230=  308.31 
1       309.65 
2      310.99 
3      312.33 
4      313.67 

5        46.92 
6        48.26 
7        49.60 
8        50.94 
9        52.28 

5       100.54 
6       101.88 
7       103.22 
8       104.56 
9       105.90 

5       154.16 
6       155.50 
7       156.84 
8       158.18 
9       159.52 

5      207.77 
6       209.12 
7       210.46 
8       211.80 
9       213.14 

5       261.39 
6      262.73 
7       264.08 
8       265.42 
9      266.76 

5      315.01 
6      316.35 
7      317.69 
8      319.03 
9      320.38 

[34] 


KILOWATTS  TO  HORSEPOWERS 


KILOWATTS  TO  HORSEPOWERS 


Kilo-            Horse- 
watts           powers 

Kilo-       Horse- 
watts      powers 

Kilo-       Horse- 
watts      powers 

Kilo-       Horse- 
watts      powers 

Kilo-       Horse- 
watts      powers 

Kilo-       Horse- 
watts      powers 

240=  321.72 
1      323.06 
2      324.40 
3      325.74 
4      327.08 

280=  375.34 
1       376.68 
2      378.02 
3      379.36 
4      380.70 

320=  428.95 
1      430.29 
2      431.64 
3      432.98 
4      434.32 

360=  482.57 
1      483.91 
2      485.25 
3      486.60 
4      487.94 

400=    536.19 

1      537.53 
2      538.87 
3      540.21 
4      541.55 

440=  589.81 
1       591.15 
2      592.49 
3      593.83 
4      595.17 

5      328.42 
6      329.76 
7      331.10 
8      332.44 
9      333.78 

5      382.04 
6      383.38 
7      384.72 
8      386.06 
9      387.40 

5      435.66 
6      437.00 
7      438.34 
8      439.68 
9      441.02 

5      489.28 
6      490.62 
7      491.96 
8      493.30 
9      494.64 

5      542.90 
6      544.24 
7      545.58 
8      546.92 
9      548.26 

5      596.51 
6      597.86 
7      599.20 
8      600.54 
9      601.88 

250=  335.12 
1      336.46 
2      337.80 
3      339  .  14 
4      340.48 

290=  388.74 
1      390.08 
2      391.42 
3      392.76 
4      394.10 

330=  442.36 
1      443.70 
2      445.04 
3      446.38 
4      447.72 

370=  495.98 
1      497.32 
2      498.66 
3      500.00 
4      501.34 

410^=  549.60 
1      550.94 
2      552.28 
3      553.62 
4      554.96 

450=  603.22 
1      604.56 
2      605.90 
3      607.24 
4      608.58 

5      341.82 
6      343.16 
7      344.50 
8      345.84 
9      347.18 

5      395.44 
6      396.78 
7      398.12 
8      399.46 
9      400.80 

5      449.06 
6      450.40 
7      451.74 
8      453.08 
9.     454.42 

5      502.68 
6      504.02 
7      505.36 
8      506.70 
9      508.04 

5      556.30 
6      557.64 
7      558.98 
8      560.32 
9      561.66 

5      609.92 
6      611.26 
7      612.60 
8      613.94 
9      615.28 

260=  348.53 
1      349.87 
2      351.21 
3      352.55 
4      353.89 

300=  402.14 
1      403.49 
2      404.83 
3      406.17 
4      407.51 

340=  455.76 
1      457.10 
2      458.45 
3      459.79 
4      461.13 

380=  509.38 
1      510.72 
2      512.06 
3      513.40 
4      514.75 

420=  563.00 
1       564.34 
2       565.68 
3       567.02 
4      568.36 

460=  616.62 
1      617.96 
2      619.30 
3       620.64 
4      621.98 

5      355  .  23 
6      356.57 
7      357.91 
8      359.25 
9      360.59 

5      408.85 
6      410.19 
7      411.53 
8      412.87 
9      414.21 

5      462.47 
6      463.81 
7      465.15 
8      466.49 
9      467.83 

5      516.09 
6      517.43 
7      518.77 
8      520.11 
9      521.45 

5      569.71 
6      571.05 
7      572.39 
8      573.73 
9      575.07 

5      623.32 
6      624.66 
7      626.01 
8      627.35 
9      628.69 

270=  361.93 
1       363  .  27 
2      364.61 
3      365.95 
4      367.29 

310=  415.55 
1      416.89 
2      418.23 
3      419.57 
4      420.91 

350=  469.17 
1      470.51 
2      471.85 
3      473.19 
4      474.53 

390=  522.79 
1      524.13 
2      525.47 
3      526.81 
4      528.15 

430=  576.41 
1       577.75 
2      579.09 
3      580.43 
4      581.77 

470=  630.03 
1      631.37 
2      632.71 
3      634.05 
4      635.39 

5      368.63 
6      369.97 
7      371.31 
8      372.65 
9       373.99 

5      422.25 
6      423.59 
7      424.93 
8      426.27 
9      427.61 

5      475.87 
6      477.21 
7      478.55 
8      479.89 
9      481.23 

5      529.49 
6      530.83 
7      532.17 
8      533.51 
9      534.85 

5      583.11 
6      584.45 
7      585.79 
8'     587.13 
9      588.47 

5      636.73 
6      638.07 
7      639.41 
8      640.75 
9      642.09 

[35] 


KILOWATTS  TO  HORSEPOWERS 


KILOWATTS  TO  HORSEPOWERS 


Kilo-           Horse- 
watts          powers 

Kilo-       Horse- 
watts      powers 

Kilo-       Horse- 
watts      powers 

Kilo-       Horse- 
Watts      powers 

Kilo-       Horse- 
watts      powers 

Kilo-       Horse- 
watts      powers 

480=  643.43 
1      644.77 
2      646.11 
3      647.45 
4      648.79 

520=  697.05 
1      698.39 
2      699.73 
3      701.07 
4      702.41 

560=  750.67 
1      752.01 
2      753.35 
3      754.69 
4      756.03 

600=  804.29 
1      805.63 
2      806.97 
3      808.31 
4      809.65 

640=  857.91 
1       859.25 
2      860.59 
3       861.93 
4      863.27 

680=  911.53 
1       912.87 
2      914.21 
3      915.55 
4      916.89 

5      650.  13 
6      651.47 
7      652.82 
8      654.16 
9      655.50 

5      703.75 
6      705.09 
7      706.43 
8      707.77 
9      709.12 

5      757.37 
6      758.71 
7      760.05 
8      761.39 
9      762.73 

5      810.99 
6      812.33 
7      813.67 
8      815.01 
9      816.35 

5      864.61 
6      865.95 
7      867.29 
8      868.63 
9      869.97 

5      918.23 
6      919.57 
7      920.91 
8      922.25 
9      923.59 

490=  656.84 
1      658.18 
2      659.52 
3      660.86 
4      662.20 

530=  710.46 
1      711.80 
2      713.14 
3      714.48 
4      715.82 

570=  764.08 
1      765.42 
2      766.76 
3      768.10 
4      769.44 

610=  817.69 
1      819.03 
2      820.38 
3      821.72 
4      823.06 

650=  871.31 
1      872.65 
2      873.99 
3      875.34 
4      876.68 

690=  924.93 
1       926.27 
2      927.61 
3      928.95 
4      930.29 

5      663.54 
6      664.88 
7      666.22 
8      667.56 
9      668.90 

5      717.16 
6      718.50 
7      719.84 
8      721.18 
9      722.52 

5      770.78 
6      772.12 
7      773.46 
8      774.80 
9      776.14 

5      824.40 
6      825.74 
7      827.08 
8      828.42 
9      829.76 

5      878.02 
6      879.36 
7      880.70 
8      882.04 
9      883.38 

5      931.64 
6      932.98 
7      934.32 
8      935.66 
9       937.00 

500=  670.24 
1      671.58 
2      672.92 
3      674.26 
4      675.60 

540=  723.86 
1      725.20 
2      726.54 
3      727.88 
4      729.22 

580=  777.48 
1      778.82 
2      780.16 
3      781.50 
4      782.84 

620=  831.10 
1       832.44 
2      833.78 
3      835.12 
4      836.46 

660=  884.72 
.    1       886.06 
2      887.40 
3      888.74 
4      890.08 

700=  938.34 
1       939.68 
2      941.02 
3      942.36 
4      943.70 

5      676.94 
6      678.28 
7      679.62 
8      680.97 
9      682.31 

5      730.56 
6      731.90 
7      733.24 
8      734.58 
9      735.92 

5      784.18 
6      785.52 
7      786.86 
8      788.20 
9      789.54 

5      837.80 
6      839.14 
7      840.48 
8      841.82 
9      843.16 

5      891.42 
6      892.76 
7      894.10 
8      895.44 
9      896.78 

5      945.04 
6      946.38 
7      947.72 
8      949.06 
9      950.40 

510=  683.65 
1      684.99 
2      686.33 
3      687.67 
4      689.01 

550=  737.27 
1      738.61 
2      739.95 
3      741.29 
4      742.63 

590=  790.88 
1      792.23 
2      793.57 
3      794.91 
4      796.25 

630=  844.50 
1       845.84 
2      847.19 
3      848.53 
4      849.87 

670=  898.12 
1      899.46 
2      900.80 
3      902.14 
4      903.49 

710=  951.74 
1       953.08 
2      954.42 
3      955.76 
4      957.10 

5      690.35 
6      691.69 
7      693.03 
8      694.37 
9      695.71 

5      743.97 
6      745.31 
7      746.65 
8      747.99 
9      749.33 

5      797.59 
6      798.93 
7      800.27 
8      801.61 
9      802.95 

5      851.21 
6      852.55 
7      853.89 
8      855  .  23 
9      856.57 

5      904.83 
6      906.17 
7      907.51 
8      908.85 
9      910.19 

5      958.45 
6      959.79 
7      961.13 
8      962.47 
9      963.81 

[36] 


KILOWATTS  TO  HORSEPOWERS 


KILOWATTS  TO  HORSEPOWERS 


Kilo-            Horse- 
watts           powers 

Kilo-       Horse- 
watts      powers 

Kilo-       Horse- 
watts      powers 

Kilo-       Horse- 
watts      powers 

Kilo-       Horse- 
watts      powers 

Kilo-       Horse- 
watts      powers 

720=  965.15 
1  966.49 
2  967.83 
3  969.17 
4  970.51 

760  =  1018.77 
1     1020.  10 
2     1021.45 
3     1022.79 
4     1024.13 

800  =  1072.39 
1     1073.73 
2     1075.07 
3     1076.41 
4     1077.75 

840  =  1126.01 
1     1127.35 
2     1128.69 
3     1130.03 
4    1131.37 

880=1179.62 
1     1180.97 
2     1182.31 
3     1183.65 
4     1184.99 

920  =  1233.24 
1     1234.58 
2     1235.92 
3     1237.27 
4     1238.61 

5  971.85 
6  973.19 
7  974.53 
8  975.87 
9  977.21 

5     1025.47 
6     1026.81 
7     1028.15 
8     1029.49 
9     1030.83 

5     1079.09 
6     1080.43 
7     1081.77 
8     1083.11 
9     1084.45 

5     1132.71 
6     1134.05 
7     1135.39 
8     1136.73 
9     1138.07 

5     1186.33 
6     1187.67 
7     1189.01 
8     1190.35 
9     1191.69 

5     1239.95 
6     1241.29 
7     1242.63 
8     1243.97 
9     1245.31 

730=  978.55 
1  979.89 
2  981.23 
3  982.57 
4  983.91 

770  =  1032.17 
1     1033.51 
2     1034.85 
3     1036.19 
4     1037.53 

810  =  1085.79 
1     1087.13 
2     1088.47 
3     1089.81 
4     1091.15 

850  =  1139.41 
1     1140.75 
2     1142.09 
3     1143.43 
4    1144.77 

890  =  1193.03 
1     1194.37 
2     1195.71 
3     1197.05 
4     1198.39 

930  =  1246.65 
1     1247.99 
2     1249.33 
3     1250.67 
4     1252.01 

5  985.25 
6  986.60 
7  987.94 
8  989.28 
9  990.62 

5     1038.87 
6     1040.21 
7     1041.55 
8     1042.90 
9     1044.24 

5     1092.49 
6     1093.83 
7     1095.17 
8     1096.51 
9     1097.86 

5     1146.11 
6     1147.45 
7     1148.79 
8     1150.13 
9     1151.47 

5     1199.73 
6     1201.07 
7     1202.41 
8     1203.75 
9     1205.09 

5     1253.35 
6     1254.69 
7     1256.03 
8     1257.37 
9     1258.71 

740=  991.96 
1  993.30 
2  994.64 
3  995.98 
4  997.32 

780  =  1045.58 
1     1046.92 
2     1048.26 
3     1049.60 
4     1050.94 

820  =  1099.20 
1     1100.54 
2     1101.88 
3     1103.22 
4     1104.56 

860  =  1152.82 
1     1154.16 
2     1155.50 
3     1156.84 
4     1158.18 

900  =  1206.43 
1     1207.77 
2     1209.12 
3     1210.46 
4     1211.80 

940  =  1260.05 
1     1261.39 
2     1262.73 
3     1264.08 
4     1265.42 

5  998.66 
6  1000.00 
7  1001.34 
8  1002.68 
9  1004.02 

5     1052.28 
6     1053.62 
7     1054.96 
8     1056.30 
9     1057.64 

5     1105.90 
6     1107.24 
7     1108.58 
8     1109.92 
9     1111.26 

5     1159.52 
6     1160.86 
7     1162.20 
8     1163.54 
9     1164.88 

5     1213.14 
6     1214.48 
7     1215.82 
8     1217.16 
9     1218.50 

5     1266.76 
6     1268.10 
7     1269.44 
8     1270.78 
9     1272.12 

750  =  1005.36 
1  1006.70 
2  1008.04 
3  1009.38 
4  1010.72 

790  =  1058.98 
1     1060.32 
2     1061.66 
3     1063.00 
4     1064.34 

830  =  1112.60 
1     1113.94 
2     1115.28 
3     1116.62 
4     1117.96 

870  =  1166.22 
1     1167.56 
2     1168.90 
3     1170.24 
4     1171.58 

910  =  1219.84 
1     1221.18 
2     1222.52 
3     1223.86 
4     1225.20 

950  =  1273.46 
1     1274.80 
2     1276.14 
3     1277.48 
4     1278.82 

5  1012.06 
6  1013.40 
7  1014.75 
8  1016.09 
9  1017.43 

5     1085.68 
6     1057.02 
7     1088.36 
8     1069.71 
9     1071.05 

5     1119.30 
6     1120.64 
7     1121.98 
8     1123.32 
9     1124.66 

5     1172.92 
6     1174.26 
7     1175.60 
8     1176.94 
9     1178.28 

5     1226.54 
6     1227.88 
7     1229.22 
8     1230.56 
9     1231.90 

5     1280.  16 
6     1281.50 

7     1282.84 
8     1284.18 
9     1285.52 

[37] 


KILOWATTS  TO  HORSEPOWERS 


KILOWATTS  TO  HORSEPOWERS 


Kilo-                 Horse- 
watts                 powers 

Kilo-            Horse- 
watts           powers 

Kilo-            Horse- 
watts           powers 

Kilo-            Horse- 
watts           powers 

Kilo-                Horse- 
watts               powers 

960  =  1286.86 

970  =  1300.27 

980  =  1313.67 

990  =  1327.08 

1000=   1340 

1     1288.20 

1     1301.61 

1     1315.01 

1     1328.42  1       2000=  2681 

2     1289.54 

2     1302.95 

2     1316.35 

2     1329.76 

3000=  4021 

3     1290.88 

3     1304.29 

3     1317.69 

3     1331.10 

4000=  5362 

4     1292.23 

4     1305.63 

4     1319.03 

4     1332.44 

5000=  6702 

5     1293.57 

5     1306.97 

5     1320.38 

5     1333.78 

6000=  8043 

6     1294.91 

6     1308.31 

6     1321.72 

6     1335.12 

7000=  9383 

7     1296.25 

7     1309.65 

7     1323.06 

7     1336.46 

8000  =  10723 

8     1297.59 

8     1310.99 

8     1324.40 

8     1337.80 

9000  =  12064 

9     1298.93 

9     1312.33 

9     1325.74 

9     1339.14 

10000  =  13405 

[38] 


SECTION  2 

WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 
MEASURES   OF  LENGTH 

Line  Measurement  is  used  in  measuring  distances.  Any  convenient  unit  may  be 
employed,  as  — inch,  foot,  yard  or  mile. 

The  standard  unit  of  length  is  the  yard. 

In  1813  Mr.  Hassler  obtained  for  the  use  of  the  United  States  Coast  Survey  a 
standard  brass  bar  82  inches  long,  graduated  by  Troughton,  of  London.  The  gradua- 
tions of  this  bar  were  accepted  as  corresponding  at  the  temperature  of  62°  F.  to  the 
standard  yard  of  Great  Britain.  The  standard  yard  adopted  by  the  United  States 
Treasury  Department  was  the  36  inches  between  the  27th  and  the  63d  inches  of  the 
above  82-inch  bar. 

LINEAR  MEASURE 

12  inches  =  1  foot  mi.      rd.         yd.           ft.  in. 

3  feet  =  1  yard  1  =  320  =  1,760  =  5,280  =  63,360 

5|  yards  =  1  rod  1  =       51  =      m  =  198 

320  rods  =  1  mile  1=3=  36 

The  symbols:  '  for  feet  and  "  for  inches  are  used  in  dimensioning  drawings,  often 
in  books,  and  in  correspondence. 

EXAMPLE.— 18'  7"  =  18  feet  7  inches. 

The  foot  is  commonly  divided  for  civil  engineers  into  tenths  and  hundredths  of  a  foot. 

At  the  United  States  Custom  Houses,  the  yard  is  divided  into  tenths  and  hundredths. 

A  mile  of  5,280  ft.  is  called  a  statute  mile.  It  is  the  legal  mile  of  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain. 

Surveyors'  Linear  Measure  is  used  in  measuring  land.  The  unit  of  this  measure 
is  Gunter's  chain,  66  feet  or  4  rods  in  length,  having  100  links,  each  joined  to  the  adja- 
cent one  by  three  smaller  links.  A  square  chain  is  one-tenth  of  an  acre,  or  10,000  square 
links. 

LAND  MEASURES 

100  links     =  1  chain  mi.  ch.         ft.  1.  in. 

80  chains  =  1  mile  1  =  80  =  5,280  =  8,000  =  63,360 

1  =       66  =     100  =        792 

66  =         1  =          7.92 
25  links       =  1  rod 
1  furlong  =  £  mile 

City  surveyors  and  civil  engineers  commonly  use  steel  tapes  100  feet  long,  the  feet 
divided  into  tenths  and  hundredths. 

OTHER  LINEAR  DIMENSIONS  IN  USE 

1  hand  =  4  inches.     Used  in  measuring  the  heights  of  horses. 

1  fathom  =  6  feet.         Used  principally  in  nautical  measurements;  depth 

of  water,  length  of  rope,  etc.     It  approximates 
the  thousandth  part  of  a  nautical  mile. 

1  cable  =  120  fathoms,  or  720  feet;  commonly  written  cable-length. 

1  knot  =  1  nautical  mile. 

=  1  Admiralty  knot  =  6080  feet  per  hour. 

NOTE. — A  knot  is  a  velocity,  not  a  length.  It  is  used  to 
express  the  speed  of  a  ship  at  sea.  EXAMPLE. — 15  knots 
per  hour. 

[39] 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 

1  geographical  mile  =  1.1515   statute   miles;    variously  estimated   from   6,075  to 

6,080  ft. 

=  1  minute  of  longitude  at  the  equator. 
=  1/60  degree  of  latitude. 
1  measured  mile        =  English  Admiralty  " measured  mile"  is  6,080  feet;  used  to 

ascertain  the  speed  of  ships. 
1  league  =  3  nautical  miles. 

1  degree  =  60  geographical  miles;   variously  estimated  from  69.21   to 

69.29  statute  miles. 
=  1/360  part  of  the  earth's  circumference. 

MEASURE   OF   SURFACE 

A  linear  unit  squared  is  a  corresponding  square  unit  in  determining  the  areas  of 
surfaces.  The  side  of  the  square  may  be  an  inch,  foot,  yard,  or  any  other  convenient 
unit. 

SUPERFICIAL  MEASURE 
144  square  inches  =  1  square  foot 


it*  square  mciies  =  i  square  loot 
9  square  feet       =  1  square  yard 
30  j  square  yards  =  1  square  rod 
160  square  rods      =  1  square  acre 
640  acres  =  1  square  mile 

1  rood  =    j  acre. 


With  the  exception  of  the  acre,  the  above  units  of  superficial  square  measure  are 
derived  from  the  corresponding  units  of  linear  measure. 

A  square  inch  is  the  area  of  a  rectangle  the  side  of  which  is  one  inch. 

A  circular  inch  is  the  area  of  a  circle  one  inch  in  diameter  =  0.7854  square  inch. 

One  square  inch  =  1.2732  circular  inches. 

One  square  foot  =  144  square  inches  =  183.35  circular  inches. 

Slate  and  other  roofing  is  often  reckoned  by  the  square,  meaning  100  square  feet 
of  surface. 

Plastering  and  painting  are  commonly  reckoned  by  the  square  yard. 

SURVEYOR'S  SQUARE  MEASURE 

625  square  links     =  1  square  rod 

16  square  rods      =  1  square  chain 
10,000  square  links     =  1  square  chain 

10  square  chains  =  1  acre 
640  acres  =  1  square  mile 

36  square  miles    =  1  township 

An  acre  is  208.71  feet  square  =  43,560  square  feet.  This  is  the  common  unit  of 
land  measure. 

The  public  lands  of  the  United  States  are  divided  by  north  and  south  meridianal 
lines  crossed  by  others  at  right  angles  forming  Townships  of  six  miles  square. 

Townships  are  sub-divided  into  Sections  one  mile  square. 

A  section  one  mile  square  contains  640  acres.  It  is  divided  into  half-sections  of 
320  acres;  quarter-sections  of  160  acres;  half-quarter  sections  of  80  acres;  and  quarter- 
quarter  sections  of  40  acres. 

Board  Measure  is  used  in  measuring  lumber.  The  unit  is  1  square  foot  of  surface 
by  1  inch  in  thickness,  or  iV  of  a  cubic  foot. 

Unless  otherwise  stated,  boards  less  than  an  inch  thick  are  reckoned  as  if  they  were 
of  that  thickness.  Boards  over  an  inch  thick  are  reduced  to  the  inch  standard;  that 
is,  for  1^-inch  boards  add  j  to  the  surface  measure,  for  1^-inch  boards  add  £  to  the 
surface  measure,  and  so  on  for  any  thickness.  All  sawed  timber  is  measured  by  board 
measure. 

1,000  feet  board  measure  =  83.33  cubic  feet. 

[40] 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


MEASURES  OF  VOLUME 

Cubic  measure  applies  to  measurement  in  the  three  dimensions  of  length,  breadth, 
and  depth  or  thickness.  Any  convenient  linear  unit  may  be  employed  because  quan- 
tities are  always  expressed  in  cubes  of  fixed  linear  measurement,  as  cubic  inch,  cubic 
foot,  or  cubic  yard. 

SOLID  OR  CUBIC  MEASURE 

1,728  cubic  inches  —  1  cubic  foot 
27  cubic  feet      =  1  cubic  yard 
128  cubic  feet      =  1  cord 
24f  cubic  feet     =  1  perch 

A  perch  of  masonry  is  16|  feet  long,  1£  feet  thick,  and  1  foot  high  =  24|  cubic  feet. 
A  cord  of  wood  is  8  feet  long,  4  feet  wide,  and  4  feet  high  =  128  cubic  feet. 
Timber  measured  in  bulk  and  not  to  be  computed  in  cubic  feet  is  reduced  to  board 
measure,  that  is,  in  terms  of  square  feet  of  surface  by  1  inch  in  thickness. 

MEASURES   OF   CAPACITY 

The  United  States  gallon  corresponds  to  the  British  wine  gallon  of  1707,  which  was 
abolished  in  1824,  when  the  Imperial  gallon,  containing  10  pounds  of  water,  was  made 
the  British  standard.  This  latter  measure  is  not  in  use  in  this  country. 

The  unit  of  liquid  measure  in  the  United  States  is  the  wine  gallon  of  231  cubic  inches. 

TABLE 

gal.     qt.      pt.       gi. 

4  gills       =  1  pint  1   =  4   =  8   =  32 

2  pints      =   1  quart  1=2=8 

4  quarts   =   1  gallon  1=4 

1  gallon  of  pure  water  at  62°  F.   =  8.34  poiihds. 

1  cubic  foot  of  water  contains  7.48  gallons. 

Barrels  are  not  uniform  in  capacity,  ranging  from  31?  to  50  gallons.  Their  capacity 
is  found  by  gauging,  actual  measurement,  or  by  weight. 

Hogshead  =  2  barrels.  Actual  capacity  must  be  determined  by  gauging  or  other 
measurement. 

The  British  Imperial  Gallon  is  defined  as  the  volume  of  10  pounds  weight  of  pure 
distilled  water  at  the  temperature  of  62°  F.,  the  height  of  the  barometer  being  30  inches. 
There  is  no  legal  equivalent  of  the  gallon  expressed  in  cubic  inches.  Until  the  year 
1890  it  was  usual  to  take  277.274  cubic  inches  as  the  equivalent  of  the  gallon,  but  from 
very  careful  experiments  by  Mr.  H.  J.  Chaney,  recorded  in  the  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions of  the  Royal  Society  for  1892,  the  weight  of  a  cubic  inch  of  water  was  determined 
as  252.286  grains,  from  which  the  volume  of  the  gallon  is  computed  to  be  277.463 
cubic  inches. 

An  Imperial  gallon  =  1.20114  United  States  gallons. 

A  United  States  gallon  =231  cubic  inches  =  .83254  Imperial  gallon. 

DRY  MEASURE 

Dry  Measure  is  used  in  measuring  grain,  fruits,  etc. 

The  unit  in  the  United  States  is  the  Winchester  bushel  =  2,150.42  cubic  inches  = 
1.244  cubic  feet. 

TABLE 

bu.     pk.       qt.        pt. 

2  pints      =   1  quart  1   =  4  =  32   =  64 

8  quarts   =   1  peck  1   =     8   =  16 

4  pecks     =   1  bushel 

1  bushel  =  2,150.42  -;-  231   =  9.30  wine  gallons 
[41] 


WEIGHTS, AND  MEASURES 

The  above  is  what  is  known  as  the  struck  bushel  or  the  bushel  measure  even  full. 
The  heaped  bushel  is  about  one-quarter  more,  the  cone  being  about  6  inches  high. 

A  bushel  measure  is  18£  niches  diameter  by  8  inches  deep. 

The  U.  S.  Standard  Bushel  was  fixed  at  2,150.42  cubic  inches.  This  is  the  same  as 
the  Winchester  bushel,  now  abolished  in  the  British  system,  substituting  therefor  as 
the  legal  bushel  one  containing  8  Imperial  gallons,  equivalent  to  2,219.704  cubic  inches 
or  1.284  cubic  feet. 

It  will  be  seen  that  neither  the  gallon  nor  the  bushel  adopted  by  the  U.  S.  Treasury 
Department  is  in  accord  with  the  British  standards. 

Grain  in  bulk  is  sold  by  weight.  Commercial  usage  has  established  an  equivalent 
number  of  pounds  per  bushel  for  the  various  kinds  of  grain  as  well  as  for  other  com- 
modities shipped  in  bulk;  these  equivalent  weights  have  been  generally  legalized 
throughout  the  United  States. 

AVOIRDUPOIS  WEIGHT 

Commercial  weights  are  always  in  terms  of  the  Avoirdupois  standard. 
Troy  weights  are  reserved  for  gold,  silver,  and  precious  stones.     Apothecaries' 
weight  is  employed  when  compounding  medicine. 

The  unit  of  Avoirdupois  weight  is  the  pound  containing  7,000  Troy  grains. 

Table  of  Tons  of  2,000  Pounds 

Also  known  as  Short  or  Net  Tons 

ton     cwt.      Ib.  oz. 

16  ounces  <  =  1  pound  1  =  20  =  2,000  =  32,000 

100  pounds  =  1  hundredweight  1  =      100  =    1,600 

20  hundredweights    =  1  ton  1  =         16 

The  ounce  is  divided  into  halves  and  quarters. 
The  ton  of  2,000  pounds  is  the  standard  ton  of  commerce. 

Table  of  Tons  of  2,240  Pounds 

Also  known  as  Long  or  Gross  Tons 

ton    cwt.        Ib.  oz. 

16  ounces  =  1  pound       ,  -"  1  =  20  =  2,240  =  35,840 

112  pounds  =  1  hundredweight  1  =      112  =     1,792 

20  hundredweights    =  1  ton  1  =         16 

One  quarter  =  28  pounds 

The  ton  of  2,240  pounds  is  used  for  weighing  ores,  pig  iron,  steel  rails,  etc.  It  is 
used  in  U.  S.  Custom  Houses  for  estimating  ocean  freights.  It  is  the  standard  ton 
of  Great  Britain. 

One  shipping  ton  (for  measuring  cargo)  =  40  cubic  feet.  In  England,  one  shipping 
ton  (for  measuring  cargo)  =  42  cubic  feet. 

TROY  WEIGHT 

The  Troy  Pound  was  the  first  standard  to  be  adopted  by  Congress  and  put  into 
practical  use.  It  was  the  legalization  of  a  certain  brass  Troy-pound-weight  procured 
by  the  Minister  of  the  United  States  at  London,  in  the  year  1827,  for  the  use  of  the 
Mint,  and  now  hi  the  custody  of  the  U.  S.  Mint  at  Philadelphia.  This  is  the  standard 
Troy  pound,  comformably  to  which  the  U.  S.  coinage  is  regulated.  It  is  an  exact  copy 
of  the  Imperial  Troy  pound  of  Great  Britain. 

Troy  weight  is  used  chiefly  in  the  weighing  of  gold,  silver,  and  articles  of  jewelry. 

The  unit  of  weight  is  the  Troy  pound. 

[42] 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 

Table 

Ib.     oz.     pwt.        gr. 

24  grains  =  1  pennyweight  1  =  12  =  240  =  5,760 

20  pennyweights  =  1  ounce  1  =    20  =     480 

12  ounces  =  1  pound 

Carat  is  a  term  employed  to  express  the  commercial  fineness  of  gold.  An  ounce 
is  divided  into  24  equal  parts,  one  of  which  is  called  a  carat.  Pure  gold  is  24  carats 
fine;  18-carat  gold  is  18  parts  pure  gold  and  6  parts  alloy. 

A  Carat  Weight  when  employed  to  weigh  diamonds  =  3.2  Troy  grains. 

The  International  200-milligram  carat  went  into  effect  in  the  United  States,  July  1, 
1913,  as  the  standard  for  weighing  all  kinds  of  gems  and  precious  stones.  By  com- 
parison, 1  milligram  =  .0154  Troy  grains.  Then  .0154  X  200  =  3.08  Troy  grains. 

APOTHECARIES'  WEIGHT 

The  ounce  in  Apothecaries'  weight  is  the  same  as  the  Troy  ounce  but  differently 
divided.  The  grain  and  the  pound  are  the  same  as  the  Troy  standards. 

There  does  not  appear  to  be  a  standard  unit  in  Apothecaries'  weight,  but  from 
the  fact  that  it  is  used  in  compounding  medicines  in  small  quantities,  the  ounce  (Troy) 
would  appear  to  be  a  convenient  one  inasmuch  as  chemicals  for  industrial  use,  when 
sold  in  large  quantities,  are  commonly  by  Avoirdupois  weight. 

Table 

Ib.      5        5        9         gr. 

20  grains  =  1  scruple. .  .  sc.  or  9  1  =  12  =  96  =  288  =  5,760 

3  scruples  =  1  dram.  .  .  .dr.  or  5  1  =  8  =  24  =  480 

8  drams  =  1  ounce. ...  oz.  or  5  1=3=  60 

12  ounces     =  1  pound. . .  .Ib.  or  Ib 

The  symbols  always  precede  the  number,  thus:  54,  52,  91=4  oz.,  2  dr., 
1  scruple. 

Apothecaries'  Fluid  Measure 

Used  by  physicians  when  prescribing  and  by  apothecaries  in  compounding  liquid 
medicines. 

The  gallon  is  the  standard  wine  gallon  of  231  cubic  inches,  of  which  the  pint  is  one- 
eighth. 

Table 

Cong.O.     f  5        f  5  m 

60  minims  (m)      =1  fluid  drachm. f  5         1  =  8  =  128  =  1,024  =  61,440 
8  fluid  drachms  =  1  fluid  ounce.,  .f  5  1  =    16  =      128  =    7,680 

16  fluid  ounces      =  1  pint O.  1  =         8  =       480 

8  pints  =  1  gallon Cong.  1  =       60 

Cong.,  Latin  Congius,  gallon;   O.,  Latin  octavius,  one-eighth. 

Medical  Signs  and  Abbreviations 

^  (Lat.  Recipe),  take;  aa,  of  each;  Ib,  pound;  5,  ounce;  5,  drachm;  3,  scruple; 
TIL,  minim,  or  drop;  O  or  o,  pint;  f  5j  fluid  ounce;  f  5,  fluid  drachm;  as,  5  ss,  half 
an  ounce;  5  i,  one  ounce;  5  iss,  one  ounce  and  a  half;  5  ij,  two  ounces;  gr.,  grain; 
Q.  S.,  as  much  as  sufficient;  Ft.  Mist.,  let  a  mixture  be  made;  Ft.  Haust.,  let  a  draught 
be  made;  Ad.,  add  to;  Ad  lib.,  at  pleasure;  Aq.,  water;  M.,  mix;  Mac.,  macerate; 
Pulv.,  powder;  Pil.,  pill;  Solv.,  dissolve;  St.,  let  it  stand;  Sum.,  to  be  taken;  D.,  dose; 
Dil.,  dilute;  Filt.,  filter;  Lot.,  a  wash;  Garg.,  a  gargle;  Hor.  Decub.,  at  bedtime; 
Inject.,  injection;  Gtt.,  drops;  ss,  one-half;  Ess.,  essence. 

The  symbols  always  precede  the  numbers  to  which  they  refer.  The  International 
Metric  System  has  practically  displaced  the  above  system  in  laboratory  work  as  well 
as  in  compounding  medicines, 

[43] 


MEASURES  OF  TIME 


UNITED  STATES  MONEY 

The  legal  currency  of  the  United  States  is  based  on  the  gold  standard.  Coins  are 
of  gold,  silver,  nickel,  and  copper.  Authorized  paper  money  includes  gold  certificates, 
silver  certificates,  United  States  notes,  Treasury  notes  of  1890,  and  National  bank 
notes. 

The  unit  of  value  is  the  gold  dollar  of  25.8  grains. 

Table 

E.       $           d.           c.  m. 

10  mills      =  1  cent                                                    1  =  10 

10  cents     =  1  dime                                      1  =       10  =  100 

10  dimes    =  1  dollar                        1  =    10  =     100  =  1,000 

10  dollars  =  1  eagle                1  =  10  =  100  =  1,000  =  10,000 

Gold  coins  are  90  per  cent  gold  and  10  per  cent  alloy,  consisting  of  silver  and  copper. 
Denominations,  $20,  $10,  $5,  $2.50. 

Silver  coins  are  90  per  cent  silver  and  10  per  cent  copper  alloy.  Standard  silver 
dollar  weighs  412.5  grains.  Ratio  to  gold  15.988  to  1.  Coinage  ceased  in  1905. 

Subsidiary  silver  coins  weigh  385.8  grains  to  the  dollar.  Ratio  to  gold  14.953  to  1. 
Denominations,  50  cents,  25  cents,  10  cents.  Legal  tender,  not  to  exceed  $10.  Re- 
deemable in  "  lawful  money  "  at  the  Treasury  in  sums  or  multiples  of  $20. 

Minor  coins  now  consist  of  the  5-cent  and  the  1-cent  pieces  only.  The  5-cent 
piece  weighs  77.16  grains.  Alloy  consists  of  75  per  cent  copper  and  25  per  cent  nickel. 

The  1-cent  piece  weighs  48  grains.  Alloy  consists  of  95  per  cent  copper  and  5 
per  cent  tin  and  zinc.  They  are  legal  tender  not  to  exceed  25  cents.  Redeemable  in 
"  lawful  money  "  at  the  Treasury  in  sums  or  multiples  of  $20. 

"  Lawful  money "  includes  gold  coin,  silver  dollars,  United  States  notes,  and 
Treasury  notes. 

United  States  notes  (greenbacks)  are  by  regulation  receivable  for  customs  so  long 
as  they  continue  redeemable  in  coin.  Treasury  notes  were  issued  for  purchase  of 
silver  bullion  which  was  coined  into  dollars,  wherewith  the  notes  are  being  redeemed. 

MEASURES   OF  TIME 

A  solar  day  is  the  period  of  one  revolution  of  the  earth  around  its  axis  in  reference 
to  the  sun.  It  is  divided  into  24  hours,  in  two  periods  of  12  hours  each;  from  12  o'clock 
noon  or  meridian  to  12  o'clock  midnight,  and  from  midnight  to  noon.  The  change 
in  the  name  and  number  of  days  and  months  in  the  civil  calendar  occurs  at  midnight. 

Table 

day     hr.       min.          sec. 

60  seconds    =  1  minute  1  =  24  =  1,440  =  86,400 

60  minutes  =  1  hour  1  =       60  =    3,600 

24  hours       =  1  day  1  =         60 

7  days         =  1  week 
365  days         =  1  calendar  year 

The  length  of  the  solar  year  is  365  days,  5  hr.,  48  min.,  nearly.  A  calendar  year  of 
365  days  is  nearly  one-fourth  of  a  day  too  short,  for  which  one  day  is  added  to  the  month 
of  February  every  four  years,  called  leap-year.  But  this  addition  makes  one  day  too 
much  in  every  128.866  years,  which  error  is  corrected  every  fourth  century,  which  can 
be  divided  by  four  without  a  remainder.  Thus,  1884  was  leap-year,  but  not  1900,  this 
omission  of  one  leap-year  in  every  four  centuries  being  necessary  to  correct  the  error 
above  referred  to. 

A  sidereal  day  differs  from  a  solar  day  in  taking  no  account  of  the  sun,  but  record- 
ing that  interval  of  time  between  the  appearance  of  a  fixed  star  in  the  meridian  and 
again  returning  to  the  same  star  the  night  immediately  following.  This  interval  of 

[44] 


UNITED  STATES   MONEY  EQUIVALENTS 

VALUE  OF  FOREIGN  COINS  IN  UNITED  STATES  MONEY 


Country 

Standard 

Monetary  Unit 

Value  in 
U.S.  Gold 
Dollar 

Remarks  (a) 

Argentina  . 

Austria- 
Hungary  . 
Belgium.  .  . 

Bolivia.  .  .  . 
Brazil  

British  Col- 
onies     in 
Australia 
&  Africa.  . 
Canada.  .  . 
Cent.  Ameri- 
can States: 
B.Hond's. 
CostaRica 
Guat'ala  . 

Honduras 
Nicaragua 
Salvador  . 

Chile  
China  

Gold... 

Gold... 
Gold(b) 

Gold... 
Gold... 

Gold... 
Gold... 

Gold... 
Gold... 
Silver.  . 

Silver.  . 

Peso  

Crown  
Franc  

$0.9648 

.2026 
.1930 

.3893 
.5462 

4.8665 
1.0000 

1.0000 
.4653 
.3537 

.3537 
1.0000 
.3537 

.3650 

.5296 
.5899 
.5780 
1.0000 

1.0000 
.2680 
.4867 
4.9431 

.1930 
.1930 

.2382 
4.8665 
.1930 

.9647 
.3244 

Currency:   depreciated  paper,   convertible 
at  44  per  cent  of  face  value. 

Member  of  Latin  Union;  gold  is  the  actual 
standard. 
12^  bolivianos  equal  1  pound  sterling. 
Currency:  Government  paper.     Exchange 
rate  about  $0.25  to  the  milreis. 

Currency:   inconvertible   paper,   exchange 
rate  40  pesos  =  $1.00. 
Currency:  bank  notes. 

Currency:  convertible  into  silver  on  de- 
mand. 
Currency:   inconvertible   paper;   exchange 
rate  approximately,  $0.14. 

Currency:   inconvertible   paper;   exchange 
rate,  approximately,  $105  paper  to  $1 
gold. 

The  actual  standard  is  the  British  pound 
sterling,  which  is  legal  tender  for  97  % 
piasters. 

Member  of  Latin  Union;  gold  is  the  actual 
standard. 

Member  of  Latin  Union;  gold  is  the  actual 
standard. 
Currency:   inconvertible   paper;   exchange 
rate,  approximately,  $0.16. 
(15  rupees  equal  1  pound  sterling.) 

Boliviano  .... 
\lilreis  

Pound  sterling 
Dollar  

Dollar  

Colon  

Peso  
Peso  

Gold.  .  . 
Silver  . 

Cordoba 

Peso  

Gold.  .  . 

Silver.  . 
Gold... 

Gold. 

Peso  

^    C  Shanghai 
8  ]  Haikwan 
"*    [Canton.. 
Dollar  

Colombia.  . 
Cuba 

Peso  

Denmark.  . 
Ecuador.  .  . 
Egypt.... 

Finland  .  .  . 
France.  .  .  . 

Germany.  . 
Gt.  Britain 
Greece  

Hayti  
India  ..... 

Gold... 
Gold.  .  . 
Gold... 

Gold... 

Gold(b) 

Gold... 
Gold.  .  . 
Gold(b) 

Gold... 
Gold.  .  . 

Crown  

Sucre 

Pound  (100  pi- 
asters) 

Mark  

Franc  

Mark.  . 

Pound  sterling 
Drachma  

Gourde  ...... 

Rupee     ...    . 

(a)  The  exchange  rates  shown  under  this  heading  are  recent  quotations  and  given  as  an  indication  of 
the  values  of  currencies  which  are  fluctuating  in  their  relation  to  the  legal  standard.  They  are  not  to  take. 
the  place  of  the  Consular  certificate  where  it  is  available,  (b)  And  silver. 

[45] 


UNITED  STATES  MONEY  EQUIVALENTS 
VALUE  OF  FOREIGN  COINS  IN  UNITED  STATES  MONEY — (Cont.) 


Country 

Standard 

Monetary  Unit 

Value  in 
U.S.  Gold 
Dollar 

Remarks  (a) 

Italy  
Japan. 

Gold(b) 
Gold. 

Lira         .... 

.1930 

.4985 
1.0000 

.4985 
.4020 

1.0139 
.2680 
1.0000 
.3537 

.1700 

4.8665 

.5000 
1.0806 

.1930 
.5146 
1.0000 
.1930 
.3709 
.1930 

.5678 
.2680 
.1930 

.0440 
1.0342 
.1930 

Member  of  Latin  Union;  gold  is  the  actual 
standard. 

Currency:  depreciated  silver  token  coins; 
customs  duties  are  collected  in  gold. 
Mexican    exchange   rate   fluctuating,    ap- 
proximately, $0.15. 

Currency:    depreciated    paper;    exchange 
rate  1.550  per  cent. 
This  is  the  value  of  the  gold  kran.    Cur- 
rency is  silver  circulating  above  its  me- 
tallic  value;    exchange   value   of   silver 
kran,  approximately,  $0.0875. 

Currency:   inconvertible   paper;   exchange 
rate,  approximately,  $0.70}^. 

Valuation  is  for  the  gold  peseta;  currency  is 
silver  circulating  above  its  metallic  value; 
exchange  value,  approximately,  $0.20. 

Member  Latin  Union;  gold  is  actual  stand- 
ard. 
100  piasters  equal  to  the  Turkish  £. 

Yen 

Liberia.  .  .  . 
Mexico  

Netherlands. 
Newfound- 
land 
Norway.  .  . 
Panama  .  .  . 
Paraguay.  . 

Persia  

Peru  
Philippine 
Islands.  .  . 
Portugal.  .  . 

Roumania. 
Russia  .  .  .  . 
Santo  Dom 
Serbia  
Siam.  .  .  . 

Gold... 
Gold... 
Gold... 

Gold... 
Gold... 
Gold... 
Silver.  . 

Dollar  

Peso  
Florin 

Dollar  

Crown 

Balboa  

Peso  

Gold(b) 

Gold.  .  . 

Gold.  .  . 
Gold... 

Gold... 

Kran  

Libra 

Peso  
Escudo 

Leu  

Gold... 
Gold... 
Gold... 
Gold. 

Ruble....... 
Dollar  

Dinar. 

Tical  

Spain 

Gold(b) 

Gold.  .  . 
Gold... 
Gold... 

Gold... 
Gold 

Peseta 

Straits 
Set'm'ts.. 
Sweden.  .  . 
Switzerl'd  . 

Turkey.... 
Uruguay  . 

Dollar     

Crown  

Franc  .... 

Piaster  

Peso  

Venezuela  . 

Gold... 

Bolivar  

(a)  The  exchange  rates  shown  under  this  heading  are  recent  quotations  and  given  as  an  indication  of 
the  values  of  currencies  which  are  fluctuating  in  their  relation  to  the  legal  standard.  They  are  not  to  take 
the  place  of  the  Consular  certificate  where  it  is  available,  (b)  And  silver. 

time  is  divided  into  24  hours  continuously  beginning  at  1  p.  M.  and  not  into  two 
periods  of  12  hours  each.  Let  there  be  two  clocks,  one  regulated  for  mean  solar  time, 
indicating  24  hours  from  meridian  to  meridian  of  a  fixed  star;  the  latter  clock  will 
indicate  only  23  hr.,  56  min.,  4  sec.,  of  mean  solar  time;  the  fixed  star  passing  the 
meridian  3  min.,  56  sec.,  earlier  every  day. 

A  sidereal  year  is  the  time  which  elapses  during  a  complete  revolution  of  the  earth 
around  the  sun,  measured  by  the  recurrence  of  the  same  fixed  star  selected  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  observation;  it  is  365  days,  6  hrs.,  9  min.,  9.3145  sec.  of  mean  solar  time. 

[46] 


MEASURES  OF  TIME 


SS5S32  |g883 


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b*»  00  Os  CD 

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g|cOcOCOcOCO      COCOCOCOCO      t»l>l>I>l>.      b-b-b-b-t>.      OOOOOOOOOO      OOOOOOOOOOOS 


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0 
Ct 

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£88 

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1  <N  (M  (N  CO  CO 

Q  JS 

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[47] 


LONGITUDE 

EXAMPLE. — The  number  of  days  from  October  18  to  the  following  June  9  =  525  — 
291  =  234  days.  Method:  beginning  with  the  later  date  in  left-hand  column,  9  day, 
trace  across  table  the  June  in  second  year,  finding  525;  then  from  18  day  in  left-hand 
column  trace  across  table  to  October  in  first  year  finding  291,  subtracting  this  number 
from  the  former  =  234  days. 

EXAMPLE. — To  find  the  date  upon  which  a  note  given  March  11  for  45  days  will 
become  due:  Find  11  day  in  left-hand  column;  trace  across  table  to  March  finding  70. 
Then  70  +  45  =  115.  Find  115  in  the  table,  observe  the  month  at  the  top  of  column 
(April),  then  trace  to  the  left-hand  column  finding  25.  The  date  is  April  25. 

NOTE. — The  above  table  applies  to  ordinary  years  of  365  days.  For  leap-year  add 
one  day  to  each  number  of  days  after  February  28. 

Longitude.  The  time  required  to  make  one  complete  revolution  of  the  earth  from 
meridian  to  meridian  is  not  only  divided  into  24  hours,  but  it  is  also  divided  into  360 
degrees.  As  the  24  hours  and  360°  are  invariable,  they  bear  a  constant  relation  to 
each  other;  for  example,  360  -5-  24  =  15°  of  the  great  circle  in  one  hour.  Further, 

— — —  =  15'  of  the  great  circle  in  15  minutes  of  time,  and  lastly  — — —  =  15"  of 
ou  60 

the  great  circle  in  15  seconds  of  time.  The  east  and  west  D.°,  M/,  S.",  of  the  great 
circle  are  called  degrees,  minutes,  and  seconds  of  longitude.  The  hour,  with  its  sub- 
divisions of  minutes  and  seconds,  is  reckoned  as  time. 

LONGITUDE  AND  TIME  COMPARED 

15°  in  longitude  =  1  hour  in  time 
15'  in  longitude  =  1  minute  in  time 
15"  in  longitude  =  1  second  in  time 

1°  hi  longitude  =  4  minutes  in  time 

1'  in  longitude  =  4  seconds  in  tune 

1"  in  longitude  =  —  =  0.667  in  time 
lo 

Fractions  of  seconds  are  expressed  decimally. 

Longitude  is  reckoned  along  the  equator  from  the  first  meridian.  There  is  no 
natural  starting-point  for  longitude  as  there  is  for  latitude;  the  latter  is  reckoned  from 
both  sides  of  the  equator  to  the  north  and  south  poles  respectively.  A  quadrant  of 
the  earth's  surface,  or  the  distance  from  the  equator  to  the  pole,  is  divided  into  90°, 
and  again  into  minutes  and  seconds,  and  decimals  of  a  second — of  latitude. 

Longitude  must  have  an  agreed  starting-point;  seafaring  men  have  agreed  upon, 
and  commonly  reckon,  longitude  east  or  west  from  Greenwich,  England.  Any  other 
place  would  answer  equally  well,  such  as  the  longitude  of  Paris,  or  of  Washington, 
but  varying  longitudes  would  result  in  endless  confusion  in  the  use  of  nautical  tables, 
coast  survey  charts,  etc. 

A  navigator's  chief  reliance  is  in  the  accuracy  of  the  ship's  chronometer  as  a  tune- 
piece  which  must  correctly  indicate  Greenwich  time,  by  which  is  meant  that  his  chronom- 
eter must  point  to  12  o'clock  when  the  sun  is  on  the  Greenwich  meridian.  Chronom- 
eters, like  other  trains  of  mechanism,  are  subject  to  variation,  and  the  rate,  whether 
fast  or  slow,  must  be  carefully  noted  when  computing  daily  observations.  Suppose  a 
ship  going  westward  from  Europe,  and  the  noon  observation  to  show  a  variation  of 
3  h.,  36'  slower  than  the  chronometer  or  Greenwich  time,  the  position  of  the  ship  would 
be  54°  west  of  Greenwich  or  within  20°  of  New  York,  for  the  difference  in  time  between 
the  two  meridians  is  the  difference  in  longitude. 


[48] 


METRIC  SYSTEM   OF  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


MtETRIC  SYSTEM  OF  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 

Bureau  of  Standards 

Fundamental  Equivalents.  The  fundamental  unit  of  the  metric  system  is  the 
meter — the  unit  of  length.  From  this  the  units  of  capacity  (liter)  and  of  weight 
(gram)  were  derived.  All  other  units  are  the  decimal  subdivisions  or  multiples  of  these. 
These  three  units  are  simply  related,  e.g.,  for  all  practical  purposes  one  cubic  deci- 
meter equals  one  liter,  and  one  liter  of  water  weighs  one  kilogram.  The  metric  tables 
are  formed  by  combining  the  words  "  meter,"  "  gram,"  and  "  liter  "  with  six  numerical 
prefixes  as  in  the  following  tables: 


Prefixes 

Meaning 

Units 

Milli- 

=  one  thousandth  xA 

v           .001 

Centi- 

=  one  hundredth     y?»< 

r           .01 

Meter  for  length 

Deci- 

=  one-tenth              iV 

.1 

Unit 

=  one 

1. 

Gram  for  weight  or  mass 

Deka- 

=  ten                         \a 

10 

Hecto- 

=  one  hundred        1r~ 

-     100 

Liter  for  capacity 

Kilo- 

=  one  thousand      —  r0- 

MOOO 

All  lengths,  areas,  and  cubic  measures  in  the  following  tables  are  derived  from  the 
international  meter,  the  legal  equivalent  being  1  meter  =  39.37  inches  (law  of  July 
28,  1866).  In  1893  the  United  States  Office  of  Standard  Weights  and  Measures  was 
authorized  to  derive  the  yard  from  the  meter,  using  for  the  purpose  the  relation  legal- 

3  600 

ized  in  1866,  1  yard  equals  ~^z  meter.     The  customary  weights  are  likewise  referred 
o,9o7 

to  the  kilogram  (Executive  order  approved  April  5,  1893).  This  action  fixed  the  values, 
inasmuch  as  the  reference  standards  are  as  perfect  and  unalterable  as  it  is  possible  for 
human  skill  to  make  them. 

All  capacities  are  based  on  the  practical  equivalent  1  cubic  decimeter  equals  1  liter. 
The  decimeter  is  equal  to  3.937  inches,  in  accordance  with  the  legal  equivalent  of  the 
meter  given  above.  The  gallon  referred  to  in  the  tables  is  the  United  States  gallon, 
231  cubic  inches.  The  bushel  is  the  United  States  bushel  of  2,150.42  cubic  inches. 
These  units  must  not  be  confused  with  the  British  units  of  the  same  name,  which  differ 
from  those  used  in  the  United  States.  The  British  gallon  is  approximately  20  per  cent 
larger  and  the  British  bushel  3  per  cent  larger  than  the  corresponding  units  used  in 
this  country. 

The  customary  weights  derived  from  the  international  kilogram  are  based  on  the 
value  1  avoirdupois  pound  =  453.5924277  grams.  This  value  is  carried  out  further 
than  that  given  in  the  law,  but  it  is  in  accord  with  the  latter  as  far  as  it  is  there  given. 
The  value  of  the  troy  pound  is  based  upon  the  relations  just  mentioned,  and  also  the 

5,760 

equivalent  ^7^:;  avoirdupois  pound  equals  1  troy  pound. 
7,000 


[49] 


METRIC  AND  U.  S.  MEASURES 
EQUIVALENTS  OF  METRIC,  UNITED  STATES,  AND  BRITISH  MEASURES 


0123  4m. 

hlilililililili  iliiihlihlih  ilihhlihlili  tlililiiihlilil 

,  COMPARISON  SCALE:  10  CENTIMETERS  AND  4  INCHES.    (ACTUAL  SIZE.) 


LENGTHS 


1  millimeter 0.03937    inch 

1  inch 25.4001      millimeters 

1  centimeter 0.3937      inch 

1  inch 2.54001    centimeters 

meter 3.28083    feet 

foot 0. 304801  meter 

meter 1 .093611  U.  S.  yards 

U.  S.  yard 0.914402  meter 

kilometer 0.62137    U.  S.  mile 

U.  S.  mile 1 .60935    kilometers 

AREAS 

1  square  millimeter 0 . 00155  square  inch 

1  square  inch ' 645 . 16  square  millimeters 

1  square  centimeter 0. 155  square  inch 

1  square  inch 6.452  square  centimeters 

1  square  foot 0 . 0929  square  meter 

1  square  meter 10.764  square  feet 

1  square  yard 0 . 8361  square  meter 

1  square  meter 1 . 196  square  yards 

1  square  kilometer 0 . 3861  square  mile 

1  square  mile 2 . 59  square  kilometers 

1  acre 0.4047  hectare 

1  hectare. 2.471  acres 

VOLUMES 

1  cubic  millimeter 0.000061  cubic  inch 

1  cubic  inch 16387.2  cubic  millimeters 

1  cubic  centimeter 0.061  cubic  inch 

1  cubic  inch 16 . 3872  cubic  centimeters 

1  cubic  foot 0.02832  cubic  meter 

1  cubic  meter 35 . 314  cubic  feet 

1  cubic  yard 0 . 7646  cubic  meter 

1  cubic  meter 1 . 3079  cubic  yards 

[50] 


METRIC  AND  U.  S.  MEASURES 
CAPACITIES 


1  milliliter  (c.c.) 0.03381  U.  S.  liquid  ounce 

1  U.  S.  liquid  ounce . . . . 29 . 574      milliliters  (c.c.) 

1  milliliter  (c.c.) 0. 2705    U.  S.  apothecary's  dram 

1  apothecary's  dram 3 .6967    milliliters  (c.c.) 

1  milliliter  (c.c.) 0.8115    U.  S.  apothecary's  scruple 

1  U.  S.  apothecary's  scruple 1 .2322    milliliters  (c.c.) 

1  U.  S.  liquid  quart 0.94636  liter 

1  Imperial  quart 1 . 1359    liters 

1  liter 1 .05668  U.  S.  liquid  quarts 

1  liter 0.8804    Imperial  quart 

1  liter 0.26417  U.  S.  liquid  gallon 

1  liter 0.2201    Imperial  gallon 

1  U.  S.  liquid  gallon 3.78543  liters 

1  Imperial  gallon 4.5434    liters 

1  liter 0.9081    U.  S.  dry  quart 

1  U.  S.  dry  quart 1.1012    liters 

1  liter 0.11351  U.  S.  peck 

U.  S.  peck 8.8092    liters 

U.  S.  peck 0.881      dekaliter 

dekaliter 1 . 1351    U.  S.  pecks 

U.  S.  bushel 0.35239  hectoliter 

hectoliter 2.83774  U.  S.  bushels 

hectoliter 2.7512    bushels  (British) 

bushel  (British) ... 0.3635    hectoliter 


VOLUME,  AREA,  AND  LENGTH 


METKIC  UNITS  U.  S.  AND  BRITISH  UNITS 

1  cubic  meter  per  lineal  meter 1 . 196    cubic  yards  per  lineal  yard 

1  cubic  yard  per  lineal  yard 0 . 836    cubic  meter  per  lineal  meter 

1  cubic  meter  per  square  meter 3 . 281    cubic  feet  per  square  foot 

1  square  foot  per  square  foot 3 . 048    cubic  meters  per  square  meter 

1  liter  per  square  meter 0.0204  Imperial  gallon  per  square  foot 

1  Imperial  gallon  per  square  foot 48 . 905    liters  per  square  meter 

1  liter  per  square  meter 0.0245  U.  S.  gallon  per  square  foot 

1  U.  S.  gallon  per  square  foot 40. 734    liters  per  square  meter 

WEIGHTS  AND  VOLUMES 

1  grain  per  Imperial  gallon 0.014  gram  per  liter 

1  gram  per  liter 70. 116  grains  per  Imperial  gallon 

1  grain  per  U.  S.  gallon 0.017  gram  per  liter 

1  gram  per  liter 58 . 386  grains  per  U.  S.  gallon 

1  pound  per  Imperial  gallon 0.1        kilogram  per  liter 

1  kilogram  per  liter 10 . 017    pounds  per  Imperial  gallon 

1  pound  per  U.  S.  gallon 0. 1198  kilogram  per  liter 

1  kilogram  per  liter 8 . 345    pounds  per  U.  S.  gallon 

WEIGHT 

1  grain : 0. 0648    gram 

1  gram 15.4324    grains 

1  avoirdupois  ounce 28 . 3495    grams 

1  gram 0 . 03527  avoirdupois  ounce 

1  troy  ounce 31.10348  grams 

1  gram 0 . 03215  troy  ounce 

1  avoirdupois  pound 0.45350  kilogram 

1  kilogram 2.20462  avoirdupois  pounds 

[51] 


METRIC  AND  U.  S.   MEASURES 


EQUIVALENTS  OF  METRIC,  UNITED  STATES,  AND  BRITISH  MEASURES — (Cont.) 

WEIGHT—  (Cont.~) 


1  troy  pound  

0.37324  kilogram 

1  kilogram  

2  .  67923  troy  pounds 

1  troy  pound  '.  .  .  . 

0.00037  metric  ton 

1  metric  ton  

2679.23        troy  pounds 

1  avoirdupois  pound  

0.00045  metric  ton 

1  metric  ton  

2204  .  62        avoirdupois  pounds 

1  short  ton  

0.90718  metric  ton 

1  short  ton  

907  .  18        kilograms 

1  long  ton  

1  .01605  metric  tons 

1  long  ton  

1016  .  05        kilograms 

1  metric  ton  

0.98421  long  ton 

WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


1  pound  per  cubic  inch 0 . 

1  kilogram  per  cubic  centimeter 36 . 

1  pound  per  cubic  foot 16 . 

1  kilogram  per  cubic  meter 0. 

1  pound  per  cubic  yard 0 . 

1  kilogram  per  cubic  meter 1 . 

1  short  ton  per  cubic  yard 1 . 

1  metric  ton  per  cubic  meter 0 . 

1  long  ton  per  cubic  yard 1 . 

1  metric  ton  per  cubic  meter.  .  . . 0. 

1  cubic  inch  per  pound. ....... rrt 36. 

1  cubic  centimeter  per  kilogram D. 

1  cubic  foot  per  pound : 0 . 

1  cubic  meter  per  kilogram 16 . 

1  cubic  yard  per  pound . .  1. 

1  cubic  meter  per  kilogram . 0 . 

1  cubic  yard  per  shert  ton 0. 

cubic  meter  per  metric  ton 1 . 

cubic  yard  per  long  ton 0 . 

cubic  meter  per  metric  ton 1 . 

cubic  meter  per  metric  ton 29 . 

cubic  foot  per  short  ton 0. 

cubic  meter  per  metric  ton 35 . 

cubic  foot  per  long  ton 0 . 

pound  per  foot 1 . 

kilogram  per  meter 0 . 

pound  per  yard . 0 . 

kilogram  per  meter '...... 2 . 

long  ton  per  foot 3333. 

kilogram  per  meter 0 . 

short  ton  per  foot .  . 2775 . 

kilogram  per  meter 

long  ton  per  yard .."... . . . 

metric  ton  per  meter 

short  ton  per  yard 

metric  ton  per  meter 

1  long  ton  per  mile 

1  metric  ton  per  kilometer 

1  short  ton  per  mile 

1  metric  ton  per  kilometer. 


028  kilogram  per  cubic  centimeter 

25  pounds  per  cubic  inch 

02  kilograms  per  cubic  meter 
062  pounds  per  cubic  foot 
593  kilogram  per  cubic  meter 
685  pounds  per  cubic  yard 

187  metric  tons  per  cubic  meter 

843  short  tons  per  cubic  yard 

329  metrie  tons  per  cubic  meter 

752  long  ton  per  cubic  yard 

125  cubic  centimeters  per  kilogram 

028  cubic  inch  per  pound 

062  cubic  meter  per  kilogram 

019  cubic  foot  per  pound 

685  cubic  meters  per  kilogram 

593  cubic  yard  per  pound 

903  cubic  meters  per  metric  ton 

107  cubic  yards  per  short  ton 

752  cubic,  meters  per  metric  ton 

329  cubic  yard  per  long  ton 

879  cubic  feet  per  short  ton 

0335  cubic  meter  per  metric  ton 

882  cubic  feet  per  long  ton 

0279  cubic  meter  per  metric  ton 

488  kilograms  per  meter 

672  pound  per  foot 

496  kilogram  per  meter 

016  pounds  per  yard 

333  kilograms  per  meter 

0003  long  ton  per  foot 
666  kilograms  per  meter 
00036  short  tons  per  foot 
111  metric  tons  per  meter 
9  long  tons  per  yard 
925  metric  tons  per  meter 
081  short  tons  per  yard 

631  metric  tons  per  kilometer 

584  long  tons  per  mile 

758  metric  tons  per  kilometer 

319  short  tons  per  mile 


52 


METRIC  AND  U.  S.   MEASURES 


PRESSURES 


1  pound  per  square  inch 0 . 0007 

1  kilogram  per  square  millimeter 1422.32 

1  pound  per  square  inch 0 . 07 

1  kilogram  per  square  centimeter 14.223 

1 . 0335  kilograms  per  square  centimeter  14 . 7 

14.7  pounds  per  sq.  in.  (1  atmosphere)  0.07 

1  pound  per  square  foot 4 . 883 

1  kilogram  per  square  meter 0.205 

1  short  ton  per  square  inch 1 . 406 

1  kilogram  per  square  millimeter 0.711 

1  long  ton  per  square  inch 1 . 575 

1  kilogram  per  square  millimeter 0 . 635 

1  short  ton  per  square  foot 9 . 764 

1  metric  ton  per  square  meter 0 . 102 

1  long  ton  per  square  foot 10 . 937 

1  metric  ton  per  square  meter .0914 

1  pound  per  square  inch 5.17 

1  centimeter  of  mercury 0 . 193 

1  inch  of  mercury 2 . 54 

1  centimeter  of  mercury 0 . 394 


kilogram  per  square  millimeter 
pounds  per  square  inch 
kilogram  per  square  centimeter 
pounds  per  square  inch 
pounds  per  sq.  in.  (1  atmosphere) 
kilograms  per  square  centimeter 
kilograms  per  square  meter 
pounds  per  square  foot 
kilograms  per  square  millimeter 
short  ton  per  square  inch 
kilograms  per  square  millimeter 
long  tons  per  square  inch 
metric  ton  per  square  meter 
short  ton  per  square  foot 
metric  tons  per  square  meter 
long  ton  per  square  foot 
centimeters  of  mercury 
pound  per  square  inch 
centimeters  of  mercury 
inch  of  mercury 


TIME,  VELOCITY,  SPEED 


foot  per  second  

0  .  305    meter  per  second 

meter  per  second  

3  .  281    feet  per  second 

foot  per  minute  

0  .  305    meter  per  minute 

meter  per  minute  

3  .  281    feet  per  minute 

mile  per  hour  

1  .  609    kilometers  per  hour 

kilometer  per  hour  

0  .  621    mile  per  hour 

cubic  foot  per  second  

0  .  0283  cubic  meter  per  second 

1  cubic  meter  per  second  

35  .  316    cubic  feet  per  second 

1  cubic  yard  per  minute  

0  .  765    cubic  meter  per  minute 

1  cubic  meter  per  minute  

1  .  308    cubic  yard  per  minute 

WORK,  ACTIVITY 


1  foot  pound 

1  kilogrammeter 

1  horsepower 

1  foot-pound  per  second .... 

1  horsepower 

1  foot-pound  per  minute .... 

1  horsepower 

1  kilegrammeter  per  second . 

1  horsepower 

1  cheval 

1  horsepower 

1  kilowatt 

1  cheval 

1  kilogrammeter  per  second. . 

1  cheval 

1  kilogrammeter  per  minute . 

1  cheval , 

1  foot-pound  per  second .... 

1  pound  per  horsepower 

1  kilogram  per  cheval 

1  square  foot  per  horsepower. 


0.138 
7.233 

550.0 

0.0018 
33000.0 

0.00003 
76.0 
0.013 
1.014 
0.986 
0.746 
1.34 
75.0 

0.013 
4500.0 
0.00022 

542.48 
0.0018 
0.447 
2.235 
0.092 


[53] 


kilogrammeter 

foot-pounds 

foot-pounds  per  second 

horsepower 

foot-pounds  per  minute 

horsepower 

kilogrammeters  per  second 

horsepower 

cheval 

horsepower 

kilowatt 

horsepower 

kilogrammeters  per  second 

cheval 

kilogrammeters  per  minute 

cheval 

foot-pounds  per  second 

cheval 

kilogram  per  cheval 

pounds  per  horsepower 

square  meter  per  jsheval 


METRIC  AND  U.  S.   MEASURES 


EQUIVALENTS  OF  METRIC,  UNITED  STATES,   AND  BRITISH  MEASURES — (Cont.) 
WORK,   ACTIVITY — (Cont.) 


square  meter  per  cheval  
cubic  foot  per  horsepower. 

10.913 
0  028 

square  feet  per  horsepower 
cubic  meter  per  cheval 

cubic  meter  per  cheval  

35.806 

cubic  feet  per  horsepower 

foot-ton  (2,240  pounds)  

0.31 

metric  ton-meter 

metric  ton-meter 

3  229 

foot-tons  (2  240  pounds) 

foot-ton  (2,000  pounds)  

0.276 

metric  ton-meter 

metric  ton-meter  

3.616 

foot-tons  (2,000  pounds) 

HEAT 


1  unit  of  heat  B.t.u 

1  calorie 

1  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat 

(772  foot-pounds) 
1  kilogrammeter 


1  metric  mechanical    equivalent  1 
(425  kilogrammeters)  / 

1  heat  unit  per  square  foot 

1  calorie  per  square  meter 

1  heat  unit  per  pound 

1  calorie  per  kilogram 


0.252  calorie 

3.968  units  of  heat  B.t.u. 

10 . 67   kilogrammeters 

0.937  mechanical   equivalent   of  heat 

(772  foot-pounds) 
3074 . 0      foot-pounds  =  774 . 7  foot-pounds 

per  English  unit 
2.713  calories  per  square  meter 
0 . 369  heat  units  per  square  foot 
0 . 556  calorie  per  kilogram 
1 . 8      heat  units  per  pound 


LENGTHS.     FRACTIONS  OF  AN  INCH  TO  MILLIMETERS 
Reduction  factor:  1  inch  =  25.4001  millimeters 


INCH 

Milli- 
meters 

INCH 

Milli- 
meters 

INCH 

Milli- 
meters 

Frac- 
tion 

Decimal 

Frac- 
tion 

Decimal 

Frac- 
tion 

Decimal 

A 

.015625 

.397 

H 

.34375 

8.731 

If 

.671875 

17.066 

& 

.03125 

.794 

M 

.359375 

9.128 

H 

.6875 

17.463 

A 

.046875 

1.191 

t 

.3750 

9.525 

n 

.703125 

17.859 

& 

.0625 

1.588 

If 

.390625 

9.922 

ft 

.71875 

18.256 

& 

.078125 

1.984 

if 

.40625 

10.319 

tt 

.734375 

18.653 

•h 

.09375 

2.381 

H 

.421875 

10.716 

f 

.7500 

19.050 

& 

.109375 

2.778 

& 

.4375 

11.113 

If 

.765625 

19.447 

i 

.1250 

3.175 

M 

.453125 

11.509 

If 

.78125 

19.844 

A 

.140625 

3.572 

If 

.46875 

11.906 

M 

.796875 

20.241 

& 

.15625 

3.969 

ti 

.484375 

12.303 

it 

.8125 

20.638 

H 

.171875 

4.366 

1 

.5000 

12.700 

If 

.828125 

21.034 

A 

.1875 

4.763 

If 

.515625 

13.097 

if 

.84375 

21.431 

H 

.203125 

5.159 

H 

.53125 

13.494 

If 

.859375 

21.828 

& 

.21875 

5.556 

M 

.546875 

13.891 

7 
J 

.875 

22.225 

M 

.234375 

5.953 

A 

.5625 

14.288 

H 

.890625 

22.622 

i 

.2500 

6.350 

H 

.578125 

14.684 

If 

.90625 

23.019 

H 

.265625 

6.747 

H 

.59375 

15.081 

If 

.921875 

23  416 

& 

.28125 

7.144 

M 

.609375 

15.478 

il 

.9375 

23.813 

H 

.296875 

7.541 

I 

.625 

15.875 

H 

.953125 

24.209 

A 

.3125 

7.938 

li 

.640625 

16.272 

ft 

.96875 

24.606 

H 

.328125 

8.334 

f* 

.65625 

16.669 

If 

.984375 

25.003 

i 

1.000 

25.400 

[54] 


INCHES  AND  FRACTIONS  TO  MILLIMETERS 


LENGTHS.    INCHES  AND  FRACTIONS  TO  MILLIMETERS 
Reduction  factors:  ^  inch  =    1 . 5875  millimeters 
1  inch  =25.40      millimeters 


INCHES 

Milli- 
meters 

INCHES 

Milli- 
meters 

INCHES 

Milli- 
meters 

Fractions 

Decimals 

Fractions 

Decimals 

Fractions 

Decimals 

o 

o 

0 

2i 

2.500 

63.5 

5 

127.0 

ft 

.0625 

1.59 

^2 

2& 

2.563 

65.1 

5^ 

5.063 

128.6 

1 

.125 

3.18 

21 

2.625 

66.7 

6| 

5.125 

130.2 

A 

.1875 

4.76 

2H 

2.688 

68.3 

5& 

5.188 

131.8 

i 

.25 

6.35 

2| 

2.750 

69.9 

5J 

5.250 

133.4 

A 

.3125 

7.94 

2H 

2.813 

71.4 

a* 

5.313 

124.9 

I 

.375 

9.53 

21 

2.875 

73.0 

5f 

5.375 

136.5 

ft 

.4375 

11.11 

2H 

2.938 

74.6 

5^ 

5.438 

138.1 

* 

.5 

12.70 

3 

76.2 

5* 

5.500 

139.7 

ft 

.5625 

14.29 

3& 

3.063 

77.8 

5& 

5.563 

141.3 

f 

.625 

15.88 

31 

3.125 

79.4 

5f 

5.625 

142.9 

H 

.6875 

17.46 

3A 

3.188 

81.0 

5H 

5.688 

144.5 

! 

.75 

19.05 

H 

3.250 

82.6 

5f 

5.750 

146.1 

H 

.8125 

20.64 

3& 

3.313 

84.1 

5H 

5.813 

147.6 

1 

.875 

22.23 

3| 

3.375 

85.7 

51 

5.875 

149.2 

H 

.9375 

23.81 

3ft 

3.438 

87.3 

5H 

5.938 

150.8 

i 

25.4 

3? 

3.500 

88.9 

6 

152.4 

l* 

1.063 

27.0 

3A 

3.563 

90.5 

6^ 

6.063 

154.0 

H 

1.125 

28.6 

3f 

3.625 

92.1 

6| 

6.125 

155.6 

ift 

1.188 

30.2 

3H 

3.688 

93.7 

6& 

6.188 

157.2 

i* 

1.250 

31.8 

3* 

3.750 

95.3 

4 

6.250 

158.8 

ift 

.313 

33.3 

3H 

3.813 

96.8 

6A 

6.313 

160.3 

if 

.375 

34.9 

3| 

3.875 

98.4 

6f 

6.375 

161.9 

ift 

.438 

36.5 

3H 

3.938 

100.0 

6* 

6.438 

163.5 

if 

.500 

38.1 

4 

101.6 

61 

6.500 

165.1 

iA 

.563 

39.7 

4^ 

4.063 

103.2 

"2 

6A 

6.563 

166.7 

if 

.625 

41.3 

4i 

4.125 

104.8 

6! 

6.625 

168.3 

1H 

1.688 

42.9 

4A 

4.188 

106.4 

U 

1.750 

44.5 

4i 

4.250 

108.0 

6H 

6.688 

169.9 

m 

1.813 

46.0 

*& 

4.313 

109.5 

61 

6.750 

171.5 

U 

1.875 

47.6 

4f 

4.375 

111.1 

6H 

6.813 

173.0 

in 

1.938 

49.2 

4^ 

4.438 

112.7 

61 

6.875 

174.6 

2 

50.8 

4| 

4.500 

114.3 

6|| 

6.938 

176.2 

2A 

2.063 

52.4 

^•2 

4A 

4.563 

115.9 

"16 

7 

177.8 

2* 

2.125 

54.0 

•^16 

4f 

4.625 

117.5 

7& 

7.063 

179.4 

2& 

2.188 

55.6 

4H 

4.688 

119.1 

7| 

7.125 

181.0 

at 

2.250 

57.2 

4f 

4.750 

120.7 

7A 

7.188 

182.6 

2& 

2.313 

58.7 

4H 

4.813 

122.2 

71 

7.250 

184.2 

2| 

2.375 

60.3 

41 

4.875 

123.8 

7A 

7.313 

185.7 

2& 

2.438 

61.9 

4M 

4.938 

125.4 

7f 

7.375 

187.3 

[55] 


INCHES  AND  FRACTIONS  TO  MILLIMETERS 
LENGTHS.     INCHES  AND  FRACTIONS  TO  MILLIMETERS — (Cont.) 


INCHES 

Milli- 
meters 

INCHES 

Milli- 
meters 

INCHES 

Milli- 
meters 

Fractions 

Decimals 

Fractions 

Decimals 

Fractions 

Decimals 

7* 

7.438 

188.9 

101 

10.250 

260.4 

13* 

13.063 

331.8 

7i 

7.500 

190.5 

10* 

10.313 

261.9 

131 

13.125 

333.4 

7& 

7.563 

192.1 

10f 

10.375 

263.5 

13* 

13  .  188 

335.0 

7f 

7.625 

193.7 

10* 

10.438 

265.1 

131 

13.250 

336.6 

7H 

7.688 

195.3 

iei 

10.500 

266.7 

13* 

13.313 

338.1 

7f 

7.750 

196.9 

10* 

10.563 

268.3 

13| 

13.375 

339.7 

7H 

7.813 

198.4 

10f 

10.625 

269.9 

13* 

13.438 

341.3 

71 

7.875 

200.0 

IOH 

10.688 

271.5 

I3| 

13.500 

342.9 

7M 

7.938 

201.6 

10} 

10.750 

273.1 

10* 

13.563 

344.5 

8 

203.2 

ion 

10.813 

274.6 

131 

13.625 

346.1 

8& 

8.063 

204.8 

»w  i  s 

101 

10.875 

276.2 

*v  8 

13H 

13.688 

347.7 

81 

8.125 

206.4 

IOH 

10.938 

277.8 

13f 

13.750 

349.3 

8A 

8.188 

208.0 

11 

279.4 

13H 

13.813 

350.8 

*-*  1  6 

8* 

8.250 

209.6 

11* 

11.063 

281.0 

•*-*J  1  6 

131 

13.875 

352.4 

8& 

8.313 

211.1 

ill 

11.125 

282.6 

13M 

13.938 

354.0 

81 

8.375 

212.7 

llyt 

11.188 

285.2 

14 

355.6 

^-*8 

8& 

8.438 

214.3 

•*•  •*•  16 

111 

11.250 

285.8 

H* 

14.063 

357.2 

81 

8.500 

215.9 

11* 

11.313 

287.3 

141 

14.125 

358.8 

8A 

8.563 

217.5 

HI 

11.375 

288.9 

14* 

14.188 

360.4 

8f 

8.625 

219.1 

it& 

11.438 

290.5 

141 

14.250 

362.0 

8H 

8.688 

220.7 

11* 

11.500 

292.1 

14* 

14.313 

363.5 

8f 

8.750 

222  3 

11* 

11.563 

293.7 

14! 

14.375 

365.1 

8H 

8.813 

223.8 

HI 

11.625 

295.3 

14* 

14.438 

366.7 

81 

8.875 

225.4 

lift 

11.688 

296.9 

141 

14.500 

368.3 

8H 

8.938 

227.0 

111 

11.750 

298.5 

14* 

14.563 

369.9 

g 

228.6 

11H 

11.813 

300.0 

141 

14.625 

371.5 

»* 

9.063 

230.2 

x  x  1  6 

ill 

11.875 

301.6 

A     8 

14H 

14.688 

373.1 

9| 

9.125 

231.8 

lift 

11.938 

303.2 

14f 

14.750 

374.7 

9A 

9.188 

233.4 

12 

304.8 

14H 

14.813 

376.2 

47  16 

91 

9.250 

235.0 

12* 

12.063 

306.4 

•*••••  1  6 

141 

14.875 

377.8 

9A 

9.313 

236.5 

12| 

12.125 

308.0 

14H 

14.938 

379.4 

91 

9.375 

238.1 

12* 

12.188 

309.6 

15 

381.0 

9& 

9.438 

239.7 

12J 

12.250 

311.2 

15* 

16  !  063 

382.6 

9* 

9.500 

241.3 

12* 

12.313 

312.7 

151 

15.125 

384.2 

9& 

9.563 

242.9 

12| 

12.375 

314.3 

15* 

15.188 

385.8 

9f 

9.625 

244.5 

12* 

12.438 

315.9 

151 

15.250 

387.4 

9H 

9.688 

246.1 

12| 

12.500 

317.5 

15* 

15.313 

388.9 

9! 

9.750 

247.7 

12* 

12.563 

319.1 

16| 

15.375 

390.5  - 

9H 

9.813 

249.? 

12f 

12.625 

320.7 

15* 

15.438 

392.1 

91 

9.875 

250.8 

12ft 

12.688 

322.3 

15| 

15.500 

393.7 

9H 

9.938 

252.4 

12f 

12.750 

323.9 

ISA 

15.563 

395.3 

10 

254.0 

1244 

12.813 

325.4 

151 

15.625 

396.9 

10* 

10.063 

255.6 

*-f  16 

121 

12.875 

327.0 

•*-'-'  8 

158 

15.688 

398.5 

io» 

10.125 

257.2 

12H 

12.938 

328.6 

15} 

15.750 

400.0 

10* 

10.188 

258.8 

13 

330.2 

15H 

15.813 

401.6 

[56] 


INCHES  AND   FRACTIONS  TO  MILLIMETERS 


LENGTHS.     INCHES  AND  FRACTIONS  TO  MILLIMETERS — (Cont.) 


INCHES 

Milli- 
meters 

INCHES 

Milli- 
meters 

INCHES 

Milli- 
meters 

Fractions 

Decimals 

Fractions 

Decimals 

Fractions 

Decimals 

15| 

15H 
16 

1«A 

16| 

16A 

161 
16A 
16f 
16| 

16J 

16A 

16f 

16H 

16f 

16H 
161 
16H 
17 

1*4* 

171 
17A 
17J 
17A 

17| 

17* 

17| 

17A 
17f 

17H 

17! 
17H 
17| 
17H 

18 

ISA 

18| 
ISA 

181 

ISA 

18| 

ISA 

18| 
ISA 

18f 

15.875 

15.938 

403.2 
404.8 
406.4 
408.0 
409.6 

411.2 
412.8 
414.3 
415.9 
417.5 

419.1 
420.7 
422.3 
423.9 
425.5 

427.0 
428.6 
430.2 
431.8 
433.4 

435.0 
436.6 
438.2 
439.7 
441.3 

442.9 
444.5 
446.1 
447.7 
449.3 

450.9 
452.4 
454.0 
455.6 
457.2 

458.8 
460.4 
462.0 
463.6 
465.1 

466.7 
468.3 
469.9 
471.5 
473.1 

tan 

18| 
18H 

181 

ISM 

19 

H>A 

19| 

19A 

m 

19A 

19f 

ISA 
19| 

19A 

19f 

19H 
19f 

19B 
191 

19M 
20 
20^ 
201 
20A 

20i 

20A 
20f 
20^ 

18.688 
18.750 
18.813 
18.875 
18.938 

474.7 
476.3 
477.8 
479.4 
481.0 

482.6 

484.2 
485.8 
487.4 
489.0 

490.5 
492.1 
493.7 
495.3 
496.9 

498.5 
500.1 
501.7 
503.2 
404.8 

506.4 
508.0 
509.6 
511.2 
512.8 

514.4 
515.9 
517.5 
519.1 

21A 
21f 

21A 

21f 
21H 

21f 
21H 

211 
21M 
22 

22^ 
22i 

22^ 
221 
22A 

22f 

22^ 
22* 

22^ 

22f 

22^ 
22f 
22M 
221 
22H 

23 

23A 
231 
23A 
23i 

23A 
23| 

23A 
23J 
23& 

23f 

23H 

23| 
23H 
231 

23M 
24 

24^ 
241 
24^ 

21.438 

21.500 
21.563 
21.625 

21.688 

21.750 
21.813 
21.875 
21.938 

544.5 
546.1 
447.7 
549.3 
550.9 

552.5 
554.0 
555.6 
557.2 

558.8 

560.4 
562.0 
563.6 
565.2 
566.7 

568.3 
569.9 
571.5 
573.1 
574.7 

576.3 
577.9 
579.4 
581.0 
582.6 

584.2 
585.8 
587.4 
589.0 
590.6 

592.1 
593.7 
595.3 
596.9 
598.5 

600.1 
601.7 
603.3 
604.8 
606.4 

608.0 
609.6 
611.2 
612.8 
614.4 

16.063 
16.125 

16.188 
16.250 
16.313 
16.375 
16.438 

16.500 
16.563 
16.625 
16.688 
16.750 

16.813 
16.875 
16.938 

19.063 
19.125 
19.188 
19.250 

19.313 
19.375 
19.438 
19.500 
19.563 

19.625 
19.688 
19.750 
19.813 
19.875 

19.938 

22.063 
22.125 
22.188 
22.250 
22.313 

22.375 
22.438 
22.500 
22.563 
22.625 

22.688 
22.750 
22.813 
22.875 
22.938 

17.063 

17.125 
17.188 
17.250 
17.313 
17.375 

17.438 
17.500 
17.563 
17.625 
17.688 

17.750 
17.813 
17.875 
17.938 

20.063 
20.125 

20.188 

20.250 
20.313 
20.375 
20.438 

23.063 
23  .  125 
23.188 
23.250 

23.313 
23.375 
23.438 
23.500 
23.563 

23.625 
23.688 
23.750 
23.813 
23.875 

23.938 

20£ 
'20& 
20f 
20H 
20| 

20M 
201 
20i£ 
21 
21A 

aij 

21A 
21* 
21A 
21f 

20.500 
20.563 
20.625 
20.688 
20.750 

20.813 
20.875 
20.938 

520.7 
522.3 
523.9 
525.5 
527.1 

528.6 
530.2 
531.8 
533.4 
535.0 

536.6 
538.2 
539.8 
541.3 
542.9 

18.063 
18.125 
18.188 
18.250 
18.313 

18.375 
18.438 
18.500 
18.563 
18.625 

21.063 

21.125 
21.188 
21.250 
21.313 
21.375 

24.063 
24.125 
24.188 

[57] 


INCHES  AND  FRACTIONS  TO  MILLIMETERS 
LENGTHS.     INCHES  AND  FRACTIONS  TO  MILLIMETERS — (Cord.) 


IN 

CHB3 

Milli- 

IN 

CHES 

Milli- 

IN( 

:HES 

Milli- 

Fractions 

Decimals 

meters 

Fractions 

Decimals 

meters 

Fractions 

Decimals 

meters 

241 

24.250 

616.0 

27& 

27.063 

687.4 

291 

29.875 

758.8 

24& 

24.313 

617.5 

27i 

27.125 

689.0 

29H 

29.938 

760.4 

241 

24.375 

619.1 

27  A 

27  .  188 

690.6 

30 

762.0 

w»  8 

24£ 

24.438 

620.7 

Arf*  16 

271 

27.250 

692.2 

30^ 

30.063 

763.6 

24* 

24.500 

622.3 

27A 

27.313 

693.7 

30| 

30.125 

765.2 

24& 

24.563 

623.9 

27| 

27.375 

695.3 

30^ 

,30.188 

766.8 

24f 

24.625 

625.5 

27& 

27.438 

696.9 

301 

30.250 

768.4 

24H 

24.688 

627.1 

27* 

27.500 

698.5 

30& 

30.313 

769.9 

24f 

24.750 

628.7 

27& 

27.563 

700.1 

30| 

30.375 

771.5 

24H 

24.813 

630.2 

27f 

27.625 

701.7 

30^ 

30.438 

773.1 

341 

24.875 

631.8 

27H 

27.678 

703.3 

30* 

30.500 

774.7 

24H 

24.938 

633.4 

27| 

27.750 

704.9 

30& 

30.563 

776.3 

25 

635.0 

27  U 

27.813 

706.4 

301 

30.625 

777.9 

25^ 

25.063 

636.6 

**«   1  $ 

271 

27.875 

708.0 

w  8 

30H 

30.688 

779.5 

25| 

25.125 

638.2 

27H 

27.938 

709.6 

30| 

30.750 

781.1 

25A 

25.188 

639.8 

28 

711.2 

30H 

30.813 

782.6 

251 

25.250 

641.4 

28^ 

28.063 

712.8 

301 

30.875 

784.2 

25& 

25.313 

642.9 

28| 

28.125 

714.4 

30H 

30.938 

785.8 

251 

25.375 

644.5 

28A 

28.188 

716.0 

31 

787.4 

,*rf«_r  5 

25& 

25.438 

646.1 

*j<*j  16 

281 

28.250 

717.6 

31A 

31.063 

789.0 

25* 

25.500 

647.7 

28& 

28.313 

719.1 

3U 

31.125 

790.6 

25& 

25.563 

649.3 

28f 

28.375 

720.7 

31& 

31.188 

792.2 

25f 

25.625 

650.9 

28& 

28.438 

722.3 

311 

31.250 

793.8 

25H 

25.688 

652.5 

28* 

28.500 

723.9 

31A 

31.313 

795.3 

25| 

25.750 

654.1 

28& 

28.563 

725.5 

31f 

31.375 

796.9 

25H 

25.813 

655.5 

28f 

28.625 

727.1 

31& 

31.438 

798.5 

25f 

25.875 

657.2 

28H 

28.688 

728.7 

31* 

31.500 

800.1 

25H 

25.938 

658.8 

28| 

28.750 

730.3 

31A 

31.563 

801.7 

26 



660.4 

28M 

28.813 

731.8 

31f 

31.625 

803.3 

26& 

26.063 

662.0 

281 

28.875 

733.4 

31H 

31.688 

804.9 

26| 

26.125 

663.6 

28H 

28.938 

735.0 

31f 

31.750 

806.5 

26A 

26.188 

665.2 

29 

736.6 

31H 

31.813 

808.0 

A^VF  1$ 

261 

26.250 

666.8 

29& 

29.063 

738.2 

*^     1  6 

311 

31.875 

809.6 

26& 

26.313 

668.3 

29i 

29.125 

739.8 

31H 

31.938 

811.2 

261 

26  .  375 

669.9 

29  A- 

29.188 

741.4 

32 

812.8 

Mpg 

26& 

26.438 

671.5 

^^  16 

291 

29.250 

743.0 

32^ 

32.063 

814.4 

26* 

26.500 

673.1 

29& 

29.313 

744.5 

32* 

32.125 

816.0 

26& 

26.563 

674.7 

29f 

29.375 

746.1 

32^ 

32.188 

817.6 

26f 

26.625 

676.3 

29& 

29.438 

747.7 

321 

32.250 

819.2 

26H 

26.688 

677.9 

29* 

29.500 

749.3 

32^ 

32.313 

820.7 

26f 

26.750 

679.5 

29& 

29.563 

750.9 

32| 

32.375 

822.3 

26H 

26.813 

681.0 

29f 

29.625 

752.5 

32^ 

32.438 

823.9 

261 

26.875 

682.6 

29H 

29.688 

754.1 

32* 

32.500 

825.5 

26M 

26.938 

684.2 

29f 

29.750 

755.7 

32& 

32.563 

827.1 

27 

685.8 

29  H 

29.813 

757.2 

32f 

32.625 

828.7 

••«»  1  6 

[58] 


INCHES  AND  FRACTIONS  TO  MILLIMETERS 
LENGTHS.    INCHES  AND  FRACTIONS  TO  MILLIMETERS — (Con/.) 


INCHES 

Milli- 
meters 

INCHES 

Milli- 
meters 

INCHES 

Milli- 
meters 

Fractions 

Decimals 

Fractions 

Decimals 

Fractions 

Decimals 

32H 

32.688 

830.3 

35^ 

35.188 

893.8 

37H 

37.688 

957.3 

32f 

32.750 

831.9 

351 

35.250 

895.4 

37f 

37.750 

958.9 

32H 

32.813 

833.4 

35& 

35.313 

896.9 

37M 

37.813 

960.4 

32| 

32.875 

835.0 

35| 

35.375 

898.5 

871 

37.875 

962.0 

32f| 

32.938 

836.6 

35& 

35.438 

900.1 

8TH 

37.938 

963.6 

33 

838.2 

354 

35.500 

901.7 

38 

965.2 

33^ 

33.063 

839.8 

*-"-*2 

35& 

35.563 

903.3 

38^ 

38.063 

966.8 

33i 

33.125 

841.4 

35f 

35.625 

904.9 

38i 

38.125 

968.4 

33& 

33.188 

843.0 

35H 

35.688 

906.5 

38A 

38.188 

790.0 

331 

33.250 

844.5 

35| 

35.750 

908.1 

381 

38.250 

971.6 

33& 

33.313 

846.1 

35ff 

35.813 

909.6 

38  A 

38.313 

973.1 

33| 

33.375 

847.7 

35| 

35.875 

911.2 

38| 

38.375 

974.7 

33^ 

33.438 

849.3 

35U 

35.938 

912.8 

38& 

38.438 

976.3 

331 

33.500 

850.9 

36 

914.4 

384 

38.500 

977.9 

uu  2 

33& 

33.563 

852.5 

36^ 

36.063 

916.0 

VF«-*2 

38& 

38.563 

979.5 

33| 

33.625 

854.1 

36i 

36.125 

917.6 

38f 

38.625 

981.1 

33H 

33.688 

855.7 

36^ 

36.188 

919.2 

38H 

38.688 

982.7 

33| 

33.750 

857.3 

361 

36.250 

920.8 

38f 

38.750 

984.3 

33H 

33.813 

858.8 

36& 

36.313 

922.3 

38H 

38.813 

985.8 

33| 

33.875 

860.4 

36| 

36.375 

923.9 

38f 

38.875 

987.4 

33H 

33.938 

862.0 

36^ 

36.438 

925.5 

38H 

38.938 

989.0 

34 

863.6 

364 

36  .  500 

927.1 

39 

990.6 

34^ 

34.063 

865.2 

<-*v/2 

36& 

36.563 

928.7 

39^ 

39.063 

992.2 

34i 

34.125 

866.8 

36f 

36.625 

930.3 

39i 

39.125 

993.8 

34& 

34.188 

868.4 

36H 

36.688 

931.9 

39& 

39.188 

995.4 

341 

34.250 

870.0 

36| 

36.750 

933.5 

391 

39.250 

997.0 

34^ 

34.313 

871.5 

36H 

36.813 

935.0 

39& 

39.313 

998.5 

34f 

34.375 

873.1 

36| 

36.875 

936.6 

39| 

39.375 

1000.1 

34& 

34.438 

874.7 

36M 

36.938 

938.2 

39& 

39.438 

1001.7 

344 

34.500 

876.3 

37 

939.8 

39| 

39.500 

1003.3 

v-r  -»-2 

34& 

34.563 

877.9 

37& 

37.063 

941.4 

39A 

39.563 

1004.9 

34| 

34.625 

879.5 

37| 

37.125 

943.0 

39f 

39.625 

1006.5 

34H 

34.688 

881.1 

37^ 

37.188 

944.6 

39H 

39.688 

1008.1 

34| 

34.750 

882.7 

371 

37.250 

946.2 

39f 

39.750 

1009.7 

34ff 

34.813 

884.2 

37^ 

37.313 

947.7 

39H 

39.813 

1011.2 

34| 

34.875 

885.8 

37| 

37.375 

949.3 

39| 

39.875 

1012.8 

34H 

34.938 

887.4 

37ft 

37.438 

950.9 

39H 

39.938 

1014.4 

35 

889.0 

374 

37.500 

952.5 

40 

1016.0 

35^ 

35:063 

890.6 

***  * 

37^ 

37.563 

954.1 

35i 

35.125 

892.2 

37f 

37.625 

955.7 

[59] 


MILLIMETERS  TO   INCHES 


LENGTHS.    MILLIMETERS  TO  INCHES.     FROM  1  TO  1,000  UNITS 
Reduction  factor:  1  millimeter  =  0.03937  inch 


Mflli-              Milli-              Milli-              Milli-              Milli-              Milli- 
meters   Ins.  meters     Ins.  meters     Ins.  meters     Ins.  meters     Ins.  meters     Ins. 

Milli-               Milli- 
meters    Ins.  meters     Ins. 

0 

5       1.77 

90   =  3.54 

5        5.32 

180  =  7.09 

5        8.86!270   =10.63 

5      12.40 

1    =    .039 

6       1.81 

1        3.58 

6        5.35 

1        7.13 

6       8.90 

1       10.67     6      12.44 

2        .079 

7       1.85 

2       3.62 

7       5.39 

2       7.17 

7        8.94 

2      10.71     7      12.48 

3        .118 

8        1.89 

3       3.66 

8       5.43 

3       7.20 

8        8.98 

3      10.75     8      12.52 

4        .157 

9        1.93 

4       3.70 

9        5.47 

4       7.24 

9        9.02 

4      10.79!    9      12.56 

5        .197 

50  =  1.97 

5       3.74 

140   =  5.51 

5       7.28 

230   =  9.06 

5      10.83^20  =12.60 

6        .236 

1       2.01 

6       3.78 

1        5.55 

6       7.32 

1        9.09 

6      10.87!     1      12.64 

7        .276 

2       2.05 

7       3.82 

2       5.59 

7       7.36 

2        9.13 

7      10.91!    2      12.68 

8        .315 

3       2.09 

8       3.86 

3       5.63 

8       7.40 

3        9.17 

8      10.94     3      12.72 

9        .354 

4       2.13 

9       3.90 

4       5.67 

9       7.44 

4        9.21 

9      10.98     4      12.76 

10  =  .394 

5      '2.17 

100   =  3.94 

5       5.71 

190  =  7.48 

5        9.25J280   =11.02!    5      12.80 

1        .433 

6       2.20 

1        3.98 

6        5.75 

1        7.52 

6       9.29 

1       11.06;    6      12.83 

2        .472 

7       2.24 

2       4.02 

7       5.79 

2       7.56 

7        9.33 

2      11.10;    7      12.87 

3        .512 

8       2.28 

3        4.06 

8       5.83 

3       7.60 

8       9.37 

3      11.14|    8      12.91 

4        .551 

9       2.32 

4       4.09 

9        5.87 

4       7.64 

9        9.41 

4      11.18 

9      12.95 

5        .591 

60   =  2.36 

5       4.13 

150   =  5.91 

5       7.68 

240   =  9.45 

5      11.22 

330  =12.99 

6        .630 

1        2.40 

6       4.17 

1        5.95 

6       7.72 

1        9.49 

6      11.26 

1      13.03 

7        .669 

2        2.44 

7       4.21 

2        5.98 

7       7.76 

2        9.53 

7      11.30 

2      13.07 

8        .709 

3       2.48 

8       4.25 

3        6.02 

8       7.80     3        9.57 

8      11.34 

3      13.11 

9        .748 

4       2.52 

9        4.29 

4       6.06 

9       7.83 

4       9.61 

9      11.38 

4      13.15 

20  =     .79 

5       2.56 

110   =  4.33 

5       6.10 

200  =  7.87     5       9.65 

290   =11.42 

5      13.19 

1          .83 

6       2.60 

1        4.37 

6       6.14 

1        7.91:    6       9.69 

1      11.46     6      13.23 

2         .87 

7       2.64 

2       4.41 

7       6.18 

2       7.95 

7       9.72 

2      11.50 

7      13.27 

3          .91 

8       2.68 

3        4.45 

8       6.22 

3       7.99 

8       9.76 

3      11.54 

8      13.31 

4         .94 

9        2.72 

4       4.49 

9       6.26 

4       8.03 

9       9.80 

4      11.57 

9      13.35 

5         .98 

70  =  2.76 

5       4.53 

160  =  6.30 

5       8.07 

250   =  9.84 

5      11.61 

340  =13.39 

6          .02 

1        2.80 

6       4.57 

1       6.34 

6       8.11 

1        9.88 

6      11.65     1      13.43 

7          .06 

2       2.83 

7       4.61 

2       6.38 

7       8.15 

2        9.92 

7      11.69     2      13.46 

8          .10 

3        2.87 

8        4.65 

3       6.42 

8       8.19 

3        9.96 

8      11.73 

3      13.50 

9          .14 

4       2.91 

9       4.69 

4       6.46 

9       8.23 

4      10.00 

9      11.77 

4      13.54 

30  =     .18 

5       2.95 

120   =  4.72 

5       6.50 

210  =  8.27 

5      13.04300  =11.81 

5      13.58 

1          .22 

6       2.99 

1        4.76 

6       6.54 

1       8.31 

6      10.08 

1       11.85 

6      13.62 

2          .26 

7       3.03 

2       4.80 

7       6.57 

2       8.3£ 

7      10.12 

•2      11.89 

7      13.66 

3          .30 

8       3.07 

3        4.84 

8       6.61 

3       8.39 

8      10.16 

3      11.93!    8      13.70 

4          .34 

9       3.11 

4        4.88 

9       6.65 

4       8.43 

9      10.20 

4      11.97     9      13.74 

5       1.38 

80   =  3.15 

5        4.92 

170  =  6.69 

5        8.46260   =10.24 

5      12.01350  =13.78 

6       1.42 

1        3.19     6       4.96 

1        6.73 

6       8.50:     1       10.28 

6      12.05     1      13.82 

7       1.46 

2       3.23!    7        5.00 

2       6.77 

7        8.54 

2      10.31 

7      12.09     2      13.86 

8       1.50 

3       3.27 

8        5.04 

3       6.81 

8        8.58 

3      10.35 

8      12.13 

3      13.90 

9       1.54 

4       3.31 

9        5.08 

4       6.85 

9       8.62 

4      10.39 

9      12.17 

4      13.94 

40  =  1.57 

5        3.35 

139   =  5.12 

5       6.89 

220   =  8.66 

5      10.43310   =12.20 

5      13.98 

1        1.61 

6        3.39 

1        5.16 

6       6.93 

1        8.70 

6      10.47 

1      12.24 

6      14.02 

2       1.65 

7       3.43 

2       5.20 

7       697 

2       8.74 

7      10.51 

2      12.28 

7      14.06 

3       1.69 

8       3.46 

3       5.24 

8       7.01 

3       8.78 

8      10.55 

3      12.32     8      14.09 

4       1.73 

9       3.50 

4       5.28 

9       7.05 

4       8.82 

9      10.59 

4      12.36 

9      14.13 

[60] 


MILLIMETERS  TO  INCHES 


LENGTHS.    MILLIMETERS  TO  INCHES — (Cont.) 


Milli- 
meters   Ins. 

Milli- 
meters   Ins. 

Milli- 
meters   Ins. 

Milli- 
meters    Ins. 

Milli- 
meters    Ins. 

Milli- 
meters   Ins. 

Milli-              Milli- 
meters   Ins.  meters     Ins. 

360  =14.17 

5      15.94 

450  =17.72 

5      19.49 

540   =21.26 

5      23.03 

630   =24.80 

5      26.57 

1      14.21 

6      15.98 

1      17.76 

6      19.53 

1      21.30 

6      23.07 

1      24.84 

6      26.61 

2      14.25 

7      16.02 

2      17.80 

7      19.57 

2      21.34 

7      23.11 

2      24.88 

7      26.65 

3      14.29 

8      16.06 

3      17.83 

8      19.61 

3      21.38 

8      23.15 

3      24.92 

8      26.69 

4      14.33 

9      16.10 

4      17.87 

9      19.65 

4      21.42 

9      23.19 

4      24.96 

9      26.73 

5      14.37 

410   =16.14 

5      17.91 

500  =19.69 

5      21.46 

590   =23.23 

5      25.00 

680  =26.77 

6      14.41 

1      16.18 

6      17.95 

1      19.72 

6      21.50 

1      23.27 

6      25.04 

1      26.81 

7      14.45 

2      16.22 

7      17.99 

2      19.76 

7      21.54 

2      23.31 

7      25.08 

2      26.85 

8      14.49 

3      16.26 

8      18.03 

3    .  19.80 

8      21.57 

3      23.35 

8      25.12 

3      26.89 

9      14.53 

4      16.30 

9      18.07 

4      19.84 

9      21.61 

4      23.39 

9      25.16 

4      26.93 

370  =14.57 

5      16.34 

460   =18.11 

5      19.88 

550   =21.65 

5      23.43 

640  =25.20 

5      26.97 

1      14.61 

6      16.38 

1      18.15 

6      19.92 

1      21.69 

6      23.46 

1      25.24 

6      27.01 

2      14.65 

7      16.42 

2      18.19 

7      19.96 

2      21.73 

7      23.50 

2      25.28 

7      27.05 

3      14.69 

8      16.46 

3      18.23 

8      20.00 

3      21.77 

8      23.54 

3      25.31 

8      27.09 

4      14.72 

9      16.50 

4      18.27 

9      20.04 

4      21.81 

9      23.58 

4      25.35 

9      27.13 

5      14.76 

420   =16.54 

5      18.31 

510  =20.08 

5      21.85 

600   =23.62 

5      25.39 

690  =27.17 

6      14.80 

1      16.57 

6      18.35 

1      20.12 

6      21.89 

1      23.66 

6      25.43 

1      27.20 

7      14.84 

2      16.61 

7      18.39 

2      20.16 

7      21.93 

2      23.70 

7      25.47 

2      27.24 

8      14.88 

3      16.65 

8      18.43 

3      20.20 

8      21.97 

3      23.74 

8      25.51 

3      27.28 

9      14.92 

4      16.69 

9      18.46 

4      20.24 

9      22.01 

4      23.78 

9      25.55 

4      27.32 

380   =14.96 

5      16.73 

470   =18.50 

5      20.28 

560   =22.05 

5      23.82 

650  =25.59 

5      27.36 

1      15.00 

6      16.77 

1      18.54 

6      20.31 

1      22.09 

6      23.86 

1      25.63 

6      27.40 

2      15.04 

7      16.81 

2      18.58 

7      20.35 

2      22.13 

7      23.90 

2      25.67 

7      27.44 

3      15.08 

8      16.85 

3      18.62 

8      20.39 

3      22.17 

8      23.94 

3      25.71 

8      27.48 

4      15.12 

9      16.89 

4      18.66 

9      20.43 

4      22.20 

9      23.98 

4      25.75 

9      27.52 

5      15.16 

430   =16.93 

5      18.70 

520  =20.47 

5      22.24 

610   =24.02 

5      25.79 

700  =27.56 

6      15.20 

1      16.97 

6      18.74 

1      20.51 

6      22.28 

1      24.06 

6      25.83 

1      27.60 

7      15.24 

2      17.01 

7      18.78 

2      20.55 

7      22.32 

2      24.09 

7      25.87 

2      27.64 

8      15.28 

3      17.05 

8      18.82 

3      20.59 

8      22.36 

3      24.13 

8      25.91 

3      27.68 

9      15.31 

4      17.09 

9      18.86 

4      20.63 

9      22.40 

4      24.17 

9      25.94 

4      27.72 

390  =15.35 

5      17.13 

480  =18.90 

5      20.67 

570  =22.44 

5      24.21 

660  =25.98 

5      27.76 

1      15.39 

6      17.17 

1      18.94 

6      20.71 

1      22.48 

6      24.25 

1      26.02 

6      27.80 

2      15.43 

7      17.20 

2      18.98 

7      20.75 

2      22.52 

7      24.29 

2      26.06 

7      27.83 

3      15.47 

8      17.24 

3      19.02 

8      20.79 

3      22.56 

8      24.33 

3      26.10 

8      27.87 

4      15.51 

9      17.28 

4      19.06 

9      20.83 

4      22.60 

9      24.37 

4      26.14 

9      27.91 

5      15.55 

440   =17.32 

5      19.09 

530  =20.87 

5      22.64 

620   =24.41 

5      26.18 

710   =27.95 

6      15.59 

1      17.36 

6      19.13 

1      20.91 

6      22.68 

1      24.45 

6      26.22 

1      27.99 

7      15.63 

2      17.40 

7      19.17 

2      20.94 

7      22.72 

2      24.49 

7      26.26 

2      28.03 

8      15.67 

3      17.44 

8      19.21 

3      20.98 

8      22.76 

S3      24.53 

8      26.30 

3      28.07 

9      15.71 

4      17.48 

9      19.25 

4      21.02 

9      22.80 

4      24.57 

9      26.34 

4      28.11 

400  =15.75 

5      17.52 

490  =19.29 

5      21.06 

580   =22.83 

5      24.61 

670  =26.38 

5      28.15 

1      15.79 

6      17.56 

1      19.33 

6      21.10 

1      22.87 

6      24.65 

1      26.42 

6      28.19 

2      15.83 

7      17.60 

2      19.37 

7      21.14 

2      22.91 

7      24.68 

2      26.46 

7      28.23 

3      15.87 

8      17.64 

3      19.41 

8      21.18 

3      22.95 

8      24.72 

3      26.50 

8      28.27 

4      15.91 

9      17.68 

4      19.45 

9      21.22 

4      22.99 

9      24.76 

4      26.54 

9      28.31 

[611 


MILLIMETERS  TO  INCHES 


LENGTHS.    MILLIMETERS  TO  INCHES — (Cont.) 


Milli- 
meters   Ins. 

Milli- 
meters   Ins. 

Milli- 
meters   Ins. 

Milli- 
meters    Ins. 

Milli- 
meters   Ins. 

Milli- 
meters   Ins. 

Milli- 
meters   Ins. 

Milli- 
meters   Ins. 

720  =28.35 

5      29.72 

790   =31.10 

5      32.48 

860   =33.86 

5      35.24 

930  =36.61 

5    37.99 

1      28.39 

6      29.76 

1      31.14 

6      32.52 

1      33.90 

6      35.28 

1      36.65 

6    38.03 

2      28.43 

7      29.80 

2      31.18 

7      32.56 

2      33.94 

7      35.31 

2      36.69 

7    38.07 

3      28.46 

8      29.84 

3      31.22 

8     32.60 

3      33.98 

8      35.35 

3      36.73 

8    38.11 

4      28.50 

9      29.88 

4      31.26 

9      32.64 

4      34.02 

9      35.39 

4      36.77 

9    38.15 

5      28.54 

760   =29.92 

5      31.30 

830  =32.68 

5      34.06 

900  =35.43 

5      36.81 

970=38.19 

6      28.58 

1      29.96 

6      31.34 

1      32.72 

6      34.09 

1      35.47 

6      36.85 

1    38.23 

7      28.62 

2      30.00 

7      31.38 

2      32.76 

7      34.13 

2      35.51 

7      36.89 

2    38.27 

8      28.66 

3      30.04 

8      31.42 

3      32.80 

8      34.17 

3      35.55 

8      36.93 

3    38.31 

9      28.70 

4      30.08 

9      31.46 

4      32.83 

9      34.21 

4      35.59 

9      36.97 

4    38.35 

730  =28.74 

5      30.12 

800  =31.50 

5     32.87 

870  =34.25 

5      35.63 

940   =37.01 

5    38.39 

1      28.78 

6      30.16 

1     31.54 

6     32.91 

1      34.29 

6      35.67 

1      37.05 

6    38.43 

2      28.82 

7      30.20 

2     31.57 

7     32.95 

2     34.33 

7      35.71 

2      37.09 

.  7    38.46 

3      28.86 

8      30.24 

3     31.61 

8     32.99 

3      34.37 

8      35.75 

3      37.13 

8    38.50 

4      28.90 

9      30.28 

4     31.65 

9     33.03 

4      34.41 

9      35.79 

4     37.17 

9    38.54 

5      28.94 

770  =30.31 

5     31.69 

840  =33.07 

5      34.45 

910  =35.83 

5      37.20 

980=38.58 

6      28.98 

1      30.35 

6     31.73 

1      33.11 

6      34.49 

1      35.87 

6      37.24 

1    38.62 

7      29.02 

2      30.39 

7     31.77 

2     33.15 

7      34.53 

2      35.91 

7      37.28 

2    38.66 

8      29.06 

3      30.43 

8     31.81 

3     33.19 

8      34.57 

3      35.94 

8      37.32 

3    38.70 

9      29.09 

4      30.47 

9     31.85 

4     33.23 

9      34.61 

4      35.98 

9      37.36 

4    38.74 

740  =29.13 

5      30.51 

810  =31.89 

5     33.27 

880  =34.65 

5      36.02 

950   =37.40 

5    38.78 

1      29.17 

6      30.55 

1      31.93 

6     33.31 

1      34.68 

6      36.06 

1      37.44 

6    38.82 

2      29.21 

-7      30.59 

2     31.97 

7     33.25 

2      34.72 

7      36.10 

2      37.48 

7    38.86 

3      29.25 

8      30.63 

3     32.01 

8     33.39 

3      34.76 

8      36.14 

3      37.52 

8    38.90 

4      29.29 

9      30.67 

4     32.05 

9     33.43 

4      34.80 

9      36.18 

4     37.56 

9    38.94 

5     29.33 

780  =30.71 

5     32.09 

850  =33.46 

5      34.84 

920  =36.22 

5     37.60 

990=38.98 

6     29.37 

1      39.75 

6     32.13 

1     33.50 

6      34.88 

1      36.26 

6      37.64 

1    39.02 

7     29'.  41 

2     30.79 

7     32.17 

2     33.54 

7      34.92 

2      36.30 

7      37.68 

2    39.06 

8      29.45 

3      30.83 

8     32.20 

3     33.58 

8     34.96 

3      36.34 

8      37.72 

3    39.09 

9     29.49 

4      30.87 

9     32.24 

4     33.62 

9      35.00 

4      36.38 

9      37.76 

4    39.13 

750  =29.53 

5     30.91 

820  =32.28 

5     33.66 

890  =35.04 

5      36.42 

960  =37.80 

5    39.17 

1      29.57 

6      30.94 

1      32.32 

6     33.70 

1      35.08 

6     36.46 

1     37.83 

6    39.21 

2      29.61 

7      30.98 

2     32.36 

7     33.74 

2      35.12 

7      36.50 

2     37.87 

7    39.25 

3      29.65 

8      31.02 

3     32.40 

8     33.78 

3      35.16 

8      36.54 

3     37.91 

8    39.29 

4      29.68 

9      31.06 

4      32.44 

9     33.82 

4      35.20 

9      36.57 

°7.95 

9    39.33 

1000    39.37 

1000  millimeters  =  1  meter  =39.37  inches  =  3.28  feet  =  1.09  yards. 


[62] 


CUSTOMARY  TO   METRIC   UNITS 


COMPARISON  OF  CUSTOMARY  AND  METFJC  UNITS  FROM  1  TO  10 

Reduction  factors:  1  meter  =  39.37  inches 

1  inch     =  25 . 4001  millimeters 

LENGTHS 


Inches       Millimeters 

Ins.    Centimeters 

Feet           Meters 

U.S.Yds.   Meters 

U.S.  Miles.  Kilom. 

0.039  =  1 
.079=2 
.118  =  3 
.157=4 
.197  =  5 

0.394=   1 
.787=  2 
1        =  2.540 
1.181=  3 
1.575=  4 

1         =0.305 
2        =   .610 
3        =   .914 
3.281  =  1 
4        =1.219 

1        =0.914 
1.094  =  1 
2        =1.829 
2.187=2 
3        =2.743 

0.621=   1 
1        =   1.609 
1.243=  2 
1.864=  3 
2        =  3.219 

.236  =  6 
.276  =  7 
.315=8 
.354=9 

1.969=  5 
2        =  5.080 
2.362=  6 
2.756=  7 

5        =1.524 
6        =1.829 
6.562  =  2 
7        =2.134 

3.281=3 
4        =3.658 
4.374=4 
5        =4.572 

2.485=  4 
3        =  4.828 
3.107=  5 
3.728=  6 

1=  25.400 
2=  50.800 
3=  76.200 
4  =  101.600 
5  =  127.000 

3        =  7.620 
3.150=  8 
3.543=  9 
4        =10.160 
5        =12.700 

8        =2.438 
9        =2.743 
9.843=3 
13.123=4 
16.404=5 

5.468  =  5 
6        =5.486 
6.562  =  6 
7        =6.401 
7.655  =  7 

4        =  6.437 
4.350=  7 
4.971=  8 
5        =  8.047 
5.592=  9 

6  =  152.400 
7  =  177.800 
8=203.200 
9=228.600 

6        =15.240 
7        =17.780 
8        =20.320 
9        =22.860 

19.685=6 
22.966  =  7 
26.247=8 
29.528  =  9 

8        =7.315 
8.749=8 
9        =8.230 
9.843=9 

6        =  9.656 
7        =11.265 
8        =12.875 
9        =14.484 

COMPARISON  OF  CUSTOMARY  AND  METRIC  UNITS  FROM  1  TO  10 

Reduction  factors: 

1  sq.  meter          =  1 . 196  sq.  yard  1  sq.  yard  = 

1  sq.  meter          =  10 . 764  sq.  foot  1  sq.  foot  = 

1  sq.  centimeter  =  0.155  sq.  inch  1  sq.  inch 


0.836  sq.  meter 
0. 0929  sq.  meter 
6 . 452  sq.  centimeter 


1  sq.  centimeter  =    0.155     sq.  inch  1  sq.  inch  =      6.452    sq.  centimeter 

1  sq.  millimeter  =    0.00155  sq.  inch  1  sq.  inch  =  645.16     sq.  millimeter 


AREAS 


Square 
Inches 

Square 
Millimeters 

Square         Square 
Inches      Centimeters 

Square 
Feet 

Square 
Meters 

Square      Square 
Yards        Meters 

Square     Square 
Mil^s  Kilometers 

0.002 

=    1 

0.155=  1 

1 

=0.093 

1        =0.836 

0.386=    1 

.003 

=  2 

.310=  2 

2 

=  .186 

1.196  =  1 

.772=  2 

.005 

=  3 

.465=  3 

3 

=  .279 

2        =1.672 

1         =  2.59 

.006 

=  4 

.620=  4 

4 

=  .372 

2.392=2 

1.158=  3 

.008 

=   5 

.775=  5 

5 

=   .465 

3        =2.508 

1.544=  4 

.009 

=  6 

.930=  6 

6 

=   .557 

3.588  =  3 

1.931=  5 

.011 

=  7 

1        =  6.452 

7 

=  .650 

4        =3.345 

2        =  5.18 

.012 

=  '8 

1.085=  7 

8 

=  .743 

4.784=4 

2.317=  6 

.014 

=  9 

1.240=  8 

9 

=   .836 

5        =4.181 

2.703=  7 

[63] 


CUSTOMARY  TO  METRIC  UNITS 
COMPARISON  OF  CUSTOMARY  AND  METRIC  UNITS  FROM  1  TO 
AREAS — (Cont.) 


Square          Square 
Inches      Millimeters 

Square          Square 
Inches      Centimeters 

Square       Square 
Feet          Meters 

Square       Square 
Yards        Meters 

Square    Square 
Miles     Kilometers 

1  =    645.16 
2  =  1290.33 
3  =  1935.49 
4  =  2580.65 
5  =  3225.81 

1.395  =    9 
2          =  12.903 
3          =  19.355 
4          =  25.807 
5          =  32.258 

10.764   =  1 
21.528   =  2 
32.292   =  3 
43.055   =  4 
53.819   =  5 

5.980  =  5 
6        =5.017 
7        =5.853 
7.176  =  6 

8        =6.689 

3        =  7.77 
3.089=  8 
3.475=  9 
4        =10.36 
5        =12.95 

6  =  3870.98 
7  =  4516.14 
8  =  5161.30 
9  =  5806.46 

6          =  38.710 
7          =  45.161 
8          =  51.613 
9          =  58.065 

64.583  =  6 
75.347  =  7 
86.111   =  8 
96.875  =  9 

8.372  =  7 
9        =7.525 
9.568=8 
10.764  =  9 

6        =15.54 
7        =18.13 
8        =20.72 
9        =23.31 

COMPARISON  OF  CUSTOMARY  AND  METRIC  UNITS  FROM  1  TO  10 


Reduction  factors: 

1  cu.  meter  =  1.308 
1  cu.  meter  =  35.314 
1  cu.  centimeter  =  0.061 


cu.  yd 
cu.  ft. 
cu.  HI. 


1  cu.  millimeter  =    0.000061  cu.  in. 


1  cu.  yd.  =    0. 765  cu.  meter 
1  cu.  ft.  =    0. 028  cu.  meter 
1  cu.  in.  =  16.387  cu.  centimeters 
1  cu.  in.  =  16.387  cu.  millimeters 


VOLUMES 


Cubic          Cubic 
Inches     Millimeters 

Cubic          Cubic 
Inches   Centimeters 

Cubic         Cubic 
Feet           Meters 

Cubic         Cubic 
Yards        Meters 

Acres        Hectares 

.000061=1 

0.061  =  1 

1=0.028 

1         =0.765 

1         =0.405 

.000122  =  2 

.122  =  2 

2=    .057 

1.308  =  1 

2         =    .809 

.000183=3 

.183=3 

3=    .085 

2         =1.529 

2.471  =  1 

.000244=4 

.244  =  4 

4=    .113 

2.616=2 

3         =1.214 

.000305  =  5 

.305=5 

5=    .142 

3         =2.294 

4         =1.619 

.000366  =  6 

.366  =  6 

6=    .170 

3.924=3 

4.942  =  2 

.000427  =  7 

.427=7 

7=    .198 

4         =3.058 

5         =2.023 

.000488=8 

.488=8 

8=    .227 

5         =3.823 

6         =2.428 

.000549=9 

.549  =  9 

9=    .255 

5.  232  ='4 

7         =2.833 

1=   16387 

.      1=   16.387 

35.314  =  1 

6          =4.587 

7.413=3 

2=  32774 

2=  32.774 

70.629  =  2 

6.540  =5 

8         =3.238 

3=  49162 

3=  49.162 

105.943=3 

7          =5.352 

9         =3.642 

4=  65549 

4=  65.549 

141.258=4 

7.848  =6 

9.884  =  4 

5=  81936 

5=  81.936 

176.572=5 

8          =6.117 

12.355=5 

6=  98323 

6=  98.323 

211.887=6 

9          =6.881 

14.826=6 

7  =  114710 

7  =  114.710 

247.201=7           9.156  =7 

17.297  =  7 

8  =  131097 

8  =  131.097 

282.516=8         110.464  =8 

19.768  =  8 

9  =  147485 

9  =  147.485 

317.830  =  9 

11.772  =9 

22.239  =  9 

AREAS — 
Continued 


[64] 


CUSTOMARY  TO  METRIC  UNITS 


COMPARISON  OF  CUSTOMARY  AND  METRIC  UNITS  FROM  1  TO  10 
Reduction  factors  are  as  given  in  first  line  of  each  measure 

CAPACITIES 


U.  S.            Milli- 
Liquid          liters 
Ounces          (cc.) 

U.  S.              Milli- 
Apoth              liters 
Drams              (cc.) 

U.  S.            Milli- 
Apoth,            liters 
Scruples           (cc.) 

U.S. 
Liquid         Liters 
Quarts 

U.S. 
Liquid 
Gallons 

Liters 

0.03381=1 

0.2705=   1 

0.8115=   1 

1         =0.94636 

0.26417 

=    1 

.068     =  2 

.541    =  2 

1           =   1.2322 

1.057  =  1 

.528 

=   2 

.101      =3 

.812   =  3 

1.623   =  2 

2         =1.893 

.793 

=  3 

.135     =  4. 

1           =  3.6967 

2           =  2.465 

2.113=2 

1 

=  3.78543 

.169     =5 

1.082   =  4 

2.435   =  3 

3         =2.839 

1.057, 

=  4 

.203     =6 

1.353    =  5 

3           =  3.697 

3.170  =  3 

1.321 

=  5 

.237     =  7 

1.623   =  6 

3.246   =  4 

4         =3.785 

1.585 

=  6 

.271      =8 

1.894   =  7 

4           =  4.929 

4.227=4 

1.849 

rj 

.304     =9 

2           =  7.393 

4.058   =  5 

5         =4.732 

2 

=  7.571 

1=  29.574 

2.164   =  8 

4.869   =  6 

5.283=5 

2.113 

0 

—    o 

2=  59.147 

2.435   =  9 

5           =  6.161 

6         =5.678 

2.378 

=  9 

3=  88.721 

3           =11.090 

5.681    =  7 

6.340  =  6 

3 

=  11.356 

4  =  118.295 

4           =14.787 

6           =  7.393 

7         =6.625 

4 

=  15.142 

5  =  147.869 

5           =18.484 

6.492   =  8 

7.397=7 

5 

=  18.927 

6  =  177.442 

6           =22.180 

7           =  8.626 

8         =7.571 

6 

=22.713 

7=207.016 

7           =25.877 

7.304   =  9 

8.453=8 

7 

=  26.498 

8  =  236.590 

8           =29.574 

8           =  9.858 

9         =8.517 

8 

=  30.283 

9  =  266.163 

9           =33.270 

9           =11.090 

9.510=9 

9 

=  34.069 

COMPARISON  OF  CUSTOMARY  AND  METRIC  UNITS  FROM  1  TO  10 


CAPACITIES — (Cont.) 


U.S. 
Dry                  Liters 
Quarts 

§£     "- 

U.  S.            Deka- 
Pecks            liters 

U.  S.           Hecto- 
Bushels         liters 

U.  S.          Hectoliters 
Bushels                    per 
per  Acre          Hectare 

0.9081=1 

0.11351=   1 

1             =0.8810 

1         =0.35239 

1             =0.87078 

1           =1.1012 

.227     =  2 

1.1351  =  1 

2        =   .705 

1.14840  =  1 

1.816   =2 

.341      =  3 

2          =1.762 

2.838  =  1 

2            =1.742 

2           =2.203 

.454     =  4 

2.270   =2 

3        =1.057 

2.967     =2 

2.724   =3 

.568     =  5 

3          =2.643 

4        =1.410 

3            =2.612 

3           =3.304 

.681      =  6 

3.405   =3 

5        =1.762 

3.445     =3 

3.632   =4 

.795     =  7 

4          =3.524 

5.675=2 

4            =3.483 

4           =4.405 

.908     =  8 

4.540   =4 

6        =2.114 

4.594     =4 

4.540   =5 

1            =  8.810 

5          =4.405 

7        =2.467 

5            =4.354 

5           =5.506 

1.022     =  9 

5.676   =5 

8        =2.819 

5.742     =5 

5.449   =6 

2            =17.620 

6          =5.286 

8.513=3 

6            =5.225 

6           =6.607 

3            =26.429 

6.811    =6 

9        =3.172 

6.890     =6 

6.357   =7 

4            =35.239 

7          =6.167 

11.351=4 

7            =6.095 

7           =7.709 

5            =44.049 

7.946   =7 

14.189=5 

8            =6.966 

7.265   =8 

6            =52.859 

8          =7.048 

17.026=6 

8.039     =7 

8           =8.810 

7            =61.669 

9          =7.929 

19.864  =  7 

9            =7.837 

8.173   =9 

8            =70.479 

9.081    =8 

22.702=8 

9.187     =8 

9           =9.911 

9            79.288 

10.216   =9 

25.540  =  9 

10.336     =9 

[65] 


CUSTOMARY  TO  METRIC  UNITS 


COMPARISON  OF  CUSTOMARY  AND  METRIC  UNITS  FROM  1  TO  10 
Reduction  factors  are  as  given  in  first  line  of  each  measure 

MASSES 


Grains     Grains 

Avoir- 
dupois    Grams 
Ounces 

Su^ces    Grams 

Avoir- 
dupois 
Pounds 

Kilograms 

Troy 
Pounds 

Kilograms 

1=0.06480 

0.03527  =  1 

0.03215  =  1 

1 

=0.45359 

1 

=0.37324 

2  =   .130 

.071     =2 

.064     =2 

2 

=    .907 

2 

=   .746 

3=    .194 

.106     =3 

.096     =3 

2.20462 

=  1 

2.67923 

=  1 

4=    .259 

.141     =4 

.129     =4 

3 

=  1.361 

3 

=  1.120 

5=    .324 

.176     =5 

.161      =5 

4 

=  1.814 

4 

=  1.493 

6=    .389 

.212     =6 

.193     =6 

4.409 

=2 

5 

=  1.866 

7  =    .454 

.247     =7 

.225     =7 

5 

=2.268 

5.358 

=  2 

8=   .518 

.282     =8 

.257     =8 

6 

=2.722 

6 

=2.239 

9=    .583 

.317     =9 

.289     =9 

6.614 

=3 

7 

=2.613 

15.4324  =  1 

1=  28.3495 

1=  31.10348 

7 

=3.175 

8 

=2.986 

30.865   =2 

2=  56.699 

2=  62.207 

8 

=3.629 

8.038 

=  3 

46.297   =3 

3=  85.049 

3=  93.310 

8.818 

=4 

9 

=3.359 

61.729   =4 

4  =  113.398 

4  =  124.414 

9 

=4.082 

10.717 

=4 

77.162   =5 

5  =  141.748 

5  =  155.517 

11.023 

=  5 

13.396 

=  5 

92.594   =6 

6  =  170.098 

6  =  186.621 

13.228 

=  6 

16.075 

=6 

108.027   =7 

7  =  198.447 

7  =  217.724 

15.432 

=  7 

18.755 

=7 

123.459   =8 

8=226.796 

8=248.828 

17.637 

=8 

21.434 

=8 

138.891   =9 

9  =  255.146 

9=279.931 

19.842 

=  9 

24.113 

=9 

[66] 


CUSTOMARY  TO  METRIC  UNITS 


COMPARISON  OF  THE  VARIOUS  TONS  AND  POUNDS  IN 
USE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

FROM  i  TO  10  UNITS. 


LONO  TONS. 

SHORT  TONS. 

METRIC  TONS. 

KILOGRAMS. 

AVOIRDUPOIS 
POUNDS. 

TROT  POUNDS. 

.00036735 

.00041143 

.00037324 

.37324 

.822857 

1 

.00044643 

.00050000 

.00045359 

.45369 

1 

1.21528 

.00073469 

.00082286 

.00074648 

.74648 

1.64571 

2 

.00089286 

.00100000 

.00090718 

.90718 

2 

2.43066 

.00098421 

.00110231 

.00100000 

1 

2.20462 

2.67923 

.00110204 

.00123429 

.00111973 

.11973 

2.46857 

3 

.00133929 

.00150000 

.00136078 

.36078 

3 

3.64683 

.00146939 

.00164571 

.00149297 

.49297 

3.  29143 

4 

.00178571 

.00200000 

.00181437 

.81437 

4 

4.86111 

.00183673 

.00205714 

.00186621 

.86621 

4.  11429 

5 

.00196841 

.00220462 

.00200000 

2 

4.40924 

6.35846 

.00220408 

.00246857 

.00223945 

2.23945 

4.93714 

6 

.00223214 

.00250000 

.00226796 

2.26796 

5 

b.  07639 

.00257143 

.00288000 

.00261269 

2.61269 

6.76000 

7 

.00267857 

.00300000 

.00272165 

2.72155 

6 

7.29167 

.00293878 

.00329143 

.00298593 

2.98593 

6.58286 

8 

.00295262 

.00330693 

.00300000 

3 

6.61387 

8.03769 

.00312500 

.00350000 

.00317515 

3.  17515 

7 

8.50694 

.00330612 

.00370286 

.00335918 

3.35918 

7.40571 

9 

.00357143 

.00400000 

.00362874 

3.  62874 

8 

9.72222 

.00393683 

.00440924 

.00400000 

4 

8.81849 

10.71691 

.00401786 

.00450000 

.00408233 

4.08233 

9 

10.93750 

.00492103 

.00551156 

.00500000 

5 

11.0231 

13.39614 

.00590524 

.00661387 

.00600000 

6 

13.2277 

16.0763T 

.00688944 

.00771618 

.00780000 

7 

15.4324 

18.75460 

.00787365 

.00881849 

.00800000 

8 

17.6370 

21.43383 

.00885786 

.00992080 

.0090000 

9 

19.8416 

24.  11306 

.89287 

1 

.90718 

907.18 

2,000.00 

2,430.66 

.98421 

1:10231 

1 

1,000.00 

2,204.62 

2,679.23 

1 

1.12000 

1.01605 

1,016.05 

2,240.00 

2,722.22 

1.78571 

2 

1.81437 

1,814.37 

4,000.00 

4,861.11 

1.96841 

2.20462 

2 

2,000.00 

4,409.24 

6,358.46 

2 

2.24000 

2.03209 

2,032.09 

4,480.00 

6,444.44 

2.67857 

3 

2.72155 

2,721.55 

JB.000.00 

7,291.67 

2.95262 

3.30693 

3 

3,000.00 

'6,613.87 

8,037.69 

3 

3.36000 

3.04814 

3,048.14 

6,720.00 

8,166.67 

3.57143 

4 

3.  62874 

3,628.74 

8,000.00 

9,722.22 

3.93683 

4.40924 

4 

4,000.00 

8,818.49 

10,716.91 

4 

4.48000 

4.06419 

4,064.19 

8,960.00 

10,888.89 

4.46429 

5 

4.53592 

4,536.92 

10,000.00 

12,152.78 

4.92103 

6.51156 

5 

6,000.00 

11,023.11 

13,  3%.  14 

5 

6.60000 

5.08024 

6,080.24 

11,200.00 

13,611.11 

6.35714 

6 

6.44311 

6,443.11 

12,000.00 

14,683.33 

6.90524 

6.61387 

6 

6,000.00 

13,227.73 

16,075.37 

6 

6.72000 

6.09628 

6,096.28 

13,440.00 

16,333.33 

6.25000 

1 

6.35029 

6,350.29 

14,000.00 

17,013.89 

6.88944 

7.71618 

7 

7,000.00 

15,432.36 

18,764.60 

7.14286 

7.84000 
8 

7.11232 
7.25748 

7,112.32 
7,257.48 

15,680.00 
16,000.00 

19,065.66 
19,444.44 

7.87365 

8.81849 

8 

8,000.00 

17,636.98 

21,433.83 

8 

8.96000 

8.  12838 

8,128.38 

17,920.00 

21,777.78 

8.03571 

9 

8.  16466 

8,164.66 

18,000.00 

21,876.00 

8.85786 

9.92080 

9 

9,000.00 

19,841.60 

24,113.06 

9 

10.08000 

9.  14442 

9,144.42 

20,160.00 

24,600.00 

ISSUED  BY  THE  BUREAU  OF  STANDARDS 


[67] 


ADMIRALTY  KNOTS  TO  STATUTE  MILES  AND  KILOMETERS 


LENGTHS.     ADMIRALTY  KNOTS  TO  STATUTE  MILES  AND  KILOMETERS 

Conversion  factors:  1  Admiralty  knot  =  6080  feet 
1  statute  mile  =  5280  feet 
1  kilometer  =  3280.833  feet 

statute  mile        =  Admiralty  knot  X  1. 151515 
kilometer  =  Admiralty  knot  X  1.8531877 


Knots 
Hour 

Miles 

Kilo- 
meters 

SPEED 

Knots 
per 
Hour 

Miles 

Kilo- 
meters 

SPEED 

Feet  per 
Minute 

Feet  per 
Second 

Feet  per 
Minute 

Feet  per 
Second 

1 

1.152 

1.853 

101.3 

1.69 

9% 

11.227 

18.069 

988. 

16.47 

IH 

1.439 

2.316 

126.7 

2.11 

10 

11.515 

18.532 

1013.3 

16.89 

VA 

1.727 

2.780 

152.0 

2.53 

10% 

11.803 

18.995 

1038.7 

17.31 

IX 

2.015 

3.243 

177.3 

2.96 

10^ 

12.091 

19.458 

1064. 

17.73 

2 

2.303 

3.706 

202.7 

3.38 

10% 

12.379 

19.922 

1089.3 

18.16 

2% 

2.591 

4.170 

228. 

3.80 

11 

12.667 

20.385 

1114.7 

18.58 

VA 

2.879 

4.633 

253.3 

4.22 

11% 

12.955 

20.848 

1140. 

19.00 

2% 

3.167 

5.096 

278.7 

4.64 

ny2 

;3.242 

21.312 

1165.3 

19.42 

3 

3.455 

5.560 

304. 

5.07 

11% 

13.530 

21.775 

1190.7 

19.84 

3% 

3.742 

6.023 

329.3 

5.49 

12 

13.818 

22.238 

1216. 

20.27 

&A 

4.030 

6.486 

354.7 

5.91 

12% 

14.106 

22.702 

1241.3 

20.69 

3% 

4.318 

6.949 

380. 

6.33 

12^ 

14.394 

23.165 

1266.7 

21.11 

4 

4.606 

7.413 

405.3 

6.76 

12% 

14.682 

23.628 

1292. 

21.53 

4% 

4.894 

7.876 

430.7 

7.18 

13 

14.970 

24.091 

1317.3 

21.96 

4H- 

5.182 

8.339 

456. 

7.60 

13% 

15.258 

24.555 

1342.7 

22.38 

4% 

5.470 

8.803 

481.3 

8.02 

13H 

15.545 

25.018 

1368. 

22.80 

5 

5.758 

9.266 

506.7 

8.44 

13% 

15.833 

25.481 

1393.3 

23.22 

5% 

6.045 

9.729 

532. 

8.87 

14 

16.121 

25.945 

1418.7 

23.64 

51A 

6.333 

10.193 

557.3 

9.29 

14% 

16.409 

26.408 

1444. 

24.07 

5% 

6.621 

10.656 

582.7 

9.71 

UM 

16  697 

26.871 

1469.3 

24.49 

6 

6.909 

11.119 

608. 

10.13 

14% 

16.985 

27.335 

1494.7 

24.91 

6% 

7.197 

11.582 

633.3 

10.56 

15 

17.273 

27.798 

1520. 

25.33 

Q1A 

7.485 

12.046 

658.7 

10.98 

15% 

17.561 

28.261 

1545.3 

25.76 

6% 

7.773 

12.509 

684. 

11.40 

15^ 

17.848 

28.724 

1570.7 

26.18 

7 

8.061 

12.972 

709.3 

11.82 

15% 

18.136 

29.18S 

1596. 

26.60 

7% 

8.348 

13.436 

734.7 

12.24 

16 

18.424 

29.651 

1621.3 

27.02 

?1A 

8.636 

13.899 

760. 

12.67 

16% 

18.712 

30.114 

1646.7 

27.44 

7%- 

8.924 

14.362 

785.3 

13.09 

16M 

19.000 

30.578 

1672. 

27.87 

8 

9.212 

14.826 

810.7 

13.51 

16% 

19.288 

31.041 

1697.3 

28.29 

8% 

9.500 

15.289 

836. 

13.93 

17 

19.576 

31.504 

1722.7 

28.71 

m 

9.788 

15^752 

861.3 

14.36 

17% 

19.864 

31.967 

1748. 

29.13 

8% 

10.076 

16.215 

886.7 

14.78 

V1A 

20.152 

32.431 

1773.3 

29.56 

9 

10.364 

16.679 

912. 

15.20 

17% 

20.439 

32.894 

1798.7 

29.98 

9% 

10.652 

17.142 

937.3 

15.62 

18 

20.727 

33.357 

1824. 

30.40 

9^ 

10.939 

17.605 

962.7 

16.04 

18% 

21.015 

33.821 

1849.3 

30.82 

[68] 


ADMIRALTY  KNOTS  TO  STATUTE  MILES  AND  KILOMETERS 


LENGTHS.     ADMIRALTY  KNOTS  TO  STATUTE  MILES  AND  KILOMETERS — (Cont.) 


Knots 
per 
Hour 

Miles 

Kilo- 
meters 

SPEED 

Knots 
Hour 

Miles 

Kilo- 
meters 

SPEED 

Feet  per 
Minute 

Feet  per 
Second 

Feet  per 
Minute 

Feet  per 
Second 

18H 

21.303 

34.284 

1874.7 

31.24 

29^ 

33.970 

54.669 

2989.3 

49.82 

18% 

21.591 

34.747 

1900. 

31.67 

29% 

34.258 

55.132 

3014.7 

50.24 

19 

21.879 

35.211 

1925.3 

32.09 

30 

34.545 

55.596 

3040. 

50.67 

19% 

22.167 

35.674 

1950.7 

32.51 

30M 

34.833 

56.059 

3065.3 

51.09 

•19H 

22.455 

36.137 

1976. 

32.93 

30^ 

35.121 

56.522 

3090.7 

51.51 

19% 

22.742 

36.600 

2001.3 

33.36 

30^ 

35.409 

56.986 

3116. 

51.93 

20 

23.030 

37.064 

2026.7 

33.78 

31 

35.697 

57.449 

3141.3 

52.36 

20M 

23.318 

37.527 

2052. 

34.20 

31% 

35.985 

57.912 

3166.7 

52.78 

20^ 

23.606 

37.990 

2077.3 

34.62 

31H 

36.273 

58.375 

3192. 

53.20 

20% 

23.894 

38.454 

2102.7 

35.04 

31% 

36.561 

58.839 

32_7.3 

53.62 

21 

24.182 

38.917 

2128. 

35.47 

32 

36.848 

59.302 

3242.7 

54.04 

21% 

24.470 

39.380 

2153.3 

35.89 

32M 

37.136 

59.765 

3268. 

54.47 

21^ 

24.758 

39.844 

2178.7 

36.31 

32^ 

37.424 

60.229 

3293.3 

54.89 

21% 

25.045 

40.307 

2204. 

36.73 

32M 

37.712 

60.692 

3318.7 

55.31 

22 

25.333 

40.770 

2229.3 

37.16 

33 

38.000 

61  .  155 

3344. 

55.73 

22M 

25.621 

41.233 

2254.7 

37.58 

33M 

38.288 

61.618 

3369.3 

56.16 

22^ 

25.909 

41.697 

2280. 

38.00 

33^ 

38.576 

62.082 

3394.7 

56.58 

22M 

26.197 

42.160 

2305.3 

38.42 

33% 

38.864 

62.545 

3420. 

57.00 

23 

26.485 

42.623 

2330.7 

38.84 

34 

39.152 

63.008 

3445.3 

57.42 

23M 

26.773 

43.087 

2356. 

39.27 

34M 

39.439 

63.472 

3470.7 

57.84 

23^ 

27.061 

43.550 

2381.3 

39.69 

34^ 

39.727 

63.935 

3496. 

58.27 

23^ 

27.348 

44.013 

2406.7 

40.11 

34^ 

40.015 

64.398 

3521.3 

58.69 

24 

27.636 

44.477 

2432. 

40.53 

35 

40.303 

64.862 

3546.7 

59.11 

24^ 

27.924 

44.940 

2457.3 

40.96 

35^ 

40.591 

65.325 

3572. 

59.53 

24^ 

28.212 

45.403 

2482.7 

41.38 

35^ 

40.879 

65.788 

3597.3 

59.96 

24% 

28.500 

45.866 

2508. 

41.80 

35% 

41.167 

66.251 

3622.7 

60.38 

25 

28.788 

46.330 

2533.3 

42.22 

36 

41.455 

66.715 

3648. 

60.80 

25M 

29.076 

46.793 

2558.7 

42.64 

36M 

41.742 

67.178 

3673.3 

61.22 

25H 

29.364 

47.256 

2584. 

43.07 

36^ 

42.030 

67.641 

3698.7 

61.64 

25% 

29.652 

47.720 

2609.3 

43.49 

36^ 

42.318 

68.105 

3724. 

62.07 

26 

29.939 

48.183 

2634.7 

43.91 

37 

42.606 

68.568 

3749.3 

62.49 

26M 

30.227 

48.646 

2660. 

44.33 

37K 

42.894 

69.031 

3774.7 

62.91 

26^ 

30.515 

49.109 

2685.3 

44.76 

37^ 

43  .  182 

69.495 

3800. 

63.33 

26M 

30.803 

49.573 

2710.7 

45.18 

37M 

43.470 

69.958 

3825.3 

63.76 

27 

31.091 

50.036 

2736. 

45.60 

38 

43.758 

70.421 

3850.7 

64.18 

27M 

31.379 

50.499 

2761.3 

46.02 

38M 

44.045 

70.884 

3876. 

64.60 

27^ 

31.667 

50.963 

2786.7 

46.44 

38^ 

44.333 

71.348 

3901.3 

65.02 

27^ 

31.955 

51.426 

2812. 

46.87 

38% 

44.621 

71.811 

3926.7 

65.44 

28 

32.242 

51.889 

2837.3 

47.29 

39 

44.909 

72.274 

3S52. 

65.87 

28M 

32.530 

52.353 

2862.7 

47.71 

39^ 

45.197 

72.738 

3977.3 

66.29 

28^ 

32.818 

52.815 

2888. 

48.13 

39^ 

45.485 

73.201 

4002.7 

66.71 

28% 

33.106 

53.279 

2913.3 

48.56 

39M 

45.773 

73.664 

4028. 

67.13 

29 

33.394 

53.742 

2938.7 

48.98 

40 

46.061 

74.128 

4053.3 

67.56 

29M 

33.682 

54.206 

2964. 

49.40 

[69] 


PRESSURES,   POUNDS  TO  KILOGRAMS 


PRESSURES.     POUNDS  PER  SQUARE  INCH  TO  KILOGRAMS  PER  SQUARE  CENTIMETER 
Conversion  factor :  1  pound  per  square  inch  =  0 . 0703027  kilograms  per  square  centimeter 


Pounds       Kilograms 
per                per 
Sq.  In.        Sq.  Cm. 

Pounds      Kilograms 
per               per 
Sq.  In.        Sq.  Cm. 

Pounds      Kilograms 
per               per 
Sq.  In.        Sq.  Cm. 

Pounds      Kilograms 
per                per 
Sq.  In.        Sq.  Cm. 

0 

40    =    2.812 

80  =    5.624 

120  =  8.436 

1  =     .0703 

1  =  2.882 

1  =  5.695 

1  =  8.507 

2  =     .1406 

2  =  2.953 

2  =  5.765 

2  =  8.577 

3  =     .2109 

3  =  3.023 

3  =  5.835 

3  =  8.647 

4  =     .2812 

4  =  3.093 

4  =  5.905 

4  =  8.718 

5  =     .3515 

5  =  3.164 

5  =  5.976 

5  =  8.788 

6  =     .4218 

6  =  3.234 

6  =  6.046 

6  =  8.858 

7  =     .4921 

7  =  3.304 

7  =  6.116 

7  =  8.928 

8  =     .5624 

8  =  3.375 

8  =  6.187 

8  =  8.999 

9  =     .6327 

9  =  3.445 

9  =  6.257 

9  =  9.069 

10  =     .703 

50  =  3.515 

90  =  6.327 

130  =  9.139 

1  =     .773 

1  =  3.585 

1  =  6.398 

1  =  9.210 

2  =     .844 

2  =  3.656 

2  =  6.468 

2  =  9.280 

3  =     .914 

3  =  3.726 

3  =  6.538 

3  =  9.350 

4  =     .984 

4  =  6.608 

4  =  9.421 

4  =  3.796 

5  =  1.055 

5  =  3.867 

5  =  6.679 

5  =  9.491 

6  =  1.125 

6  =  3.937 

6  =  6.749 

6  =  9.561 

7  =  1.195 

7  =  4.007 

7  =  6.819 

7  =  9.631 

8  -  1.265 

8  =  4.078 

8  =  6.890 

8  =  9.702 

9  =  1.336 

9  =  4.148 

9  =  6.960 

9  =  9.772 

20  =  1.406 

60   =     4.218 

100  =  7.030 

140  =     9.842 

1  =  1.476 

1    =     4.288 

1  =  7.101 

1   =     9.913 

2  =  1.547 

2   =     4.359 

2  =  7.171 

2   =     9.983 

3  =  1.617 

3   =     4.429 

3  =  7.241 

3   =  10.053 

4  =  1.687 

4  =     4.499 

4  =  7.311 

4   =  10.124 

5  =  1.758 

5   =     4.570 

5  =  7.382 

5   =  10.194 

6  =  1.828 

6  =     4.640 

6  =  7.452 

6   =  10.264 

7  =  1.898 

7  =     4.710 

7  =  7.522 

7   =  10.334 

8  =  1.968 

8   =     4.781 

8  =  7.593 

8   =   10.405 

9  =  2.039 

9   =     4.851 

9  =  7.663 

9   =  10.475 

30  =  2.109 

70    =     4.921 

110  =  7.733 

150  =  10.545 

1  =  2.179 

1   =     4.991 

1  =  7.804 

1   =  10.616 

2  =  2.250 

2   =     5.062 

2  =  7.874 

2   =   10.686 

3  =  2.320 

3   =     5.132 

3  =  7.944 

3   =  10.756 

4  =  2.390 

4  =     5.202 

4  =  8.015 

4   =  10.827 

5  =  2.461 

5   =     5.273 

5  =  8.085 

5   =  10.897 

6  =  2.531 

6  =     5.343 

6  =  8.155 

6   =   10.967 

7  =  2.601 

7  =     5.413 

7  =  8.225 

7  =   11.038 

8  =  2.672 

8   =     5.484 

8  =  8.296 

8   =  11.108 

9  *  2.742 

9   =     5.554 

9  =  8.366 

9   =  11.178 

[70] 


PRESSURES,   POUNDS  TO    KILOGRAMS 
PRESSURES.  POUNDS  PER  SQUARE  INCH  TO  KILOGRAMS  PER  SQUARE  CENTIMETER — (Cont.) 


Pounds     Kilograms 
per              per 
Sq.  In.        Sq.  Cm. 

Pounds    Kilograms 
per              per 
Sq.  In.       Sq.  Cm. 

Pounds     -Kilograms 
per                per 
Sq.  In.        Sq.  Cm. 

Pounds    Kilograms 
per              per 
Sq.  In.       Sq.  Cm. 

160  =  11.248 

1  =  11.319 
2  =  11.389 
3  =  11.459 
4  =  11.530 

200  =  14.061 

1  =  14.131 
2  =  14.201 
3  =  14.271 
4  =  14.342 

240  =  16.873 
1=16.943 
2  =  17.013 
3  =  17.084 
4  =  17.154 

280=   19.685 
1=   19.755 
2=   19.825 
3=   19.896 
4=   19.966 

5  =  11.600 
6  =  11.670 
7  =  11.741 
8  =  11.811 
9  =  11.881 

5  =  14.412 
6  =  14.482 
7  =  14.553 
8  =  14.623 
9  =  14.693 

5  =  17.224 
6  =  17.294 
7  =  17.365 
8  =  17.435 
9  =  17.505 

5=  20.036 
6=  20.107 
7=  20.177 
8=  20.247 
9=  20.317 

170  =  11.951 
1  =  12.022 
2  =  12.092 
3  =  12.162 
4  =  12.233 

210  =  14.764 
1=14.834 
2  =  14.904 
3  =  14.974 
4  =  15.045 

250  =  17.576 
1=17.646 
2  =  17.716 
3  =  17.787 
4  =  17.857 

290=  20.388 
1=  20.458 
2=  20.528 
3=  20.599 
4=  20.669 

5  =  12.303 
6  =  12.373 
7  =  12.444 
8  =  12.514 
9  =  12.584 

5  =  15.115 
6  =  15.185 
7  =  15.256 
8  =  15.326 
9  =  15.396 

5  =  17.927 
6  =  17.997 
7  =  18.068 
8  =  18.138 
9  =  18.208 

5=  20.739 
6=  20.810 
7=  20.880 
8=  20.950 
9=  21.021 

180  =  12.654 
1=12.725 
2  =  12.795 
3  =  12.865 
4  =  12.936 

220  =  15.467 
1  =  15.537 
2  =  15.607 
3  =  15.678 
4  =  15.748 

260  =  18.279 
1=18.349 
2  =  18.419 
3  =  18.490 
4  =  18.560 

300=  21.091 
400=  28.121 
500=  35.151 
600=  42.182 
700=  49.212 

5  =  13.006 
6  =  13.076 
7  =  13.147 
8  =  13.217 
9  =  13.287 

5  =  15.818 
6  =  15.888 
7  =  15.959 
8  =  16.029 
9  =  16.099 

5  =  18.630 
6  =  18.701 
7  =  18.771 
8  =  18.841 
9  =  18.911 

800=  56.242 
900=  63.272 
1000=  70.303 
1100=  77.333 
1200=  84.363 

190  =  13.358 
1  =  13.428 
2  =  13.498 
3  =  13.568 
4  =  13.639 

230  =  16.170 
1  =  16.240 
2  =  16.310 
3  =  16.381 
4  =  16.451 

270  =  18.982 
1=19.052 
2  =  19.122 
3  =  19.193 
4  =  19.263 

1300=  91.393 
1400=  98.424 
1500  =  105.454 
1600  =  112.484 
1700  =  119.515 

5  =  13.709 
6  =  13.779 
7  =  13.850 
8  =  13.920 
9  =  13.990 

5  =  16.521 
6  =  16.591 
7  =  16.662 
8  =  16.732 
9  =  16.802 

5  =  19.333 
6  =  19.404 
7  =  19.474 
8  =  19.544 
9  =  19.614 

1800  =  126.545 
1900  =  133.575 
2000  =  140.605 
2100  =  147.636 
2200  =  154.666 

[71] 


SPEED  OR  FLOW,  CUBIC  FEET  TO  CUBIC  METERS 


SPEED  OR  FLOW.     CUBIC  FEET  PER  SECOND  TO  CUBIC  METERS  PER  SECOND 
Reduction  factor:  1  cubic  foot  per  second   =  0.0283170  cubic  meter  per  second 


Cubic 
Feet 
per 
Second 

Cubic 
Meters 
per 
Second 

Cubic            Cubic 
Feet             Meters 
per                  per 
Second           Second 

Cubic             Cubic 
Feet             Meters 
per                 per 
Second           Second 

Cubic            Cubic 
Feet             Meters 
per                  per 
Second           Second 

Cubic             Cubic 
Feet             Meters 
per                 per 
Second           Second 

0 

40=   1.133 

80=2.265 

300=  8.495 

700=   19.822 

1  = 

.028 

1=   1.161 

1=2.294 

310=  8.778 

710=  20.105 

2  = 

.057 

2=   1.189 

2=2.322 

320=  9.061 

720=  20.388 

3  = 

.085  • 

3=      .218- 

3=2.350 

330=  9.345 

730=  20.671 

4  = 

.113 

4=      .246 

4=2.379 

340=  9.628 

740=  20.955 

5  = 

.142 

5=      .274 

5=2.407 

350=  9.911 

750=  21.238 

6  = 

.170 

6=      .303 

6  =  2.435 

360  =  10.194 

760=  21.521 

7  = 

.198 

7=      .331 

7=2.464 

370  =  10.477 

770=  21.804 

8  = 

.227 

8=      .359 

8=2.492 

380  =  10.760 

780=  22.087 

9  = 

.255 

9=      .388 

9=2.520 

390  =  11.044 

790=  22.370 

10  = 

.283 

50=      .416 

90  =  2.549 

400  =  11.327 

800=  22.654 

1  = 

.311 

1=      .444 

1=2.577 

410  =  11.610 

810=  22.937 

2  = 

.340 

2=   1.472 

2  =  2.605 

420  =  11.893 

820=  23.220 

3  = 

.368 

3=   1.500 

3  =  2.633 

430  =  12.176 

830=  23.503 

4  = 

.396 

4=   1.529 

4=2.662 

440  =  12.459 

840=  23.786 

5  = 

.425 

5=   1.557 

5  =  2.690 

450  =  12.743 

850=   24.069 

6  = 

.453 

6=   1.5S6 

6  =  2.718 

460  =  13.026 

860=  24.353 

7  = 

.481 

7=   1.614 

7=2.747 

470  =  13.309 

870=  24.636 

8  = 

.510 

8=   1.642 

8=2.775 

480  =  13.592 

880=  24.919 

9  = 

.538 

9=   1.671 

9  =  2.803 

490  =  13.875 

890=  25.202 

20  = 

.566 

60=  1.699 

100=2.832 

500  =  14.159 

900=  25.485 

1  = 

.595 

1=  1.727 

110  =  3.115 

510  =  14.442 

910=  25.768 

2  = 

.623 

2=  1.756 

120  =  3.398 

520  =  14.725 

920=  26.052 

3  = 

.651 

3=   1.784 

130=3.681 

530  =  15.008 

930=  26.335 

4  = 

.680 

4=   1.812 

140  =  3.964 

540  =  15.291 

940=  26.618 

5  = 

.708 

5=   1.841 

150=4.248 

550  =  15.574 

950=  26.901 

6  = 

.736 

6=   1.869 

160=4.531 

560  =  15.858 

960=  27.184 

7  = 

.765 

7=  1.897 

170=4.814 

570  =  16.141 

970=  27.467 

0  

.793 

8=   1.926 

180  =  5.097 

580  =  16.424 

980=  27.751 

9  = 

.821 

9=   1.954 

190  =  5.380 

590  =  16.707 

990=  28.034 

30  = 

.850 

70=   1.982 

200  =  5.663 

600  =  16.990 

1000=  28.317 

1  = 

.878 

1=  2.011 

210  =  5.947 

610  =  17.273 

2000=  56.634 

2  = 

.906 

2=  2.039 

220=6.230 

620  =  17.557 

3000=  84.951 

3  = 

.934 

3=  2.067 

230  =  6.513 

630  =  17.840 

4000  =  113.268 

4  = 

.963 

4=  2.095 

240  =  6.796 

640  =  18.123 

5000  =  141.585 

5  = 

.991 

5=  2.124 

250  =  7.079 

650  =  18.406 

6  = 

1.019 

6=  2.152 

260  =  7.362 

660  =  18.689 

7  = 

1.048 

7=  2.180 

270  =  7.646 

670  =  18.972 

8  = 

1.076 

8=  2.209 

280  =  7.929 

680  =  19.256 

9  = 

1.104 

9=  2.237 

290  =  8.212 

690  =  19.539 

[72] 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  WIRE  GAUGES 

WIRE  GAUGES 

BUREAU  OF  STANDARDS 

Wire  gauges  are  in  use  now  less  than  formerly,  two  only  are  used  extensively  in 
this  country,  viz.,  the  "American  Wire  Gauge"  (Brown  &  Sharpe)  and  the  "Steel 
Wire  Gauge"  (variously  called  the  Washburn  &  Moen,  Roebling,  and  American  Steel 
&  Wire  Company's).  Three  other  gauges  are  still  used  to  some  extent,  viz.,  the  Bir- 
mingham Wire  Gauge  (Stubs),  the  Old  English  Wire  Gauge  (London),  and  the  Stubs' 
Steel  Wire  Gauge.  There  are  in  addition  certain  special  gauges,  such  as  the  Music 
Wire  Gauge,  the  drill  and  screw  gauges,  and  the  United  States  Standard  Sheet-Metal 
Gauge.  In  England  one  wire  gauge  has  been  made  legal  and  is  in  use  generally,  viz., 
the  "Standard  Wire  Gauge."  The  diameters  of  the  six  general  wire  gauges  mentioned 
are  given  in  mils  in  Table  4,  and  in  millimeters  in.  Table  5.  In  Germany,  France, 
Austria,  Italy,  and  other  continental  countries  practically  no  wire  gauge  is  used;  size 
of  wires  is  specified  directly  by  the  diameter  in  millimeters.  This  system  is  sometimes 
called  the  "millimeter  wire  gauge." 

The  American  Wire  Gauge  was  devised  by  J.  R.  Brown,  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Brown  &  Sharpe  Manufacturing  Co.,  in  1857.  It  speedily  superseded  the  Birmingham 
Wire  Gauge  in  this  country,  which  was  then  in  general  use.  It  is,  perhaps,  more  gener- 
ally known  by  the  name  "  Brown  &  Sharpe  Gauge,"  but  this  name  is  not  the  one  pre- 
ferred by  the  Brown  &  Sharpe  Co.  In  their  catalogues  they  regularly  refer  to  the  gauge 
as  the  "American  Standard  Wire  Gauge."  The  word  "Standard"  is  probably  not  a 
good  one  to  retain  in  the  name  of  this  gauge,  since  it  is  not  the  standard  gauge  for  all 
metals  in  the  United  States;  and,  further,  since  it  is  not  a  legalized  gauge,  as  are  the 
(British)  Standard  Wire  Gauge  and  the  United  States  Standard  Sheet-Metal  Gauge. 
The  abbreviation  for  the  name  of  this  ga*uge  has  usually  been  written  "A.  W.  G." 
The  American  Wire  Gauge  is  now  used  for  more  metals  than  any  other  in  this  country, 
and  is  practically  the  only  gauge  used  for  copper  and  aluminum  wire,  and  in  general  for 
wire  used  in  electrical  work.  It  is  the  only  wire  gauge  now  in  use  whose  successive  sizes 
are  determined  by  a  simple  mathematical  law. 

Characteristics  of  the  American  Wire  Gauge. — The  gauge  is  formed  by  the  spec- 
ification of  two  diameters  and  the  law  that  a  given  number  of  intermediate 
diameters  are  formed  by  geometrical  progression.  Thus,  the  diameter  of  No. 
0000  is  defined  as  0.4600  inch  and  of  No.  36  as  0.0050  inch.  There  are  38 
sizes  between  these  two,  hence  the  ratio  of  any  diameter  to  the  diameter  of  the 

39  /  4600       39 

next  greater  number  =  \l  '- =  \/92  =  1.122  932  2.       The  square  of  this  ratio  = 

\  .0050 

1.2610.    The  sixth  power  of  the  ratio,  i.e.,  the  ratio  of  any  diameter  to  the  diameter  of 
the  sixth  greater  number  =  2.0050. 

The  law  of  geometrical  progression  on  which  the  gauge  is  based  may  be  expressed 
in  either  of  the  three  following  manners:  (1)  the  ratio  of  any  diameter  to  the  next 
smaller  is  a  constant  number;  (2)  the  difference  between  any  two  successive  diameters 
is  a  constant  per  cent  of  the  smaller  of  the  two  diameters;  (3)  the  difference  between 
any  two  successive  diameters  is  a  constant  ratio  times  the  next  smaller  difference 
between  two  successive  diameters. 

The  "  Steel  Wire  Gauge  "  is  the  same  gauge  which  has  been  known  by  the  names 
of  Washburn  &  Moen  gauge  and  American  Steel  &  Wire  Co.'s  gauge.  This  gauge 
also,  with  a  number  of  its  sizes  rounded  off  to  thousandths  of  an  inch,  has  been  known 
as  the  Roebling  gauge.  The  gauge  was  established  by  Ichabod  Washburn  about  the 
year  1830,  and  was  named  after  the  Washburn  &  Moen  Manufacturing  Co.  This 
company  is  no  longer  in  existence,  having  been  merged  into  the  American  Steel  &  Wire 
Co.  The  latter  company  continued  the  use  of  the  Washburn  &  Moen  Gauge  for  steel 
wire,  giving  it  the  name  "American  Steel  &  Wire  Co.'s  gauge."  The  company  specifies 
all  steel  wire  by  this  gauge,  and  states  that  it  is  used  for  fully  85  per  cent  of  the  total 

[73] 


WIRE  GAUGES 

production  of  steel  wire.  This  gauge  was  also  formerly  used  by  the  John  A.  Roebling's 
Sons  Co.,  who  named  it  the  Roebling  gauge,  as  mentioned  above.  However,  the 
Roebling  company,  who  are  engaged  in  the  production  of  wire  for  electrical  purposes, 
now  prefer  to  use  the  American  Wire  Gauge. 

The  name  "Steel  Wire  Gauge"  was  suggested  by  the  Bureau  of  Standards,  in  its 
correspondence  with  various  companies,  and  it  met  with  practically  unanimous  ap- 
proval. It  was  necessary  to  decide  upon  a  name  for  this  gauge,  and  the  three  names 
which  have  been  used  for  it  in  the  past  were  all  open  to  the  objection  that  they  were 
the  names  of  particular  companies.  These  companies  have  accepted  the  new  name. 
The  abbreviations  of  the  name  of  the  gauge  should  be  "Stl.  W.  G.,"  to  distinguish  it 
from  "S.  W.  G."  the  abbreviation  for  the  (British)  Standard  Wire  Gauge.  When  it 
is  necessary  to  distinguish  the  name  of  this  gauge  from  others  which  may  be  used  for 
steel  wire,  e.g.,  the  (British)  Standard  Wire  Gauge,  it  may  be  called  the  United  States 
Steel  Wire  Gauge. 

Decimal  Measurement. — The  trend  of  practice  in  the  gaging  of  materials  is  increas- 
ingly toward  the  direct  specification  of  the  dimensions  in  decimal  fractions  of  an  inch, 
without  use  of  gauge  numbers.  This  has  been,  for  a  number  of  years,  the  practice  of 
some  of  the  large  electrical  and  manufacturing  companies  of  this  country.  The  United 
States  Navy  Department  also,  hi  June,  1911,  ordered  that  all  diameters  and  thicknesses 
of  materials  be  specified  directly  in  decimal  fractions  of  an  inch,  omitting  all  reference 
to  gauge  numbers.  The  War  Department,  in  December,  1911,  issued  a  similar  order,  for 
all  wires.  The  American  Society  for  Testing  Materials,  in  their  Specifications  for  Cop- 
per Wire,  recommend  that  diameters  instead  of  gauge  numbers  be  used.  This  is  sim- 
ilar to  the  practice  on  the  Continent  of  Europe,  where  sizes  of  wire  are  specified  directly 
by  the  diameters  in  millimeters.  The  practice  of  specifying  the  diameters  themselves 
and  omitting  gauge  numbers  has  the  advantages  that  it  avoids  possible  confusion  with 
other  gauge  systems  and  states  an  actual  property  of  the  wire  directly. 

Stock  Sizes  of  Wire. — When  gauge  numbers  are  not  used,  it  is  necessary  that  a  cer- 
tain set  of  stock  sizes  be  considered  standard,  so  that  the  manufacturers  would  not  be 
required  to  keep  in  stock  an  unduly  large  number  of  different  sizes  of  wire.  The  large 
companies  who  have  ceased  to  use  gauge  numbers  have  recognized  this,  having  taken 
as  standard  the  American  Wire  Gauge  sizes,  to  the  nearest  mil,  for  the  larger  diam- 
eters and  to  a  tenth  of  a  mil  for  the  smaller.  (See  list  of  sizes,  Table  IV.)  These  sizes 
were  adopted,  in  December,  1911,  by  the  United  States  War  Department  for  all  wires. 
It  seems  likely  that  this  system  of  sizes,  based  on  the  American  Wire  Gauge,  will  be 
perpetuated. 

Micrometer  Gauges. — The  objection  is  often  raised  that  the  use  of  diameters  re- 
quires the  employment  of  a  micrometer;  and  that  the  wire  gauge  as  an  instrument 
marked  in  gauge  numbers  is  a  very  rapid  means  of  handling  wires  and  is  indispensable 
for  use  by  unskilled  workmen.  However,  the  use  of  the  wire  gauge  as  an  instrument  is 
consistent  with  the  practice  of  specifying  the  diameters  directly,  provided  the  wire 
gauge  is  marked  in  mils.  Wire  gauges  marked  both  in  the  A.  W.  G.  numbers  and  in 
thousandths  of  an  inch  can  be  obtained  from  the  manufacturers.  One  thus  reads  off 
directly  from  the  wire  gauge  81  mil,  64  mil,  etc.,  just  as  he  would  No.  12,  No.  14,  etc. 
(Of  course,  the  diameters  in  millimeters  could  be  marked  on  the  gauge  for  those  who 
prefer  the  metric  system.)  It  should  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  a  wire  gauge 
gradually  wears  with  use,  and  that  for  accurate  work  a  micrometer  should  always 
be  used. 

Birmingham  Wire  Gauge. — Of  the  three  wire  gauges  which  have  remained  in  use 
but  are  now  nearly  obsolete,  the  one  most  frequently  mentioned  is  the  Birmingham, 
sometimes  called  the  Stubs'  Wire  Gauge.  Its  numbers  were  based  upon  the  reduction 
of  size  made  in  practice  by  drawing  wire  from  rolled  rod.  Thus,  rod  was  called  No.  0, 
first  drawing  No.  1,  and  so  on.  Its  gradations  of  size  are  very  irregular,  as  shown  in 
the  table  of  "Wire  Gauges  in  Use  in  the  United  States,"  given  on  the  page  following; 
by  simply  comparing  the  several  decimal  equivalents  of  the  Birmingham  gauge  with 
the  equivalents  of  the  American,  or  Brown  &  Sharpe  gauge,  as  they  appear  directly 
opposite  in  the  first  column  of  the  table.  The  Birmingham  gauge  is  typical  of  most 
wire  gauges,  and  the  irregularity  of  its  steps  is  shown  in  marked  contrast  to  the 

[74] 


WIRE  GAUGES 


regularity  of  the  steps  of  the  American  Wire  Gauge.  The  Birmingham  gauge  was 
used  extensively  both  in  Great  Britain  and  in  the  United  States  for  many  years.  It 
has  been  superseded,  however,  and  is  now  nearly  obsolete. 

The  principal  outstanding  exception  to  the  abandonment  of  the  Birmingham  gauge 
is  that  the  Treasury  Department,  with  certain  legislative  sanction,  still  specifies  the 
Birmingham  gauge  for  use  in  the  collection  of  duty  on  imports  of  wire.  This  gauge  was 
prescribed  by  the  Treasury  Department  in  1875,  after  it  had  been  ascertained  that  it 
was  the  standard  gauge  "not  only  throughout  the  United  States,  but  the  world."  This 
reason  for  the  use  of  this  gauge  does  not  now  exist,  inasmuch  as  the  gauge  is  now  used 
very  little  in  the  United  States,  and  even  less  in  other  countries,  but  the  Treasury  De- 
partment considers  that  it  can  not  change  its  practice,  since  legislative  approval  has 
been  given  the  Birmingham  gauge  by  the  tariff  acts  with  a  provision  for  assessment  of 
duty  according  to  gauge  numbers,  and  further  since  a  change  would  alter  the  rate  of 
duty  on  certain  sizes  of  wire.  These  facts  have  been  brought  to  the  attention  of  the 
congressional  committees  which  have  charge  of  tariff  legislation,  and  it  is  possible  that 
when  the  tariff  act  is  next  amended  the  gauge  numbers  will  be  stricken  out  and  the 
diameters  themselves  specified. 

The  Stubs'  Steel  Wire  Gauge  has  a  somewhat  limited  use  for  tool  steel  wire  and 
drill  rods.  This  gauge  should  not  be  confused  with  the  Birmingham,  which  is  some- 
times known  as  Stubs'  Iron  Wire  Gauge. 

English  Standard. — The  "Standard  Wire  Gauge,"  otherwise  known  as  the  New 
British  Standard,  the  English  Legal  Standard,  or  the  Imperial  Wire  Gauge,  is  the  legal 
standard  of  Great  Britain  for  all  wires,  as  fixed  by  order  in  Council,  August  23,  1883.  It 
was  constructed  by  modifying  the  Birmingham  Wire  Gauge,  so  that  the  differences 
between  successive  diameters  were  the  same  for  short  ranges,  i.e.,  so  that  a  graph  rep- 
resenting the  diameters  consists  of  a  series  of  a  few  straight  lines. 

WIRE  GAUGES  IN  USE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 
Dimensions  are  hi  decimal  parts  of  an  inch 


Steel  Wire 

Gauge 

Number 
of  "Wire 

American 

Birmingh'm 

rvr  Q-HiKcx* 

Washburn 
&  Moen 

British 
Imperial 
Wire 

Stubs' 

Qfo^l 

United 
States 

Gauge 

&  Sharpe 

or  otuos 
Iron  Wire 

Roebling 

Gauge 

Ot-661 

Wire 

Standard 
for  Plate 

American 

S.  W.  G. 

Steel  & 

^  . 

Wire  Co. 

0000000 

.4900 

.500 

.500 

000000 

.58000 

.4615 

.464 

.... 

.46875 

00000 

.51650 

.... 

.4305 

.432 

.... 

.4375 

0000 

.46000 

.454 

.3938 

.400 

.40625 

000 

.40964 

.425 

.3625 

.372 

.... 

.375 

00 

.36480 

.38 

.3310 

.348 



.34375 

0 

.32486 

.34 

.3065 

.324 

.3125 

1 

.28930 

.3 

.2830 

.300 

!227 

.28125 

2 

.25763 

.284 

.2625 

.276 

.219 

.265625 

3 

.22942 

.259 

.2437 

.252 

.212 

.25 

4 

.20431 

.238 

.2253 

.232 

.207 

.234375 

5 

.18194 

.22 

.2070 

.212 

.204 

.21875 

6 

.16202 

.203 

.1920 

.192 

.201 

.203125 

7 

.14428 

.18 

.1770 

.176 

.199 

.1875 

8 

.12849 

.165 

.1620 

.160 

.197 

.171875 

9 

.11443 

.148 

.1483 

.144 

.194 

.  15625 

[75] 


WIRE  GAUGES     , 
WIRE  GAUGES  IN  USE  IN  THE   UNITED  STATES — (Cont., 


Number 
of  Wire 

American 
or  Brown 
&  Sharpe 

Birmingh'm 
or  Stubs' 
Iron  Wire 

Steel  Wire 
Gauge 

British 
Imperial 
Wire 

Stubs' 

United 

States 

for  Plate 

Washburn 
&  Moen 

Roebling 

S.  W.  G. 

American 
Steel  & 
Wire  Co. 

10 

.  101897 

.134 

.1350 

.128 

.191 

.  140625 

11 

.090742 

.12 

.1205 

.116 

.188 

.125 

12 

.080808 

.109 

.1055 

.104 

.185 

.  109375 

13 

.071961 

.095 

.0915 

.092 

.182 

.09375 

14 

.064084 

.083 

.0800 

.080 

.180 

.078125 

15 

.057068 

.072 

.0720 

.072 

.178 

.0703125 

16 

.050821 

.065 

.0625 

.064 

.175 

.0625 

17 

.045257 

.058 

.0540 

.056 

.172 

.05625 

18 

.040303 

.049 

.0475 

.048 

.168 

.05 

19 

.035890 

.042 

.0410 

.040 

.164 

.04375 

20 

.031961 

.035 

.0348 

.036 

.161 

.0375 

21 

.028462 

.032 

.03175 

.032 

.157 

.034375 

22 

.025347 

.028 

.0286 

.028 

.155 

.03125 

23 

.022571 

.025 

.0258 

.024 

.153 

.028125 

24 

.020101 

.022 

.0230 

.022 

.151 

.025 

25 

.017900 

.02 

.0204 

.020 

.148 

.021875 

26 

.015941 

.018 

.0181 

.018 

.146 

.01875 

27 

.014195 

.016 

.0173 

.0164 

.143 

.0171875 

28 

.012641 

.014 

.0162 

.0149 

.139 

.015625 

29 

.011257 

.013 

.0150 

.0136 

.134 

.0140625 

30 

.010025 

.012 

.0140 

.0124 

.127 

.0125 

31 

.008928 

.01 

.0132 

.0116 

.120 

.0109375 

32 

.007950 

.009 

.0128 

.0108 

.115 

.01015625 

33 

.007080 

.008 

.0118 

.0100 

.112 

.009375 

34 

.006304 

.007 

.0104 

.0092 

.110 

.00859375 

35 

.005614 

.005 

.0095 

.0084 

.108 

.0078125 

36 

.005000 

.004 

.0090 

.0076 

.106 

.00703125 

37 

.004453 

.... 

.0085 

.0068 

.103 

.006640625 

38 

.003965 

.0080 

.0060 

.101 

.00625 

39 
40 

.003531 
.003144 

.... 

.0075 
.0070 

.0052 
.0048 

.099 
.097 



NOTE.  —  Reference  to  Tables  4  and  5,  page  69,  are  Copper  Wire  Tables  issued   by  the  Bureau  of 
Standards.    These  tables  will  be  found  in  the  Electrical  Section  of  this  book.    When  it  is  remembered 
that  a  mil  is  a  unit  of  length  used  in  measuring   the   diameter  of   wire  equal  to  one  thousandth  of  an 
inch,  it  is  only  necessary  when  diameters  are  given  in  decimal  parts  of  an  inch  to  move  the  decimal  point 
to  correspond,  thus,  reading  across  the  table  given  above:    No.  1  American  wire  gauge  is  .28930  inch 
diameter,  or  289  mils.      No.  1  Birmingham  gauge  =  .3  inch  diameter,  or  300  mils.      No.  1  Steel  wire 
gauge  =  .2830  inch  diameter,  or  283  mils. 

,76] 


U.  S.  STANDARD  GAUGE  FOR  SHEET  IRON  AND  STEEL 


U.  S.  STANDARD  GAUGE  FOR  SHEET  AND  PLATE  IRON  AND 

STEEL 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United  States  of 
America  in  Congress  assembled,  That  for  the  purpose  of  securing  uniformity,  the  fol- 
lowing is  established  as  the  only  standard  gauge  for  sheet  and  olate  iron  and  steel  in  the 
United  States  of  America,  namely: 


Number 
of  Gauge 

Approxi- 
mate 
Thickness, 
in  Frac- 
tions of  an 
Inch 

Approximate 
Thickness, 
in  Decimal 
Parts  of  an 
Inch 

Approximate 
Thickness, 
in  Milli- 
meters 

Weight 
per 
Square 
Foot,  in 
Ounces 
Avoir- 
dupois 

Weight 
per  Square 
Foot,  in 
Pounds 
Avoir- 
dupois 

Weight 
per 
Square 
Foot,  in 
Kilo- 
grams 

Weight 
per 
Square 
Meter,  in 
Kilo- 
grams 

Weight 
per 
Square 
Meter,  in 
Pounds 
Avoir- 
dupois 

0000000 

1-2 

.5 

12.7 

320 

20.00 

9.072 

97.65 

215.28 

000000 

15-32 

.46875 

11.90625 

300 

18.75 

8.505 

91.55 

201.82 

00000 

7-16 

.4375 

11.1125 

280 

17.50 

7.983 

85.44 

188.37 

0000 

13-32 

.40625 

10.31875 

260 

16.25 

7.371 

79.33 

174.91 

000 

3-8 

.375 

9.525 

240 

15 

6.804 

73.24 

161.46 

00 

11-32 

.34375 

8.73125 

220 

13.75 

6.237 

67,13 

148.00 

0 

5-16 

.3125 

7.9375 

200 

12.50 

5.67 

61.03 

134.55 

1 

9-32 

.28125 

7.14375 

180 

11.25 

5.103 

54.93 

121.09 

2 

17-64 

.265625 

6.746875 

170 

10.625 

4.819 

51.88 

114.37 

3 

w 

.25 

6.35 

160 

10 

4.536 

48.82 

107.64 

4 

15-64 

,234375 

5.953125 

150 

9.375 

4.252 

45.77 

100.91 

5 

7-32 

.21875 

5.55625 

140 

8.75 

3.969 

42.72 

94.18 

6 

13-64 

.203125 

5.159375 

130 

8.125 

3.685 

39.67 

87.45 

7 

3-16 

.1875 

4  .  7625 

120 

7.5 

3.402 

36.62 

80.72 

8 

11-64 

.171875 

4.365625 

110 

6.875 

3.118 

33.57 

74.00 

9 

5-32 

.15625 

3.96875 

100 

6.25 

2.835 

30.52 

67.27 

10 

9-64 

.140625 

3.571875 

90 

5.625 

2.552 

27.46 

60.55 

11 

i-8 

.125 

3.175 

80 

5 

2.268 

24.41 

53.82 

12 

7-64 

.  109375 

2.778125 

70 

4.375 

1.984 

21.36 

47.09 

13 

3-32 

.09375 

2.38125 

60 

3.75 

1.701 

18.31 

40.36 

14 

5-64 

.078125 

1.984375 

50 

3.125 

1.417 

15.26 

33.64 

15 

9-128 

.0703125 

1.7859375 

45 

2.8125 

1.276 

13.73 

30.27 

16 

1-16 

.0625 

1.5875 

40 

2.5 

1.134 

12.21 

26.91 

17 

9-160 

.05625 

1.42875 

36 

2.25 

1.021 

10.99 

24.22 

18 

1-20 

.05 

1.27 

32 

2 

.9072 

9.765 

21.53 

19 

7-160 

.04375 

1.11125 

28 

1.75 

.7988 

8.544 

18.84 

20 

3-80 

.0375 

.9525 

24 

1.50 

.6804 

7.324 

16.15 

21 

11-320 

.034375 

.873125 

22 

1.375 

.6237 

6.713 

14.80 

22 

1-32 

.03125 

.793750 

20 

1.25 

.567 

6.103 

13.46 

23 

9-320 

.028125 

.714375 

18 

1.125 

.5103 

5.493 

12.ll 

24 

1-40 

.025 

.635 

16 

1 

.4536 

4.882 

10.76 

25 

7-320 

.021875 

.555625 

14 

.875 

.3969 

4.272 

9.42 

26 

3-160 

.01875 

.47625 

12 

.75 

.3402 

3.662 

8.07 

27 

11-640 

.0171875 

.4365625 

11 

.6875 

.3119 

3.357 

7.40 

28 

1-64 

.015625 

.396875 

10 

.625 

.2835 

3.052 

6.73 

[77] 


U.  S.  STANDARD  GAUGE  FOR  SHEET  IRON  AND  STEEL 
U.  S.  STANDARD  GAUGE  FOR  SHEET  AND  PLATE  IRON  AND  STEEL — (Cont.) 


Number 
of  Gauge 

Approxi- 
mate 
Thickness, 
in  Frac- 
tions of  an 
Inch 

Approximate 
Thickness, 
in  Decimal 
Parts  of  an 
Inch 

Approximate 
Thickness, 
in  Milli- 
meters 

Weight 
per 
Square 
Foot,  in 
Ounces 
Avoir- 
dupois 

Weight 
per  Square 
Foot,  in 
Pounds 
Avofr- 
dupois 

Weight 
per 
Square 
Foot,  in 
Kilo- 
grams 

Weight 
per 
Square 
Meter,  in 
Kilo- 
grams 

Weight 
per 
Square 
Meter,  in 
Pounds 
Avoir- 
dupois 

29 

9-640 

.0140625 

.3571875 

9 

.5625 

.2551 

2.746 

6.05 

30 

1-80 

.0125 

.3175 

8 

.5 

.2268 

2.441 

5.38 

31 

7-640 

.0109375 

.2778125 

7 

.4375 

.1984 

2.136 

4.7i 

32 

13-1280 

.01015625 

.25796875 

6^ 

.40625 

.1843 

1.983 

4.37 

33 

3-320 

.009375 

.238125 

6 

.375 

.1701 

1.831 

4.04 

34 

11-1280 

.00859375 

.21828125 

5H 

.34375 

.1559 

1.678 

3.70 

35 

5-640 

.0078125 

.1984375 

5 

.3125 

1.417 

1.526 

3.36 

36 

9-1280 

.00703125 

.  17859375 

4K 

.28125 

.1276 

1.373 

3.03 

37 

17-2560 

.006640625 

.  168671875 

4M 

.265625 

.1205 

1.297 

2.87 

38 

1-160 

.00625 

.15875 

4 

.25 

.1134 

1.221 

2.69 

And  on  and  after  July  1,  1893,  the  same  and  no  other  shall  be  used  in  determining 
duties  and  taxes  levied  by  the  United  States  of  America  on  sheet  and  plate  iron  and  steel. 
But  this  act  shall  not  be  construed  to  increase  duties  upon  any  articles  which  may  be 
imported. 

SEC.  2.  That  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  is  authorized  and  required  to  prepare 
suitable  standards  in  accordance  herewith. 

SEC.  3.  That  in  the  practical  use  and  application  of  the  standard  gauge  hereby 
established  a  variation  of  2^  per  cent  either  way  may  be  allowed. 

Approved,  March  3,  1893. 

NOTE. — A  variation  of  2|  per  cent  either  way  is  permitted,  so  that  the  excessive 
number  of  decimal  places  in  the  "approximate"  equivalents  is  undue  refinement  for 
the  practical  purposes  for  which  the  act  was  established.  Moreover,  the  values  in  some 
cases  are  beyond  the  limits  of  measurement  of  the  highest  precision.  For  these  reasons 
and  greater  convenience  in  use,  the  figures  not  usually  required  in  view  of  the  tolerance 
are  printed  in  smaller  type. 

S.  W.  STRATTON,        . 
Director  Bureau  of  Standards. 


[78] 


LEGAL  WEIGHTS  OF  VARIOUS  COMMODITIES 


LEGAL  WEIGHTS  (IN  POUNDS)  PER  BUSHEL  OF  VARIOUS 

COMMODITIES 

BUREAU  OF  STANDARDS 

I.  Introduction. — The  legal  weights  per  bushel  of  various  commodities,  as  given 
in  the  following  tables,  have  been  fixed  by  national  legislation  mainly  for  customs  pur- 
poses or  by  the  State  legislatures  for  purposes  of  commerce  within  the  States.  In  many 
cases  these  weights  differ  considerably  in  the  different  States,  and  in  the  cases  of  only  a 
few  commodities,  such  as  wheat,  oats,  and  pease,  are  the  legal  weights  uniform  through- 
out the  entire  country.  It  should  not  be  assumed  that  the  legal  weights  herein  given 
represent  a  volume  e.qual  to  the  bushel  of  2,150.42  cubic  inches  (United  States  bushel). 
On  account  of  the  variations  in  the  densities  of  commodities  in  different  localities  and  in 
different  seasons,  it  is  impossible  to  fix  with  any  degree  of  certainty  the  weight  of  a 
given  volume.  The  best  that  could  be  done  would  be  to  give  the  average  of  all  localities 
for  a  number  of  years.  Inasmuch,  however,  as  the  weight  of  a  given  volume  of  any 
commodity,  such  as  potatoes,  apples,  coal,  corn,  etc.,  can  only  be  approximately  fixed, 
it  is  important  in  transactions  involving  such  measures  that  it  be  distinctly  understood 
which  bushel  is  meant,  viz.,  the  volume  of  2,150.42  cubic  inches  or  a  certain  number 
of  pounds  called  a  bushel,  which  might  be  quite  a  different  amount.  On  account  of  the 
impossibility  of  reconciling  these  two  definitions  of  the  bushel,  it  is  recommended  that 
all  sales  be  made  by  weight,  as  is  now  the  practice  in  wheat  transactions. 

II.  Commodities  for  Which  Bushel  Weights  Have  Been  Adopted  in  But  One  or  Two 

States 

Alsike  (or  Swedish)  seed,  60  pounds  (Md. 
and  Okla.). 

Beggarweed  seed,  62  pounds  (Fla.). 
Bermuda  grass  seed,  40  pounds  (Okla.). 
Blackberries,  30  pounds  (Iowa) ;  48  pounds 

(Tenn.);  dried,  28  pounds  (Term.). 
Blueberries,  42  pounds  (Minn.). 
Bromus  inermus,  14  pounds  (N.  Dak.). 
Burr  clover,  in  hulls,  8  pounds  (N.  C.). 


Cabbage,  50  pounds  (Tenn.). 

Canary    seed,    60    pounds    (Tenn.);    50 

pounds  (Iowa). 

Cantaloupe  melon,  50  pounds  (Tenn.). 
Caster  seed,  50  pounds  (Md.). 
Cement,  80  pounds  (Tenn.). 
Cherries,  40  pounds  (Iowa) ;  with  stems,  56 

pounds    (Tenn.);    without    stems,    64 

pounds  (Tenn.). 
Chufa,  54  pounds  (Fla.). 
Cotton  seed,  staple,  42  pounds  (S.  C.). 
Culm,  80  pounds  (Md.). 
Currants,  40  pounds  (Iowa  and  Minn.). 


Feed,  50  pounds  (Mass.). 
Fescue,  seed  of  all  the,  except  the  tall  and 
meadow  fescue,  14  pounds  (N.  C.). 


Fescue,    tall    and   meadow   fescue 

seed,  24  pounds  (N.  C.). 
Grapes,  40  pounds  (Iowa) ;  with  stems,  48 

pounds    (Tenn.);    without    stems,    60 

pounds  (Tenn.). 
Guavas,  54  pounds  (Fla.). 

Hominy,  60  pounds   (Ohio);  62  pounds 

(Tenn.). 
Horseradish,  50  pounds  (Tenn.). 

Italian  rye-grass  seed,  20  pounds  (Tenn.). 

Japan  clover  in  hulls,  25  pounds  (N.  C.). 
Johnson    grass,    28    pounds    (Ark.);    25 
pounds  (N.  C.). 

Kale,  30  pounds  (Tenn.). 

Land  plaster,  100  pounds  (Tenn.). 
Lentils,  60  pounds  (N.  C.). 
Lucerne,  60  pounds  (N.  C.). 
Lupines,  60  pounds  (N.  C.). 

Meadow  seed,  tall,  14  pounds  (N.  C.). 
Meal  (?),  46  pounds  (Ala.);  unbolted,  48 

pounds  (Ala.). 
Middlings,  fine,  40  pounds  (Ind.);  coarse 

middlings,  30  pounds  (Ind.). 


[791 


LEGAL  WEIGHTS  OF  VARIOUS  COMMODITIES 


Millet,    Japanese    barnyard,    35    pounds 

(Mass,  and  N.  H.). 
Mustard,  30  pounds  (Tenn.). 
Mustard  seed,  58  pounds  (N.  C.). 

Oat  grass  seed,  14  pounds  (N.  C.). 

Plums,  40  pounds  (Fla.);  64  pounds 
(Tenn.);  dried,  28  pounds  (Mich.). 

Prunes,  dried,  28  pounds  (Idaho);  green, 
45  pounds  (Idaho). 

Radish  seed,  50  pounds  (Iowa). 
Raspberries,  32  pounds  (Iowa  and  Kan.); 

48  pounds  (Tenn.). 
Rhubarb,  50  pounds  (Tenn.). 


Sage,  4  pounds  (Tenn.). 

Salads,  30  pounds  (Tenn.). 

Sand,  130  pounds  (Iowa). 

Seed  of  brome  grasses,  14  pounds  (N.  C.). 

Spinach,  30  pounds  (Tenn.). 

Strawberries,     32     pounds     (Iowa);     48 

pounds  (Tenn.). 
Sugar    cane    seed     (amber),   57    pounds 

(N.  J.). 
Sunflower  seed,  24  pounds  (N.  C.). 

Teosinte,  59  pounds  (N.  C.). 

Velvet  grass  seed,  7  pounds  (Tenn.). 
Vetches,  60  pounds  (N.  C.). 


In  the  following  pages  is  given  an  alphabetical  list  of  commodities  for  which  legal 
weights  (in  pounds)  per  bushel  have  been  more  generally  adopted  by  States.  Special 
explanations  or  conditions  affecting  the  definition  are  printed  in  foot-notes  to  these  tables. 


LEGAL  WEIGHTS  PER  BUSHEL  OF  COMMODITIES 
III.  Commodities  for  which  bushel  weights  have  been  more  widely  adopted. 


u.  s... 

Ala 

|  Alfalfa  Seed 

Apples 

jj 

Beans 

! 

3 

1 

c 

Buckwheat 

a 
0 

o 

Clover  Seed 

Coal 

o. 

i 

Q 

m 

ii 
I1 

1 

| 

te 

90 
80 

1 
.1 

Stone  Coal 

48 
47 
45 

48 
50 

60 

2  55 
2  60 

50 

4? 

24 

Ariz  .  .  . 

Ark  ... 
Cal  .  .  . 

3  50 

24 

14 

20 

48 

52 

40 

52 

48 

60 

80 

80 

Colo  .  .  . 
Conn 

48 

25 

48 
48 

60 
60 

4  60 

14 

20 

50 

20 

20 

60 
60 

Del 

D.  C. 

Fla.... 
Ga   . 

3  48 

24 
24 

48 

47 
48 

6  60 
6  60 

48 

20 
720 

14 

... 

52 

60 

80 

Hawaii  . 
Idaho19 

... 

111  

24 
25 

24 
24 
24 

48 
48 

48 
48 
47 
48 
48 

6  60 
60 

8  60 
60 
6  60 

46 
46 

46 
'  46 

56 
56 

14 
14 

14 
9  14 

14 

20 

20 
20 
20 

50 

52 
50 

52 
50 
56 

50 
50 

20 

60 
60 

60 
60 
60 

80 

80 

80 
80 
76 

Ind 

Iowa.  .  . 
Kans  .  . 
Ky.  . 

60 
60 

48 
3  48 

76 

76 

76 

La 

Me.... 

... 

44 

60 

60 

48 

"iH 

[80] 


LEGAL  WEIGHTS  OF  VARIOUS  COMMODITIES 


LEGAL  WEIGHTS  PER  BUSHEL  OF  COMMODITIES 
III.     Commodities  for  which  bushel  weights  have  been  more  widely  adopted. — Cont. 


•3 

Apples 

| 

« 

Beans 

i 

Blue-grass  Seed 

\\ 

la 
PQ 

w 

1 
f 

Carrots 

Charcoal 

Clover  Seed 

Coal 

i 

t 
< 

09 

1 

i 

Q 

I 

PQ 

Castor  Beans 
(Shelled) 

1 

o 

1  Bituminous 
Coal 

§ 

? 

Md... 

Mass  .  . 
Mich  .  . 
Minn.  . 
Miss.  .  . 

60 

48 
48 
3  50 

48 
45 

3  48 

*  48 
48 

50 

28 
25 
22 

28 
26 

24 

24 
24 
25 

25 

48 
48 
48 
48 
48 

4S 
48 
48 
48 
48 

48 

60 
"60 
60 
60 
6  60 

12  60 
60 
6  60 
60 

2  11 

60 

10  50 

46 
12  46 

46 

46 
46 

60 
50 

50 

56 
60 

60 

14 

14 
14 
14 

14 
14 
14 

9 

20 
20 

50 
50 

20 

60 
60 
60 

60 
60 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

64 

80 

48 
48 

80 

... 

80 

20 

20 
20 
20 
20 
20 

57 

50 

48 

52 
52 
52 
50 

48 

50 

45 

50 
50 

50 
50 

50 

20 

80 
76 

80 
80 

Mo.... 
Mont.  . 
Nebr  .  . 

Nev.  .  . 
N.  H 

60 
60 

N.J.... 

N  Mex 

N.  Y 

48 
3  48 
50 

50 

48 
45 

25 

24 
24 

28 

48 
48 
48 

48 
48 
46 
47 

48 

60 
13  60 
60 

60 
60 

20 
20 

46 
30 

48 
50 
42 

50 
52 
4? 

50 

50 
50 

60 

60 
.  60 

N.  C.  .  . 
N.  Dak. 

Ohio..  . 
Okla... 
Oreg. 

60 
60 

*46 
46 

60 

56 
60 

14 
14 

80 

80 
80 

60 

60 
60 
60 

60 

80 

20 

30 

Pa  

48 

14  15  18 

20 

16  75 
80 

76 

R.  I.  .. 

S.  C  . 

... 

48 

25 

60 

46 

50 

20 

48 

50 

S.  Dak. 

48 

48 

48 

60 
12  n60 

6  60 

46 

60 
50 

14 

20 
20 

20 

30 

42 

42 
50 

42 

60 

18  60 

60 

80 
80 

80 

Tenn  .  . 
Tex 

... 

3  50 
45 

24 
28 

50 

22 
22 

Ut-ah. 

Vt  
Va.... 

Wash.. 
W.  Va. 
Wis.... 

... 

46 

3  45 
50 

28* 

28 
25 
25 

48 

48 

48 
48 
48 

62 
6  60 

60 
60 

60 

14 

.... 

48 
52 

4? 

50 

60 
60 

60 
60 
60 

80 

80 

5? 

... 



50 

20 

50 

50 

Wyo... 

1  Not  defined. 

2  Small  white  beans,  60  pounds. 

3  Green  apples. 

4  Sugar  beets  and  mangel-wurzeU 

•>  Shelled  beans,  60  pounds;  velvet  beans,  78  pounds. 
« White  beans. 
?  Wheat  bran. 

s  Green  unshelled  beans,  56  pounds. 
s  English  blue-grass  seed,  22  pounds;  native  blue- 
grass  seed,  14  pounds. 


10  Also  castor  seed. 

11  Soy  beans,  58  pounds. 

12  Green  unshelled  beans,  30  pounds. 

13  Soy  beans. 

14  Commercially  dry,  for  all  hard  woods. 

15  Fifteen  pounds  commercially  dry,  for  all  soft  woods. 
18  Standard  weight  in  borough  of  Greensburg. 

"  Dried  beans. 

18  Red  and  white. 

'» Idaho  law  repealed  in  1905. 


[81 


LEGAL  WEIGHTS  OF  VARIOUS  COMMODITIES 


LEGAL  WEIGHTS  PER  BUSHEL  OF  COMMODITIES 
III.     Commodities  for  which  bushel  weights  have  been  more  widely  adopted. — Cord. 


Corn" 

Corn  Meal 

Cotton  Seed 

Flaxseed  (Linseed) 

(Plastering)  Hair 

Hemp  Seed 

Herds  Grass 

Hungarian  Grass 
Seed  || 

Indian  Corn  or  Maize 
I1 

U 

*g 

•S-S 

J* 

SI 

I1 

Shelled  Corn 

1 

Q 

II 
Is 

il 
-1 

^ 

6 

SS 

wO 

Upland  Cotton 
Seed 

u.  s  

Ala 

56 

48 

56 

70 

75 

56 

32 

Ariz  

54 

Ark 

70 

74 

56 

48 

33| 

56 

Cal  

52 

56 
56 
56 

Colo  .... 

70 

50 
50 

44 

Conn 

44 

30 

55 

45 

Del  

44 

48 

D  C 

Fla 

70 

56 
56 

48 
48 

32 
30 

46 

Ga 

70 

56 

8 

44 

Hawaii.  .  . 

56 

Idaho16 

111  

70 

2 

4  70 
5  70 

75 

56 
56 

56 
56 
56 

48 
50 

50 

56 

8 

44 
44 

Ind 

Iowa  
Kans  
Ky  
La  . 

38 

3  50 

7  70 
56 
56 

56 
56 
56 

68 

8 

44 
44 
44 

... 

50 
50 
50 

.... 

50 

Me  

8  50 

11 

44 

44 
50 
44 

44 
44 
44 

48 

45 

45 
45 

45 

50 

50 

48 
50 

48 
50 
50 
50 

10  56 

"56 
56 

Md  

4  70 

56 
9  50 
56 
56 
56 

56 
56 
56 
56 

48 
50 
50 

48 

50 
50 
50 

48 
50 

56 

Mass. 

44 

30 

55 
56 

68 
8 

Mich.... 
Minn 

4  70 
70 

72 

70 

Miss  

44 

48 

32 
33 

56 

56 
56 
56 
56 
56 

Mo 

Mont  .... 

70 
70 

... 

... 

Nebr    .  . 

Nev  

6  70 

... 

••• 



... 

N.  H 

9  50 

N.  J 

55 

N  Mex 

N.  Y 

50 

48 

... 

30 

44 
44 

30 

55 
55 
56 



44 

45 

... 

56 
56 

N.  C  

70 
70 

68 
70 

N.  Dak. 

72 

56 

56 
56 

Ohio  
Okla..... 

40 



56 

44 

50 

50 

32 

... 

56 



44 

56 
56 

Oree 

Pa 

40 

58 

'821 


LEGAL  WEIGHTS  OF  VARIOUS  COMMODITIES 


LEGAL  WEIGHTS  PER  BUSHEL  OF  COMMODITIES 
III.     Commodities  for  which  bushel  weights  have  been  more  widely  adopted. — Cont. 


s 

Corn" 

Corn  Meal1 

Cotton  Seed 

| 

(Plastering)  Hair 

i 

a 

Herds  Grass 

o 

bfl'S 
3C/2 

«. 

S 

2 

S 

^"S 

II 

Corn  in  Ear, 
Unhusked 

1 

Corn  Meal1 

II 

GO 
g« 

Corn  Meal 
Unbolted 

Cotton  Seed1 

Sea  Island 
Cotton  Seed 

5 

tj-j 

p 

R.  I  
S.  C  

40 

70 

56 

50 

"48 

48 

48 

12  30 

44 

30 

56 



44 

... 

50 

S.  Dak... 

70 
70 

70 

13  74 

72 

56 
56 

56 

56 

Tenn  
Tex  .  . 

40 

50 

48 

28 
32 

56 
56 

8 

44 
\\ 

•v 

48 
48 

Utah  

Vt  

45 

56 
56 

Va  

70 

56 

50 

32 

56 
56 

8 

44 

12 

48 

Wash.... 

W.  Va.  .  . 
Wis  

... 

56 

56 

50 

44 

30 

56 

8 

44 

48 

56 

Wyo  

1  Not  denned. 

2  Corn  in  ear,  70  pounds  until  Dec.  1  next   after 

grown;  68  pounds  thereafter. 

3  Sweet  corn. 

4  In  the  cob. 

5  Indian  corn  in  ear. 

8  Unwashed  plastering  hair,  8  pounds:  washed  plas- 
tering hair,  4  pounds. 

7  Corn  in  ear,  from  Nov.  1  to  May  1  following,  70 

pounds,  68  pounds  from  May  1  to  Nov.  1. 

8  Indian-corn  meal. 


9  Cracked  corn, 
w  Shelled. 

11  Standard  weight  bushel  corn  meal,  bolted  or  un- 

unbolted,  48  pounds. 

12  Except  the  seed  of  long  staple  cotton,  of  which  the 

weight  shall  be  42  pounds. 

13  Green  unshelled  corn,  100  pounds. 


14  See  also  "  Popcorn,"  "Indian  corn,"  and 

corn." 
»  Idaho  law  repealed  in  1905. 


Kaffir 


[83] 


LEGAL  WEIGHTS  OF  VARIOUS  COMMODITIES 


LEGAL  WEIGHTS 
III.     Commodities  for  which  bushel 


PER  BUSHEL  OF  COMMODITIES 

weights  have  been  more  widely  adopted. — Cont. 


Li 

me 

1 

Peache 

s 

1 

1 

a 

Unslaked 
Lime 

75 

3 

S 

m 

o 

Onions1 

Orchard  Grass  S 

1 
o 

.§• 

PH 

£ 

1 

Dried  Peaches, 
Unpeeled 

Peanuts  (or  "  Gi 
Peas")* 

! 

I 

u.  s  

34 

3?, 

60 

Ala 

32 

38 

33 

fio 

Ariz  .... 

32 

Ark  

50 

3?, 

57 

14 

33 

33 

60 

Cal  

32 

Colo  

80 

32 

57 

Conn 

70 

32 

52 

45 

33 

33 

60 

Del  

D.C  

Fla  

50 

32 

56 

2  54 

33 

22 

60 

• 

Ga 

80 

32 

57 

38 

33 

*25 

60 

Hawaii 

32 

Idaho29.... 

Ill  

80 

38 

32 

57 

33 

Ind.... 

4  35 

50 

3? 

48 

14 

33 

55 

33 

Iowa  

80 

50 

32 

57 

14 

32 

42 

48 

33 

20 

Kans.  . 

80 

32 

50 

32 

57 

52 

48 

33 

7  go 

Ky  
La  

... 

35 

50 

8  32 

57 

14 

39 

*24 

60 

Me  

32 

52 

45 

60 

Md 

80 

4  34 

10  50 

11  32 

57 

14 

12  40 

22 

13  60 

Mass.  .  . 

70 

32 

52 

45 

48 

33 

14  20 

58 

60 

Mich  

70 

50 

32 

54 

14 

33 

28 

60 

Minn   .  . 

80 

48 

32 

52 

14 

42 

15  28 

60 

Miss  
Mo  

80 

38 
38 

50 
50 

32 
32 

57 
57 

14 

36 

44 

48 

33 
33 



*24 

48 

60 
17  60 

Mont  

80 

30 

32 

57 

50 

45 

60 

Nebr.  . 

80 

30 

50 

32 

57 

39 

33 

60 

Nev  
N.  H 

70 

32 

50 

32 
32 

57 
52 

50 
45 

48 

48 

15  33 
5  33 

14  20 

58 

7  60 
60 

N.  J 

30 

57 

50 

33 

33 

60 

N.  Mex 

60 

N.  Y  

70 

32 

57 

33 

N.  C 

50 

32 

57 

14 

22 

60 

N.  Dak  .  .  . 

80 

50 

32 

52 

60 

Ohio  

70 

34 

50 

32 

55 

48 

33 

60 

Okla  
Oreg 

80 

38 

50 

32 
32 

57 

14 

36 

44 

48 

28 

33 

22 

48 
45 

60 

Pa  

32 

50 

[84] 


LEGAL  WEIGHTS  OF  VARIOUS  COMMODITIES 


LEGAL  WEIGHTS  PER  BUSHEL  OF  COMMODITIES 
III.     Commodities  for  which  bushel  weights  have  been  more  widely  adopted.— Cont. 


Lime 

s 

3 

1 
o 

Onions1 

0 

o 

1  Osage  Orange  Seed 

.& 

Peaches 

O 

k 

Pears1 

j 

1 

Unslaked 
Lime 

Peaches1 

Dried  Peaches, 
Peeled 

Dried  Peaches, 
Unpeeled 

R.  I  

S.  C 

70 

38 

50 

32 

50 

50 

48 

33 

3  60 

S.  Dak.... 
Tenn  . 

Tex 

80 

19 

80 

20  50 
50 

32 
32 

32 

52 

21  56 

57 

2*56 

60 
60 

14 

33 

50 

23  50 
50 

26 

28 

23 

Utah 

Vt 

38 

50 
50 

32 
30 

32 
32 
32 

52 
57 

14 

34 

60 

25  60 

Va  
Wash 

80 

.... 

40 

28 
33 
33 

32 

22 

3  45 

W  Va 

26  34 

Wis 

70 

80 

57 

44 

60 

Wyo 

1  Not  denned. 

2  Green  peaches, 
s  Green. 

4  Malt  rye. 

6  Top  sets;  bottom  sets  32  pounds, 
s  Shelled,  56  pounds. 

7  Shelled,  dry. 

8  Strike  measure. 

9  Bottom  onion  sets. 

10  German  and  American. 

11  Shelled. 

12  Peaches  (peeled) ;  unpeeled  32  pounds. 

13  Cowpeas. 

14  Roasted;  green  22  pounds. 

16  Not  stated  whether  peeled  or  unpeeled. 


16  Top  onion  sets. 

17  Including  split  peas. 
» In  the  ear. 

19  Slaked  lime,  40  pounds. 

20  German,  Missouri,  and  Tennessee  millet  seeds. 

21  Matured  onions. 

22  Bottom  onion  sets,  32  pounds. 

23  Matured. 

24  Matured  pears,  56  pounds;  dried  pears,  26  pounds. 

25  Black-eyed  pease. 

26  Barley  malt. 

27  Includes  "Rice  corn." 

28  "  Rive  corn." 

29  Idaho  law  repealed  in  1905. 


[85] 


LEGAL  WEIGHTS  OF  VARIOUS  COMMODITIES 


LEGAL  WEIGHTS  PER  BUSHEL  OF  COMMODITIES 
III.     Commodities  for  which  bushel  weights  have  been  more  widely  adopted. — Cont* 


Pot 

atoes 

i 

Salt 

I 

Sweet  Potatoes 

White  Potatoes 

Quinces 

I 

1 
1 

8 
S 
ja 

Rutabagas 

I 
1 

V 

£ 

a 

•a 

OT 

Fine  Salt 

Coarse  Salt 

1 

Timothy  Seed 

Tomatoes 

.1 

H 

•w 

U.S.  .  . 

60 

56 

60 

Ala 

"55 

60 

56 

55 

60 

Ariz 

56 

60 

Ark  

60 

50 

14 

56 

50 

50 

60 

57 

60 

Cal  

54 

60 

Colo  

60 

56 

80 

45 

60 

Conn 

60 

54 

45 

60 

50 

56 

50 

70 

60 

Del  

60 

D.C.  

60 

Fla 

60 

60 

48 

56 

60 

56 

54 

60 

Ga 

55 

60 

43 

56 

45 

55 

60 

Hawaii.  . 

56 

60 

Idaho8  

111 

50 

60 

56 

55 

50 

45 

55 

60 

Ind   .... 

60 

55 

56 

50 

45 

55 

60 

Iowa 

60 

46 

48 

50 

14 

50 

56 

80 

2  50 

45 

50 

55 

60 

Kans  .... 

60 

50 

56 

80 

50 

45 

56 

55 

60 

Ky 

6  60 

55 

56 

50 

55 

45 

60 

60 

La  .  . 

56 

60 

Me 

60 

60 

50 

50 

60 

70 

60 

Md  

60 

60 

50 

3  14 

56 

56 

70 

50 

45 

60 

60 

60 

Mass  
Mich 

60 

54 

56 

60 

48 

4  14 

45 

... 

50 

56 
56 

56 

50 

70 

45 
45 

56 

55 

58 

60 
60 

Minn 

55 

60 

50 

4  14 

5? 

56 

57 

45 

60 

Miss 

60 

60 

56 

50 

4?, 

45 

55 

60 

\ 
Mo 

56 

60 

4  14 

50 

56 

50 

42 

45 

45 

60 

Mont 

60 

56 

50 

45 

50 

60 

Nebr 

50 

60 

56 

50 

50 

45 

55 

60 

Nev 

60 

50 

56 

SO 

50 

45 

56 

56 

60 

N  H 

6  60 

54 

48 

50 

56 

50 

70 

45 

56 

55 

60 

N.  J 

54 

60 

56 

45 

60 

N  Mex 

N.  Y  . 

54 

60 

45 

50 

56 

56 

70 

45 

60 

N.C  

N.  Dak 

6  56 

56 
46 

60 
60 

50 

4  14 

44 

56 
56 

80 

50 

45 
45 

50 
60 

60 

60 

Ohio 

6  60 

50 

56 

45 

56 

60 

60 

Okla  

55 

60 

50 

4  14 

50 

56 

SO 

50 

45 

45 

60 

60 

Oree 

60 

56 

60 

Pa 

56 

56 

6  62 

85 

60 

[86] 


LEGAL  WEIGHTS  OF  VARIOUS  COMMODITIES 


LEGAL  WEIGHTS  PER  BUSHEL  OF  COMMODITIES 
III.     Commodities  for  which  bushel  weights  have  been  more  widely  adopted. — Cont. 


Pol 

atoe 

B 

Salt 

Potatoes1 

I 

w 

White  Potatoes 

'3 

cy 

Rape  Seed 

Red  Top 

•S 

Rutabagas 

Rye  Meal 

1 

1 

Fine  Salt 

Coarse  Salt 

Sorghum  Seed 

Timothy  Seed 

Tomatoes 

t 
I 

1 
£ 

R.  I 

54 

60 

50 

56 

50 

70 

45 

56 

50 

60 

S.  C  

_ 

S.  Dak 

46 

60 

56 

SO 

42 

60 

60 

Tenn 

50 

60 

18 

4  14 

56 

50 

50 

45 

56 

50 

60 

Tex 

55 

60 

56 

50 

45 

55 

55 

60 

Utah  

Vt 

60 

56 

70 

45 

60 

7  60 

Va  ...  . 

56 

56 

12 

56 

50 

45 

55 

60 

Wash 

60 

56 

60 

W.  Va 

60 

56 

45 

60 

Wis  
Wyo 

60 

54 

... 

50 

45 

56 

50 

56 

50 

70 



45 

... 

42 

60 

1  Not  denned. 

2  Sorghum  saccharatum  seed. 

3  Red  top  grass  seed  (chaff) ;  fancy  32  pounds. 
<  Seed. 


5  Irish  potatoes. 

6  Ground  salt,  70  pounds. 

7  India  wheat,  46  pounds. 

s  Idaho  law  repealed  in  1905. 


[87] 


SECTION  3 
MENSURATION  AND  MATHEMATICAL  TABLES 


MENSURATION   OF   SURFACES 

To  Find  the  Area  of  a  Parallelogram ;  whether  it  be  a  square,  a  rectangle,  a  rhombus, 
or  a  rhomboid. — Rule:     Multiply  the  length  by  the 
height;    or,  multiply  the  product  of  two  contiguous 
sides  by  the  natural  sine  of  the  included  angle. 

NOTE. — The  perpendicular  height  of  the  parallelo- 
gram is  equal  to  the  area  divided  by  the  base. 

The  area  of  a  parallelogram  which  is  not  right 
angled  can  be  converted  into  a  rectangle  by  cutting 
off  a  triangle  at  one  end  and  putting  it  on  the  other. 

Its  area  is  the  length  multiplied  into  the 
breadth  measured  perpendicularly,  or,  as 
it  is  commonly  stated, — Area  =  base  X 
altitude. 

To  Find  the  Area  of  a  Triangle. — 
Rule:  Multiply  the  base  by  the  perpen- 
dicular height  and  take  half  the  product. 
Or,  multiply  half  the  product  of  \  two 
contiguous  sides  by  the  natural  sine  of 
the  included  angle. 

NOTE. — A  triangle  is  half  a  parallelogram  of  the  same 
base  and  altitude. 

The  perpendicular  height  of  the  triangle  is  equal  to 
twice  the  area  divided  by  the  base. 

To  Find  the  Area  of  a  Triangle  Whose  Three  Sides 
Only  Are  Given. — Rule  1.  From  half  the  sum  of  the  three 
sides  subtract  each  side  severally. 

Multiply    half    the    sum    and    the    three  remainders 

continually   together,  and   the   square  root  of 
the  product  will  be  the  area  required. 

Rule  2.  Any  two  sides  of  a  triangle  being 
multiplied  together  and  the  product  again  by 
half  the  natural  sine  of  their  included  angle  will 
give  the  area  of  the  triangle. 

That  is,  AC  multiplied  by  CB  X  natural 
sine  of  the  angle  C  =  twice  area. 


Any  Two  Sides  of  a  Right  Angle  Triangle  Being 
Given  to  Find  the  Third  Side.— Rule  1.  When  the 
two  legs  are  given  to  find  the  hypotenuse.  Add  the 
square  of  one  of  the  legs  to  the  square  of  the  other, 
and  the  square  root  of  the  sum  will  be  equal  to  the 
hypotenuse. 

Rule  2.  When  the  hypotenuse  and  one  of  the  legs 
are  given  to  find  the  other  leg.  From  the  square  of 
the  hypotenuse  take  the  square  of  the  given  leg,  and  the  £~~  B 

square  root  of  the  remainder  will  be  equal  to  the  other  leg. 

To  Find  the  Area  of  a  Trapezium. — Rule:  Multiply  the  diagonal  by  the  sum  of 
the  two  perpendiculars  falling  upon  it  from  the  opposite  angles,  and  half  the  product 
will  be  the  area. 

[89] 


MENSURATION 


NOTE.  —  If  the  trapezium  can  be  inscribed  in  a  circle;  that  is,  if  the  sum  of  two  of 
its  opposite  angles  is  equal  to  two  right  angles,  or  180°,  the  area  may  be  found  thus: 

Rule:  From  half  the  sum  of  the  four  sides  sub- 
tract each  side  severally;  then  multiply  the  four 
remainders  continually  together,  and  the  square 
root  of  the  product  will  be  the  area. 

To  Find  the  Area  of  a  Trapezoid,  or  a  Quad- 
rangle, Two  of  Whose  Opposite  Sides  Are  Parallel. 
—  Rule:  Multiply  the  sum  of  the  parallel  sides  by 
the  perpendicular  distance  between  them,  and  half 
the  product  will  be  the  area. 

To   Find   the  Area  of  a  Regular  Polygon.  — 
Rule:    Multiply  half  the  perimeter  of  the  figure  by 
the  perpendicular  falling  from  its  center  upon  one 
of  the  sides,  and  the  product  will  be  the  area. 

NOTE.  —  Every  regular  polygon  is  composed  of  as 
many  equal  triangles  as  it  has  sides,  consequently 
the  area  of  one  of  those  triangles  being  multiplied 
by  the  number  of  sides  must  give  the  area  of  the 
whole  figure. 

To  Find  the  Area  of  a  Regular  Polygon  When 
the  Side  Only  Is  Given.  —  Rule:  Multiply  the  square 

of  the  side  of  the  polygon  by  the  number  standing  opposite 
its  name  in  the  following  table  and  the  product  will  be 
the  area. 

NOTE.  —  The  multipliers  in  the  table  are  the  areas  of 
the  polygon  to  which  they  belong  when  the  side  is  unity 
or  one.  The  table  is  formed  by  trigonometry,  thus: 

As  radius  =  1  :  tang.  Z  O  B  P  :  :  BP  (f  )  :  P  O  = 
BPXtang.  ZOPB 
radius 

Whence  O  P  X  B  P  =  £  tang.  Z  O  B  P  =  area  of  the 
O  B  P  X  number  of  sides  =  tabular  number,  or  the  area 


=  £tang.  ZOBP: 


tang. 


A  A  0  B;    and 
of  the  polygon. 

The  angle  O  B  P,  together  with  its  tangent,  for  any  polygon  of  not  more  than  twelve 
sides  is  shown  hi  the  following  table: 


No.  of 
Sides 

Names 

Multipliers 

Angle 
OBP 

Tangents 

3 

4 

Trigon  or  equil.  A  
Tetragon  or  square 

0.433013- 
1  000000+ 

30° 

45° 

.57735+  =  W3 
1  00000+  =1X1 

5 

Pentagon 

1  720477+ 

54° 

1  37638+  =  V1  +  H5 

6 

Hexagon  

2  598076+ 

60° 

1  73205+  =  V3 

7 

Heptagon  .  .  .  .  ;  

3.633912+ 

64° 

2.07652  + 

8 

Octagon 

4  828427+ 

67°f 

2  41421+  =  1  +  V2 

9 

Nonagon  

6  181824+ 

70°1 

2.74747+ 

10 

Decagon  .    . 

7  694209  — 

72° 

3  07768+  =  V5+2V5 

11 

Undecagon  

9  365640  — 

73°tV 

3.40568+ 

12 

Duodecagon  

11.196152+ 

75° 

3.73205+  =  2+V3 

To  Find  the  Area  of  Any  Polygon. — Rule:    Divide  the  polygon  into  triangles  and 
trapezoids  by  drawing  diagonals'   find  the  area  of  these  as  above  shown,  fo**  the  area. 

[90] 


MENSURATION 


To  Find  the  Area  of  Any  Quadrilateral  Figure. — Rule:  Divide  the  quadrilateral 
into  two  triangles;  the  sum  of  the  areas  of  the  triangles  is  the  area. 

Or,  multiply  half  the  product  of  the  two 
diagonals  by  the  natural  sine  of  the  angle  of 
their  intersection. 

NOTE. — As  the  diagonal  of  a  square  and  a 
rhombus  intersect  at  right  angles  (the  natural 
sine  of  which  is  1),  half  the  product  of  their 
diagonals  is  the  area. 

To  Find  the  Area  of  an  Irregular  Polygon  or 
Figure  of  Any  Number  of  Sides. — Rule :  Divide 
the  figure  into  triangles  and  trapeziums,  and 
find  the  area  of  each  separately. 

Add  these  areas  together  and  the  sum  will 
be  the  area  of  the  whole  polygon. 

CIRCLES 

The  proportion  of  the  diameter  of  a  circle  to  its  circumference  has  never  yet  been 
exactly  ascertained.  Nor  can  a  square  or  any  other  right  lined  figure  be  found  that 
shall  be  equal  to  a  given  circle. 

Though  the  relation  between  the  diameter  and  circumference  cannot  be  accurately 
expressed  in  known  numbers,  it  may  yet  be  approximated  to  any  assigned  degree  of 
exactness.  Van  Ceulen,  a  Dutchman,  in  his  book,  "De  Circulo  et  Adscriptis"  showed 
that  if  the  diameter  of  a  circle  was  1,  the  circumference  would  be  3.141592653589793  and 
so  on  to  thirty-six  places  of  decimals.  This  is  commonly  abbreviated  as  1  to  3.1416. 

When  the  diameter  =  1,  the  area  is  equal  to  .785398+,  commonly  abbreviated 
to  .7854. 

In  these  ratios,  the  diameter  and  circumference  are  taken  lineally  and  the  area 
superficially.  If  the  diameter  is  in  inches,  the  circumference  will  be  in  lineal  inches, 
the  area  in  square  inches. 

The  circumference  of  a  circle  is  commonly  signified  by  the  Greek  letter  TT,  which 
indicates  the  length  of  the  circumference  when  the  diameter  is  1. 

D  =  diameter  of  circle,  TT  =  circumference  of  circle,  A  =  area  of  circle, 


A  =— D2  =  .7854  D2. 


=^--=  1.1284  VA 


If  the  diameter  be  multiplied  or  divided  by  any  number,  the  area  must  be  multiplied 
or  divided  by  the  square  of  that  number.    Thus: 


Diameter  =  nD.    Area  =  n2A. 


Diameter  =  — . 
n 


Area  =  — . 


The  Diameter  of  a  Circle  Being  Given  to  Find  the  Circumference;  or,  the  circum- 
ference being  given  to  find  the  diameter. — Rule:    Multiply  the  diameter  by  3.1416, 
and  the  product  will  be  the  circumference,  or,  divide  the  cir- 
cumference by  3.1416,  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  diameter. 

NOTE. — 1.  As  7  is  to  22,  so  is  the  diameter  to  the  circumfer- 
ence;  or,  as  22  is  to  7,  so  is  the  circumference  to  the  diameter. 

2.  As  113  is  to  355,  so  is  the  diameter 
to  the  circumference;  or,  as  355  is  to  113, 
so  is  the  circumference  to  the  diameter. 

To  Find  the  Area  of  a  Circle.— Rule  1. 
Multiply  half  the  circumference  by  half  the 
diameter,  and  the  product  will  be  the  area. 
Or,  taKe  one-fourth  the  product  of  the  whole  circumference 
and  diameter. 

NOTE. — A  circle  may  be  considered  as  a  regular  polygon  of 
an  infinite  number  of  sides,  the  circumference  being  equal  to  the  perimeter,  and  the 
radius  to  the  perpendicular.     But  the  area  of  a  regular  polygon  is  equal  to  half  the 

[91] 


MENSURATION 

perimeter  multiplied  by  the  perpendicular,  and  consequently  the  area  of  a  circle  is 
equal  to  half  the  circumference  multiplied  by  the  radius,  or  half  the  diameter. 

Rule  2.  Multiply  the  square  of  the  diameter  by  .7854,  and  the  product  will  be  the 
area;  or,  multiply  the  square  of  the  circumference  by  .07958,  and  the  product  will  be 
the  area. 

NOTE. — All  circles  are  to  each  other  as  the  squares  of  their  diameters. 
The  following  proportions  are  those  of  Metius  and  Archimedes: 
As  452  :  355  ::  square  of  the  diameter  :  area. 
As    14  :    11  ::  square  of  the  diameter  :  area. 

If  the  circumference  be  given  instead  of  the  diameter,  the  area  may  be  found  as 
follows: 

The  square  of  the  circumference  X  .07958  =  area. 
As  88  :  7  : :  square  of  the  circumference  :  area. 
As  1420  :  113  ::  square  of  the  circumference  :  area. 

The  following  table  will  show  most  of  the  useful  problems  relating  to  the  circle 
and  its  equal  or  inscribed  square: 

Diameter  X    .8862  =  side  of  an  equal  square. 
Circumference  X    .2821  =  side  of  an  equal  square. 

Diameter  X    .7071  =  side  of  an  inscribed  square. 
Circumference  X    .2251  =  side  of  the  inscribed  square. 
Area  X    .6366  =  side  of  the  inscribed  square. 
Side  of  a  square  X  1.4142  =  diameter  of  its  circumscribing  circle. 
Side  of  a  square  X  4.443    =  circumference  of  its  circumscribing  circle. 
Side  of  a  square  X  1.128    =  diameter  of  an  equal  circle. 
Side  of  a  square  X  3.545    =  circumference  of  an  equal  circle. 

Radius  X  6.2832  =  circumference. 
Circumference  X    .3183  =  diameter. 
Circumference  =  3.5449  A/area  of  a  cirde. 

Diameter  =  1.1283  Varea  of  a  circle. 

Length  of  arc  =  number  of  degrees  X  .0175  radius, 

arc  of  1°  to  radius  1  =  0.017453. 
arc  of  1'  to  radius  1  =  0.000291. 
arc  of  1"  to  radius  1  =  0.00000485. 
Degrees  in  arc  whose  length  =  radius  =  57°  .2958. 


[921 


MENSURATION 


USEFUL  FUNCTIONS  OF  ir 

=  ratio  of  circumference  to  diameter 
=  3.1415926536 


N 

2N 

3N 

4N 

5N 

6N 

7N 

8N 

9N 

v  =     3.1416 

6.2832 

9.4248 

12.5664 

15.7080 

18.8496 

21.9911 

25.1327 

28.2743 

—-=      1.5708 

3.1416 

4.7124 

6.2832 

7.8540 

9.4248 

10.9956 

12.5664 

14.1372 

-~=     1.0472 

2.0944 

3.1416 

4.1888 

5.2360 

6.2832 

7.3304 

8.3776 

9.4248 

-f-=       .7854 

1.5708 

2.3562 

3.1416 

3.9270 

4.7124 

5.4978 

6.2832 

7.0686 

1T=       .5236 

1.0472 

1.5708 

2.0944 

2.6180 

3.1416 

3.6652 

4.1888 

4.7124 

-—=       .4488 

.8976 

1.3464 

1.7952 

2.2440 

2.6928 

3.1416 

3.5904 

4.0392 

~j-  =       .1963 

.3927 

.5890 

.7854 

.9817 

1  .  1781 

1.3744 

1.5708 

1.7671 

-j±=       .1309 

.2618 

.3927 

.5236 

.6545 

.7854 

.9163 

1.0472 

1.1781 

7T 

.1964 

.2945 

.3927 

.4909 

.5890 

.6872 

.7854 

.8836 

iio=     -0175 

.0349 

.0524 

.0698 

.0873 

.1047 

.1222 

1396 

.1571 

7T2  =     9.8696 

19.7392 

29.6088 

39.4784 

49.3480 

59.2176 

69.0872 

78.9568 

88.8264 

7T3  =   31.0063 
—  -=       .3183 

-~=       .1013 
-~=       .0323 

62.0126 
.6366 

.2026 
.0645 

93.0188 
.9549 

.3040 
.0968 

124.0251 
1.2732 

.4053 
.1290 

155.0314 
1.5915 

.5066 
.1613 

186.0377 
1.9099 

.6079 
.1935 

217.0439 

2.2282 

.7092 

.2258 

248.0502 
2.5465 

.8106 
.2580 

279.0565 

2.8648 

.9119 
.2903 

V^=     1.7725 
V~r=      1.4646 

3.5449 
2.9292 

5.3174 
4.3938 

7.0898 
5.8584 

8.8623 
7.3230 

10.6347 

8.7876 

12.4072 
10.2521 

14.1796 
11.7167 

15.9521 
13.1813 

Jl=       .5642 

1  .  1284 

1.6926 

2.2568 

2.8209 

3.3851 

3.9493 

4.5135 

5.0777 

3^=       .6828 

1.3656 

2.0484 

2.7311 

3.4139 

4.0967 

4.7795 

5.4623 

6.1451 

Log  TT  =  .  4971499 

.9943 

1.4915 

1.9886 

2.4857 

2.9829 

3.4800 

3.9772 

4.4743 

[93] 


CIRCLES— DIAMETER,  CIRCUMFERENCE,  AREA 
CIRCLES — DIAMETER,  CIRCUMFERENCE,  AREA,  AND  SIDE  OF  EQUAL  SQUARE  FROM  1  TO  120 


Diameter 

Circum- 
ference 

Area 

Side  of 
Equal 
Square 
.    (Square 
Root 
of  Area) 

Diameter 

Circum- 
ference 

Area 

Side  of 
Equal 
Square 
(Square 
Root 
of  Area) 

3 

9.4248 

7.0686 

2.6586 

A 

.1963 

.00307 

.0553 

3& 

9.6211 

7.3662 

2.7140 

H 

.3927 

.01227 

.1107 

3K 

9.8175 

7.6699 

2.7694 

A 

.5890 

.02761 

.1661 

3A 

10.014 

7.9798 

2.8248 

M 

.7854 

.04909 

.2215 

3M 

10.210 

8.2957 

2.8801 

A 

.9817 

.07670 

.2770 

3A 

10.406 

8.6180 

2.9355 

H 

1.1781 

.1104 

.3323 

3K 

10.6C2 

8.9462 

2.9909 

A 

1.3744 

.1503 

.3877 

3^ 

10.799 

9.2807 

3.0463 

1A 

1.5708 

.1963 

.4431 

3M 

10.995 

9.6211 

3.1017 

& 

1.7771 

.2485 

.4984 

3& 

11.191 

9.9680 

3.1571 

» 

1.9635 

.3068 

.5539 

3K 

11.388 

10.320 

3.2124 

tt 

2.1598 

.3712 

.6092 

3H 

11.584 

10.679 

3.2678 

3/* 

2.3562 

.4417 

.6646 

3M 

11.781 

11.044 

3.3232 

H 

2.5525 

.5185 

.7200 

3H 

11.977 

11.416 

3.3786 

K 

2.7489 

.6013 

.7754 

3K 

12.173 

11.793 

3.4340 

if 

2.9452 

.6903 

.8308 

3H 

12.369 

12.177 

3.4894 

i 

3.1416 

.7854 

.8862 

4 

12.566 

12.566 

3.5448 

iA 

3.3379 

.8866 

.9416 

4^ 

12.762 

12.962 

3.6002 

IK 

3.5343 

.9940 

.9969 

4K 

12.959 

13.364 

3.6555 

1ft 

3.7306 

.1075 

1.0524 

4& 

13.155 

13.772 

3.7109 

iM 

3.9270 

.2271 

1.1017 

4M 

13.351 

14.186 

3.7663 

1A 

4.1233 

.3530 

1.1631 

4A 

13.547 

14.606 

3.8217 

iK 

4.3197 

.4848 

1.2185 

4K 

13.744 

15.033 

3.8771 

iA 

4.5160 

.6229 

1.2739 

4^ 

13.940 

15.465 

3.9325 

l« 

4.7124 

1.7671 

1.3293 

4K 

14.137 

15.904 

3.9880 

*A 

4.9087 

1.9175 

1.3847 

4& 

14.333 

16.349 

4.0434 

if* 

5.1051 

2.0739 

1.4401 

4K 

14.529 

16.800 

4.0987 

ltt 

5.3014 

2.2365 

.4955 

4H 

14.725 

17.257 

4.1541 

iK 

5.4978 

2.4052 

.5508 

4M 

14.922 

17.720 

4.2095 

lit 

5.6941 

2.5800 

.6062 

4H 

15.119 

18.190 

4.2648 

IK 

5.8905 

2.7611 

.6616 

4K 

15.315 

18.665 

4.3202 

m 

6.0868 

2.9483 

.7170 

4M 

15.511 

19.147 

4.3756 

2 

6.2832 

3.1416 

1.7724 

5 

15.708 

19.635 

4.4310 

2A 

6.4795 

3.3380 

1.8278 

5^ 

15.904 

20.129 

4.4864 

2K 

6.6759 

3.5465 

1.8831 

5K 

16.100 

20.629 

4.5417 

2A 

6.8722 

3.7584 

1.9385 

5& 

16.296 

21  .  135 

4.5971 

2M 

7.0686 

3.9760 

1.9939 

5M 

16.493 

21.647 

4.6525 

2& 

7.2649 

4.2000 

2.0493 

5A 

16.689 

22.166 

4.7079 

2K 

7.4613 

4.4302 

2.1047 

5K 

16.886 

22.690 

4.7633 

2& 

7.6576 

4.6664 

2.1601 

5^ 

17.082 

23.221 

4.8187 

2K 

7.8540 

4.9087 

2.2155 

5K 

17.278 

23.758 

4.8741 

2& 

8.0503 

5.1573 

2.2709 

5& 

17.474 

24.301 

4.9295 

2K 

8.2467 

5.4119 

2.3262 

5K 

17.671 

24.850 

4.9848 

2H 

8.4430 

5.6723 

2.3816 

5H 

17.867 

25.406 

5.0402 

2M 

8.6394 

5.9395 

2.4370 

5M 

18.064 

25.967 

5.0956 

2H 

8.8357 

6.2126 

2.4924 

5H 

18.231 

26.535 

5.1510 

2K 

9.0321 

6.4918 

2.5478 

5K 

18.457 

27.108 

5.2064 

2H 

9.2284 

6.7772 

2.6032 

5H 

18.653 

27.688 

5.2618 

[94 


CIRCLES— DIAMETER,  CIRCUMFERENCE,  AREA 
CIRCLES — DIAMETER,  CIRCUMFERENCE,  AREA,  ETC. — (Cont.) 


Diame- 
ter 

Circum- 
ference 

Area 

Side  of 
Equal 
Square 
(Square 
Root 
of  Area) 

Diameter 

Circum- 
ference 

Area 

Side  of 
Equal 
Square 
(Square 
Root 
of  Area) 

6 

18.849 

28.274 

5.3172 

H^ 

36.128 

103.869 

10.191 

Ql/s 

19.242 

29.464 

5.4280 

11^ 

36.521 

106.139 

10.302 

VA 

19.635 

30.679 

5.5388 

11% 

36.913 

108.434 

10.413 

W/8 

20.027 

31.919 

5.6495 

W/s 

37.306 

110.753 

10.523 

V/2 

20.420 

33.183 

5.7603 

Q5/8 

20.813 

34.471 

5.8711 

12 

37.699 

113.097 

10.634 

6% 

21.205 

35.784 

5.9819 

12^ 

38.091 

115.466 

10.745 

V/8 

21.598 

37.122 

6.0927 

12^ 

38.484 

117.859 

10.856 

12^ 

38.877 

120.276 

10.966 

7 

21.991 

38.484 

6.2034 

12^ 

39.270 

122.718 

11.077 

7l/8 

22.383 

39.871 

6.3142 

12% 

39.662 

125.184 

11.188 

7% 

22.776 

41.282 

6.4350 

12% 

40.055 

127.676 

11.299 

1H 

23.169 

42.718 

6.5358 

12ft 

40.448 

130.192 

11.409 

7H 

23.562 

44.178 

6.6465 

1Y* 

23.954 

45.663 

6.7573 

13 

40.840 

132.732 

11.520 

1% 

24.347 

47.173 

6.8681 

13H 

41.233 

135.297 

11.631 

1% 

24.740 

48.707 

6.9789 

I3H 

41.626 

137.886 

11.742 

13% 

42.018 

140.500 

11.853 

8 

25.132 

50.265 

7.0897 

133^ 

42.411 

143.139 

11.963 

8^ 

25.515 

51.848 

7.2005 

13% 

42.804 

145.802 

12.074 

8% 

25.918 

53.456 

7.3112 

13% 

43.197 

148.489 

12.185 

m 

26.310 

55.088 

7.4220 

13% 

43.589 

151.201 

12.296 

V/2 

26.703 

56.745 

7.5328 

8% 

27.096 

58.426 

7.6436 

14 

43.982 

153.938 

12.406 

8% 

27.489 

60.132 

7.7544 

14% 

44.375 

156.699 

12.517 

S7/8 

27.881 

61.862 

7.8651 

14% 

44.767 

159.485 

12.628 

14% 

45.160 

162.295 

12.739 

9 

28.274 

63.617 

7.9760 

14% 

45.553 

165.130 

12.850 

9H 

28.667 

65.396 

8.0866 

14% 

45.945 

167.989 

12.960 

9% 

29.059 

67.200 

8.1974 

14% 

46.338 

170.873 

13.071 

9% 

29.452 

69.029 

8.3081 

14% 

46.731 

173.872 

13.182 

9^ 

29.845 

70.882 

8.4190 

9% 

30.237 

72.759 

8.5297 

15 

47.124 

176.715 

13.293 

9% 

30.630 

74.662 

8.6405 

15% 

47.516 

179.672 

13.403 

$7/8 

31.023 

76.588 

8.7513 

15% 

47.909 

182.654 

13.514 

15% 

48.302 

185.661 

13.625 

10 

31.416 

78.540 

8.8620 

15% 

48.694 

188.692 

13.736 

10% 

31.808 

80.515 

8.9728 

15% 

49.087 

191.748 

13.847 

10% 

32.201 

82.516 

9.0836 

15% 

49.480 

194.828 

13.957 

10% 

32.594 

84.540 

9.1943 

15% 

49.872 

197.933 

14.068 

10% 

32.986 

86.590 

9.3051 

10% 

33.379 

88.664 

9.4159 

16 

50.265 

201.062 

14.179 

10% 

33.772 

90.762 

9.5267 

16% 

50.658 

204.216 

14.290 

10K 

34.164 

92.885 

9.6375 

16% 

51.051 

207.394 

14.400 

16% 

51.443 

210.597 

14.511 

11 

34.557 

95.033 

9.7482 

16% 

51.836 

213.825 

14.622 

11H 

34.950 

97.205 

9.8590 

16% 

52.229 

217.077 

14.732 

11% 

35.343 

99.402 

9.9698 

16% 

52.621 

220.353 

14.843 

11% 

35.735 

101.623 

10.080 

16% 

53.014 

223.654 

14.954 

[95] 


CIRCLES— DIAMETER,  CIRCUMFERENCE,  AREA 
CIRCLES — DIAMETER,  CIRCUMFERENCE,.  AREA,  ETC. — (Cont.) 


Diameter 

Circum- 
ference 

Area 

Side  of 
Equal 
Square 
(Square 
Root 
of  Area) 

Diameter 

Circum- 
ference 

Area 

Side  of 
Equal 
Square 
(Square 
Root 
of  Area) 

17 

53.407 

226.980 

15.065 

22% 

70.686 

397.608 

19.939 

WH 

53.799 

230.330 

15.176 

22% 

71.078 

402.038 

20.050 

17H 

54.192 

233.705 

15.286 

22% 

71.471 

406.493 

20.161 

17% 

54.585 

237.104 

15.397 

22y8 

71.864 

410.972 

20.271 

17H 

54.978 

240.528 

15.508 

i7H 

55.370 

243.977 

15.619 

23 

72.256 

415.476 

20.382 

im 

55.763 

247.450 

15.730 

23% 

72.649 

420.004 

20.493 

17% 

56.156 

250.947 

15.840 

23% 

73.042 

424.557 

20.604 

23% 

73.434 

429.135 

20.715 

18 

56.548 

254.469 

15.951 

23% 

73.827 

433.731 

20.825 

18% 

56.941 

258.016 

16.062 

23% 

74.220 

438.363 

20.936 

mi 

57.334 

261.587 

16.173 

23% 

74.613 

443.014 

21.047 

18% 

57.726 

265.182 

16.283 

23% 

75.005 

447.699 

21.158 

18^ 

58.119 

268.803 

16.394 

1SH 

58.512 

272.447 

16.505 

24 

75.398 

452.390 

21.268 

18% 

58.905 

276.117 

16.616 

24% 

75.791 

457.115 

21.379 

18% 

59.297 

279.811 

16.727 

24% 

76.183 

461.864 

21.490 

24% 

76.576 

46'6.638 

21.601 

19 

59.690 

283.529 

16.837 

24H 

76.969 

471.436 

21.712 

19% 

60.083 

287.272 

16.948 

24% 

77.361 

476.259 

21.822 

19% 

60.475 

291.039 

17.060 

24% 

77.754 

481  .  106 

21.933 

19% 

60.868 

294.831 

17.170 

24% 

78.147 

485.978 

22.044 

19% 

61.261 

298.648 

17.280 

19% 

61.653 

302.489 

17.391 

25 

78.540 

490.875 

22.155 

19% 

62.046 

306.355 

17.502 

25% 

78.932 

495.796 

22.265 

19% 

62.439 

310.245 

17.613 

25% 

79.325 

500.741 

22.376 

25% 

79.718 

505.711 

22.487 

20 

62.832 

314.160 

17.724 

25^ 

80.110 

510.706 

22.598 

20% 

63.224 

318.099 

17.834 

25% 

80.503 

515.725 

22.709 

20% 

63.617   • 

322.063 

17.945 

25% 

80.896 

520.769 

22.819 

20% 

64.010 

326.051 

18.056 

25% 

81.288 

525.837 

22.930 

20% 

64.402 

330.064 

18.167 

20% 

64.795 

334.101 

18.277 

26 

81.681 

530.930 

23.041 

20% 

65.188 

338.163 

18.388 

26% 

82.074 

536.047 

23.152 

20% 

65.580 

342.250 

18.499 

26% 

82.467 

541  .  189 

23.262 

26% 

82.859 

546.356 

23.373 

21 

65.973 

346.361 

18.610 

26^ 

83.252 

551.547 

23.484 

21% 

66.366 

350.497 

18.721 

26% 

83.645 

556.762 

23.595 

21M 

66.759 

354.657 

18.831 

26% 

84.037 

562.002 

23.708 

21H 

67.151 

358.841 

18.942 

26% 

84.430 

567.267 

23.816 

21H 

67.544 

363.051 

19.053 

21% 

67.937 

367.284 

19.164 

27 

84.823 

572.556 

23.927 

21% 

68.329 

371.543 

19.274 

27% 

85.215 

577.870 

24.038 

21% 

68.722 

375.826 

19.385 

27% 

85.608 

583.208 

24.149 

27% 

86.001 

588.571 

24.259 

22 

69.115 

380.133 

19.496 

27^ 

86.394 

593.958 

24.370 

22% 

69.507 

384.465 

19.607 

27% 

86.786 

599.370 

24.481 

22% 

69.900 

388.822 

19.718 

27% 

87.179 

604.807 

24.592 

22% 

70.293 

393.203 

19.828 

27% 

87.572 

610.268 

24.703 

[96] 


CIRCLES— DIAMETER,  CIRCUMFERENCE,  AREA 

CIRCLES — DIAMETER,  CIRCUMFERENCE,  AREA,  ETC. — (Cont.) 


: 

Diameter 

Circum- 
ference 

Area 

Side  of 
Equal 
Square 
(Square 
Root 
of  Area) 

Diameter 

Circum- 
ference 

Area 

Side  of 
Equal 
Square 
(Square 
Root 
of  Area) 

28 

87.964 

615.753  ' 

24.813 

33% 

105.243 

881.41 

29.687 

28  y8 

88.357 

621.263 

24.924 

33% 

105.636 

888.00 

29.798 

28% 

88.750 

626.798 

25.035 

33% 

106.029 

894.61 

29.909 

28% 

89.142 

632.357 

25.146 

33% 

106.421 

901.25 

30.020 

28% 

89.535 

637.941 

25.256 

28% 

89.928 

643.594 

25.367 

34 

106.814 

907.92 

30.131 

28% 

90.321 

649.182 

25.478 

34% 

107.207 

914.61 

30.241 

28% 

90.713 

654.839 

25.589 

34% 

107.599 

921.32 

30.352 

34% 

107.992 

928.06 

30.463 

29 

91.106 

660.521 

25.699 

34% 

108.385 

934.82 

30.574 

29% 

91.499 

666.227 

25.810 

34% 

108.777 

941.60 

30.684 

29% 

91.891 

671.958 

25.921 

34% 

109.170 

948.41 

30.795 

29% 

92.284 

677.714 

26.032 

34% 

109.563 

955.25 

30.906 

29% 

92.677 

683.494 

26.143 

29% 

93.069 

689.298 

26.253 

35 

109.956 

962.11 

31.017 

29% 

93.462 

695.128 

26.364 

35% 

110.348 

968.99 

31  .  128 

29% 

93.855 

700.981 

26.478 

35% 

110.741 

975.90 

31.238 

35% 

111.134 

982.84 

31.349 

30 

94.248 

706.860 

26.586 

35% 

111.526 

989.80 

31.460 

30% 

94.640 

712.762 

26.696 

35% 

111.919- 

996.78 

31.571 

30% 

95.033 

718.690 

26.807 

35% 

112.312 

1003.78 

31.681 

30% 

95.426 

724.641 

26.918 

35% 

112.704 

1010.82 

31.792 

30^ 

95.818 

730.618 

27.029 

30% 

96.211 

736.619 

27.139 

36 

113.097 

1017.87 

31.903 

30% 

96.604 

742.644 

27.250 

36% 

113.490 

1024.95 

32.014 

30% 

96.996 

748.694 

27.361 

36% 

113.883 

1032.06 

32.124 

36% 

114.275 

1039.19 

32.235 

31 

97.389 

754.769 

27.472 

36% 

114.668 

1046.35 

32.349 

31% 

97.782 

760.868 

27.583 

36% 

115.061 

1053.52 

32.457 

31M 

98.175 

766.992 

27.693 

36% 

115.453 

1060.73 

32.567 

31K 

98.567 

773.140 

27.804 

36% 

115.846 

1067.95 

32.678 

31H 

98.968 

779.313 

27.915 

31% 

99.353 

785.510 

28.026 

37 

116.239 

1075.21 

32.789 

31% 

99.745 

791.732 

28.136 

37% 

116.631 

1082.48 

32.900 

31% 

100.138 

797.978 

28.247 

37% 

117.024 

1089.79 

33.011 

37% 

117.417 

1097.11 

33.021 

32 

100.531 

804.249 

28.358 

37% 

117.810 

1104.46 

33.232 

32% 

100.924 

810.545 

28.469 

37% 

118.202 

1111.84 

33.343 

32% 

101.316 

816.865 

28.580 

37% 

118.595 

1119.24 

33.454 

32% 

101.709 

823.209 

28.691 

37% 

118.988 

1126.66 

33.564 

32% 

102.102 

829.578 

28.801 

32% 

102.494 

835.972 

28.912 

38 

119.380 

1134.11 

33.675 

32% 

102.887 

842.390 

29.023 

38% 

119.773 

1141.59 

33.786 

32% 

103.280 

848.833 

29.133 

38% 

120.166 

1149.08 

33.897 

'    38% 

120.558 

1156.61 

34.008 

33 

103.672 

855.30 

29.244 

38% 

120.951 

1164.15 

34.118 

33% 

104.055 

861  .  79 

29.355 

38% 

121.344 

1171.73 

34.229 

33% 

104.458 

868.30 

29.466 

38% 

121.737 

1179.32 

34.340 

33% 

104.850 

874.84 

29.577 

38% 

122.129 

1186.94 

34.451 

[97] 


CIRCLES— DIAMETER,  CIRCUMFERENCE,  AREA 
CIRCLES — DIAMETER,  CIRCUMFERENCE,  AREA,  ETC. — (Cont,) 


Diameter 

Circum- 
ference 

Area 

Side  of 
Equal 
Square 
(Square 
Root 
of  Area) 

Diameter 

Circum- 
ference 

Area 

Side  of 
Equal 
Square 
(Square 
Root 
of  Area) 

39 

122.522 

1194.59 

34.561 

44% 

139.801 

1555.28 

39.436 

39% 

122.915 

1202.26 

34.672 

44% 

140.193 

1564.03 

39.546 

39M 

123.307 

1209.95 

34.783 

44% 

140.586 

1572.81 

39.657 

39% 

123.700 

1217.67 

34.894 

44% 

140.979 

1581.61 

39.768 

39% 

124.093 

1225.42 

35.005 

39% 

124.485 

1233.18 

35.115 

45 

141.372 

1590.43 

39.879 

39% 

124.878 

1240.98 

35.226 

45% 

141.764 

1599.28 

39.989 

39% 

125.271 

1248.79 

35.337 

45K 

142.157 

1608.15 

40.110 

45^ 

142.550 

1617.04 

40.211 

40 

125.664 

1256.64 

35.448 

45^ 

142.942 

1625.97 

40.322 

40% 

126.056 

1264.50 

35.558 

45% 

143.335 

1634.92 

40.432 

40% 

126.449 

1272.39 

35.669 

45M 

143.728 

1643.89 

40.543 

40% 

126.842 

1280.31 

35.780 

45^ 

144.120 

1652.88 

40.654 

40% 

127.234 

1288.25 

35.891 

40% 

127.627 

1296.21 

36.002 

46 

144.513 

1661.90 

40.765 

40% 

128.020 

1304.20 

36.112 

46K 

144.906 

1670.95 

40.876 

40% 

128.412 

1312.21 

36.223 

46M 

145.299 

1680.01 

40.986 

46% 

145.691 

1689.10 

41.097 

41 

128.805 

1320.25 

36.334 

46^ 

146.084 

1698.23 

41.208 

41% 

129.198 

1328.32 

36.445 

46% 

146.477 

1707.37 

41.319 

41% 

129.591 

1336.40 

36.555 

46M 

146.869 

1716.54 

41.429 

41% 

129.983 

1344.51 

36.666 

46% 

147.262 

1725.73 

41.540 

41% 

130.376 

1352.65 

36.777 

41% 

130.769 

1360.81 

36.888 

47 

147.655 

1734.94 

41.651 

41% 

131.161 

1369.00 

36.999 

47% 

148.047 

1744.18 

41.762 

41% 

131.554 

1377.21 

37.109 

47M 

148.440 

1753.45 

41.873 

47% 

148.833 

1762.73 

41.983 

42 

131.947 

1385.44 

37.220 

47% 

149.226 

1772.05 

42.094 

42% 

132.339 

1393.70 

37.331 

47% 

149.618 

1781.39 

42.205 

42% 

132.732 

1401.98 

37.442 

47% 

150.011 

1790.76 

42.316 

42% 

133.125 

1410.29 

37.552 

47% 

150.404 

1800.14 

42.427 

42% 

133.518 

1418.62 

37.663 

42% 

133.910 

1426.98 

37.774 

48 

150.796 

1809.56 

42.537 

42% 

134.303 

1435.36 

37.885 

48% 

151.189 

1818.99 

42.648 

42% 

134.696 

1443.77 

37.996 

48M 

151.582 

1828.46 

42.759 

48% 

151.974 

1837.93 

42.870 

43 

135.088 

1452.20 

38.106 

48% 

152.367 

1847.45 

42.980 

43% 

135.481 

1460.65 

38.217 

48% 

152.760 

1856.99 

43.091 

43% 

135.874 

1469.13 

38.328 

48% 

153.153 

1866.55 

43.202 

43% 

136.266 

1477.63 

38.439 

48% 

153.545 

1876.13 

43.313 

43% 

136.659 

1486.17 

38.549 

43% 

137.052 

1494.72 

38.660 

49 

153.938 

1885.74 

43.423 

43% 

137.445 

1503.30 

38.771 

49% 

154.331 

1895.37 

43.534 

43% 

137.837 

1511.90 

38.882 

49M 

154.723 

1905.03 

43.645 

49% 

155.116 

1914.70 

43.756 

44 

138.230 

1520.53 

38.993 

49% 

155.509 

1924.42 

43.867 

44% 

138.623 

1529.18 

39.103 

49% 

155.901 

1934.15 

43.977 

44% 

139.015 

1537.86 

39.214 

49% 

156.294 

1943.91 

44.088 

44% 

139.408 

1546.55 

39.325 

49% 

156.687 

1953.69 

44.199 

[98] 


CIRCLES— DIAMETER,  CIRCUMFERENCE,  AREA 
CIRCLES — DIAMETER,  CIRCUMFERENCE,  AREA,  ETC. — (Coni.) 


Diameter 

Circum- 
ference 

Area 

Side  of 
Equal 
Square 
(Square 
Root 
of  Area) 

Diameter 

Circum-  [; 
ference 

Area 

Side  of 
Equal 
Square 
(Square 
Root 
of  Area) 

50 

157.080 

1963.50 

44.310 

60 

188.496 

2827.44 

53.172 

50% 

157.865 

1983.18 

44.531 

60% 

189.281 

2851.05 

53.393 

50^ 

158.650 

2002.96 

44.753 

60^ 

190.066 

2874.76 

53.615 

'    50% 

159.436 

2022.84 

44.974 

60% 

190.852' 

2898.56 

53.836 

51 

160.221 

2042.82 

45.196 

61 

191.637 

2922.47 

54.048 

51% 

161.007 

2062.90 

45.417 

61% 

192.423 

2946.47 

54.279 

5iy2 

161.792 

2083.07 

45.639 

61H 

193.208 

2970.57 

54.501 

51% 

162.577 

2103.35 

45.861 

MX 

193.993. 

2994.77 

54.723 

52 

163.363 

2123.72 

46.082 

62 

194.779 

3019.07 

54.944 

52% 

164.148 

2144.19 

46.304 

62% 

195.564 

3043.47 

55.166 

52^ 

164.934 

2164.75 

46.525 

62^ 

196.350 

3067.96 

55.387 

52% 

165.719 

2185.42 

46.747 

62% 

197.135 

3092.56 

55.609 

53 

166.504 

2206.18 

46.968 

63 

197.920 

3117.25 

55.830 

53% 

167.290 

2227.05 

47.190 

63% 

198.706 

3142.04 

56.052 

53^ 

168.075 

2248.01 

47.411 

63^ 

199.491 

3166.92 

56.273 

53% 

168.861 

2269.06 

47.633 

63% 

200.277 

3191.91 

56.495 

54 

169.646 

2290.22 

47.854 

64 

201.062 

3216.99 

56.716 

54% 

170.431 

2311.48 

48.076 

64% 

201.847 

3242.17 

56.938 

54^ 

171.217 

2332.83 

48.298 

64^ 

202.633 

3267.46 

57.159 

54% 

172.002 

2354.28 

48.519 

64% 

203.418 

3292.83 

57.381 

55 

172.788 

2375.83 

48.741 

65 

204.204 

3318.31 

57.603 

55% 

173.573 

2397.48 

48.962 

65M 

204.989 

3343.88 

57.824 

55^ 

174.358 

2419.22 

49.184 

65^ 

205.774 

3369.56 

58.046 

55% 

175.144 

2441.07 

49.405 

65% 

206.560 

3395.33 

58.267 

56 

175.929 

2463.01 

49.627 

66 

207.345 

3421.20 

58.489 

56% 

176.715 

2485.05 

49.848 

66M 

208.131 

3447.16 

58.710 

56^ 

177.500 

2507.19 

50.070 

66^ 

208.916 

3473.23 

58.932 

56% 

178.285 

2529.42 

50.291 

66% 

209.701 

3499.39 

59.154 

57 

179.071 

2551.76 

50.513 

67 

210.487 

3525.66 

59.375 

57% 

179.856 

2574.19 

50.735 

67% 

211.272 

3552.01 

59.597 

57^ 

180.642 

2596.72 

50.956 

67^ 

212.058 

3578.47 

59.818 

57% 

181.427 

2619.35 

51.178 

67% 

212.843 

3605.03 

60.040 

58 

182.212 

2642.08 

51.399 

68 

213.628 

3631.68 

60.261 

58% 

182.998 

2664.91 

51.621 

68% 

214.414 

3658.44 

60.483 

58^ 

183.783 

2687.83 

51.842 

68^ 

215.199 

3685.29 

60.704 

58% 

184.569 

2710.85 

52.064 

68% 

215.985 

3712.24 

60.926 

59 

185.354 

2733.97 

52.285 

69 

216.770 

3739.28 

61  .  147 

59% 

186.139 

2757.19 

52.507 

69% 

217.555 

3766.43 

61.369 

59H 

186.925 

2780.51 

52.729 

69^ 

218.341 

3793.67 

61.591 

59% 

187.710 

2803.92 

52.950 

69% 

219.126 

3821.02 

61.812 

[99] 


CIRCLES— DIAMETER,  CIRCUMFERENCE,  AREA 
CIRCLES — DIAMETER,  CIRCUMFERENCE,  AREA,  ETC. — (Cont.) 


Diameter 

Circum- 
ference 

Area 

Side  of 
Equal 
Square 
(Square 
Root 
of  Area) 

Diameter 

Circum- 
ference 

Area 

Side  of 
Equal 
Square 
(Square 
Root 
of  Area) 

70 

219.912 

3848.46 

62.034 

80 

251.328 

5026.56 

70.896 

70% 

220.697 

3875.99 

62.255 

80% 

252.113 

5058.00 

71.118 

70^ 

221.482 

3903.63 

62.477 

80^ 

252.898 

5089.58 

71.339 

70% 

222.268 

3931.36 

62.698 

80% 

253.683 

5121.22 

71.561 

71 

223.053 

3959.20 

62.920 

81 

254.469 

5153.00 

71  .  782 

71  % 

223.839 

3987.13 

63.141 

81  % 

255.254 

5184.84 

72.004 

ny2 

224.624 

4015.16 

63.363 

81^ 

256.040 

5216.82 

72  .  225 

71% 

225.409 

4043.28 

63.545 

81% 

256.825 

5248.84 

72.447 

72 

226.195 

4071.51 

63.806 

82 

257.611 

5281.02 

72.668 

72% 

226.980 

4099.83 

64.028 

82% 

258.396 

5313.28 

72.890 

72H 

227.766 

4128.25 

64.249 

82^ 

259.182 

5345.62 

73.111 

72% 

228.551 

4156.77 

64.471 

82% 

259.967 

5378.04 

73.333 

73 

229.336 

4185.39 

64.692 

83 

260.752 

5410.62 

73.554 

73% 

230.122 

4214.11 

64.914 

83% 

261.537 

5443.24 

73.776 

73^ 

230.907 

4242.92 

65.135 

83^ 

262.323 

5476.00 

73.997 

73% 

231.693 

4271.83 

65.357 

83% 

263.108 

5508.84 

74.219 

74 

232.478 

4300.85 

65.578 

84 

263.894 

5541.78 

74.440 

74% 

233.263 

4329.95 

65.800 

84^ 

264.679 

5574.80 

74.662 

74^ 

234.049 

4359.16 

66.022 

84^ 

265.465 

5607.95 

74.884 

74% 

234.834 

4388.47 

66.243 

84% 

266.250 

5641  .  16 

75.106 

75 

235.620 

4417.87 

66.465 

85 

267.036 

5674.51 

75.327 

75% 

236.405 

4447.37 

66.686 

85M 

267.821 

5707.92 

75.549 

75^ 

237.190 

4476.97 

66.908 

85^ 

268.606 

5741.47 

75.770 

75% 

237.976 

4506.67 

67.129 

85% 

269.392 

5775.09 

75.992 

76 

238.761 

4536.47 

67.351 

86 

270.177 

5808.81 

76.213 

76% 

239.547 

4566.36 

67.572 

86M 

270.962 

5842.60 

76.435 

76^ 

240.332 

4596.35 

67.794 

86^ 

271.748 

5876.55 

76.656 

76% 

241.117 

4626.44 

68.016 

86% 

272.533 

5910.52 

76.878 

77 

241.903 

4656.63 

68.237 

87 

273.319 

5944.69 

77.099 

77% 

242.688 

4686.92 

68.459 

87% 

274.104 

5978.88 

77.321 

77^ 

243.474 

4717.30 

68.680 

87^ 

274.890 

6013.21 

77.542 

77% 

244.259 

4747.79 

68.902 

87% 

275.675 

6047.60 

77.764 

78 

245.044 

4778.37 

69.123 

88 

276.460 

6082.13 

77.985 

78% 

245.830 

4809.05 

69.345 

88% 

277.245 

6116.72 

78.207 

78^ 

246.615 

4839.83 

69.566 

88^ 

278.031 

6151.44 

78.428 

78% 

247.401 

4870.70 

69.788 

88% 

278.816 

6186.20 

78.650 

79 

248.186 

4901.68 

70.009 

89 

279.602 

6221.15 

78.871 

79% 

248.971 

4932.75 

70.231 

89% 

280.387 

6256.12 

79.093 

79^ 

249.757 

4963.92 

70.453 

89^ 

281  .  173 

6291.25 

79.315 

79% 

250.542 

4995.19 

70.674 

89% 

281.958 

6326.44 

79.537 

100] 


CIRCLES— DIAMETER,  CIRCUMFERENCE  *A  jtEA  i 
CIRCLES — DIAMETER,  CIRCUMFERENCE,  AREA,  ETC. — (Cont.) 


Side  of 

Side  of 

Equal 

Equal 

Diameter 

Circum- 
ference 

Area 

Square 
(Square 

Diameter 

Circum- 
ference 

Area 

Square 
(Square 

Root 

Root 

of  Area) 

of  Area) 

90 

282.744 

6361.74 

79.758 

101 

317.301 

8011.84 

89.509 

90% 

283.529 

6399.12 

79.980 

101** 

318.872 

8091.36 

89.952 

90** 
90% 

284.314 
285.099 

6432.62 
6468.16 

80.201 
80.423 

102 

102** 

320.442 
322.014 

8171.28 
8251.60 

90.395 
90.838 

91 

285.885 

6503.89 

80.644 

103 

323.584 

8332.29 

91.282 

91% 

286.670 

6539.68 

80.866 

103*6 

325.154 

8413.40 

91.725 

91** 

287.456 

6573.56 

81.087 

91% 

288.242 

6611.52 

81.308 

104 

326.726 

8494.87 

92.168 

104** 

328.296 

8576.76 

92.611 

92 

92% 
92** 

289.027 
289.812 
290.598 

6647.62 
6683.80 
6720.07 

81.530 
81.752 
81.973 

105 
105** 

329.867 
331.438 

8659.01 
8741.68 

93.054 
93.497 

92% 

291.383 

6756.40 

82.195 

106 

333.009 

8824.73 

93.940 

106** 

334.580 

8908.20 

94.383 

93 

292.168 

6792.92 

82.416 

93% 

292.953 

6829.48 

82.638 

107 

336.150 

8992.02 

94.826 

293.739 

6866.16 

82.859 

107** 

337.722 

9076.24 

95.269 

93% 

294.524 

6882.92 

83.081 

108 

339.292 

9160.88 

95.713 

94 

295.310 

6939.79 

83.302 

108** 

340.862 

9245.92 

96.156 

94% 

296.095 

6976.72 

83.524 

109 

342.434 

9331.32 

96.599 

94^ 

296.881 

7013.81 

83.746 

109** 

344.004 

9417.12 

97.042 

94% 

297.666 

7050.92 

83.968 

110 

345.575 

9503.32 

97.485 

95 

298.452 

7088.23 

84.189 

110** 

347.146 

9589.92 

97.928 

95% 
95** 
95% 

299.237 
300.022 
300.807 

7125.56 
7163.04 
7200.56 

84.411 
84.632 

84.854 

111 
HI** 

348.717 
350.288 

9676.89 
9764.28 

98.371 
98.815 

96 

96% 

301.593 

302.378 

7238.24 
7275.96 

85.077 
85.299 

112 
112** 

351.858 
353.430 

9852.03 
9940.20 

99.258 
99.701 

96** 

302.164 

7313.84 

85.520 

113 

355.000 

10028.75 

100.144 

96% 

303.948 

7351.82 

85.742 

113*^ 

356.570 

10117.68 

100.587 

97 

304.734 

7389.80 

85.963 

114 

358.142 

10207.03 

101.031 

97% 

305.520 

7427.96 

86.185 

114** 

359.712 

10296.76 

101.474 

97** 
97% 

306.306 
307.090 

7474.20 
7504.52 

86.407 
86.628 

115 

361.283 
362.854 

10386.89 
10477.40 

101.917 
102.360 

98 
98% 
98** 

307.876 
308.662 
309.446 

7452.96 

7581.48 
7620,12 

86.850 
87.072 
87.293 

116 
116** 

364.425 
365.996 

10568.32 
10659.64 

102.803 
103.247 

98% 

310.232 

7658.80 

87.515 

117 

367.566 

10751.32 

103.690 

117** 

369.138 

10843.40 

104.133 

99 

311.018 

7697.68 

87.736 

99% 

311.802 

7736.60 

87.958 

118 

370.708 

10935.88 

104.576 

99** 

312.588 

7775.64 

88.180 

118** 

372.278 

11028.76 

105.019 

99% 

313.374 

7814.76 

88.401 

119 

373.849 

11122.02 

105.463 

100 

314.159 

7854.00 

88.623 

119*6 

375.420 

11215.68 

105.906 

100** 

315.730 

7932.72 

89.066 

120 

376.991 

11309.73 

106.350 

[101 


GIRDLES— AREAS,  SQUARES,  CUBES,  ETC. 


NUMBERS,  DIAMETERS  AND  AREAS  OF  CIRCLES,  SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  AND  CUBE 

ROOTS  FROM  1  TO  1,000 


Number 
or 
Diameter 

Circum- 
ference 

Circular 
Area 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
Root 

Cube 
Root 

Reciprocal 

1 

3.1416 

0.7854 

1 

1 

1.000 

1.000 

1.000000 

2 

6.28 

3.14 

4 

8 

1.414 

.259 

.500000 

3 

9.42 

7.07 

9 

27 

1.732 

.442 

.333333 

4 

12.57 

12.57 

16 

64 

2.000 

.587 

.250000 

5 

15.71 

19.63 

25 

125 

2.236 

.709 

.200000 

6 

18.85 

28.27 

36 

216 

2.449 

.817 

.166667 

7 

21.99 

38.48 

49 

343 

2.645 

.912 

.142857 

8 

25.13 

50.26 

64 

512 

2.828 

2.000 

.125000 

9 

28.27 

63.61 

81 

729 

3.000 

2.080 

.111111 

10 

31.42 

78.54 

100 

1,000 

3.162 

2.154 

.100000 

11 

34.55 

95.03 

121 

1,331 

3.316 

2.223 

.090909 

12 

37.69 

113.09 

144 

1,728 

3.464 

2.289 

.083333 

13 

40.84 

132.73 

169 

2,197 

3.605 

2.351 

.076923 

14 

43.98 

153:93 

196 

2,744 

3.741 

2.410 

.071429 

15 

47.12 

173.71 

225 

3,375 

3.872 

2.466 

.066667 

16 

50.26 

201.06 

256 

4,096 

4.000 

2.519 

.062500 

17 

53.40 

226.98 

289 

4,913 

4.123 

2.571 

.058824 

18 

56.54 

254.46 

324 

5,832 

4.232 

2.620 

.055556 

19 

59.69 

283.52 

361 

6,859 

4.358 

2.668 

.052632 

20 

62.83 

314.15 

400 

8,000 

4.472 

2.714 

.050000 

21 

65.97 

346.36 

441 

9,261 

4.582 

2.758 

.047619 

22 

69.11 

380.13 

484 

10,648 

4.690 

2.802 

.045455 

23 

72.25 

415.47 

529 

12,167 

4.795 

2.843 

.043478 

24 

75.39 

452.38 

576 

13,824 

4.898 

2.884 

.041667 

25 

78.54 

490.87 

625 

15,625 

5.000 

2.924 

.040000 

26 

81.68 

530.02 

676 

17,576 

5.099 

2.962 

.038462 

27 

84.82 

572.55 

729 

19,683 

5.196 

3.000 

.037037 

28 

87.96 

615.75 

784 

21,952 

5.291 

3.036 

.035714 

29 

91.10 

660.52 

841 

24,389 

5.385 

3.072 

.034483 

30 

94.24 

706.85 

900 

27,000 

5.477 

3.107 

.033333 

31 

97.38 

754.76 

961 

29,791 

5.567 

3.141 

.032258 

32 

100.53 

804.24 

1,024 

32,768 

5.656 

3.174 

.031250 

33 

103.67 

855.29 

1,089 

35,937 

5.744 

3.207 

.030303 

34 

106.81 

907.92 

1,156 

39,304 

5.830 

3.239 

.029412 

35 

109.95 

962.11 

1,225 

42,875 

5.916 

3.271 

.028571 

36 

113.09 

1017.87 

1,296 

46,656 

6.000 

3.301 

.027778 

37 

116.23 

1075.21 

1,369 

50,653 

6.082 

3.332 

.027027 

38 

119.38 

1134.11 

,444 

54,872 

6.164 

3.361 

.026316 

39 

122.52 

1194.59 

,521 

59,319 

6.244 

3.391 

.025641 

40 

125.66 

1256.63 

,600 

64,000 

6.324 

3.419 

.025000 

41 

128.80 

1320.25 

,681 

68,921 

6.403 

3.448 

.024390 

42 

131.94 

1385.44 

,764 

74,088 

6.480 

3.476 

.023810 

43 

135.08 

1452.20 

,849 

79,507 

6.557 

3.503 

.023256 

44 

138.23 

1520.52 

,936 

85,184 

6.633 

3.530 

.022727 

45 

141.37 

1590.43 

2,025 

91,215 

6.708 

3.556 

.022222 

[102] 


CIRCLES— AREAS,  SQUARES,  CUBES,  ETC, 
NUMBERS,  DIAMETERS  AND  AREAS,  ETC. — (Cont.) 


M 

1  s 

Circum- 
ference 

Circular 
Area 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
Root 

Cube 
Root 

Reciprocal 

46 

144.51 

1661.90 

2,116 

97,336 

6.782 

3.583 

.021739 

47 

147.65 

1734.94 

2,209 

103,823 

6.855 

3.608 

.021277 

48 

150.79 

1809.55 

2,304 

110,592 

6.928 

3.634 

.020833 

49 

153.93 

1885.74 

2,401 

117,649 

7.000 

3.659 

.020408 

50 

157.  Q8 

1963.49 

2,500 

125,000 

7.071 

3.684 

.020000 

51 

160.22 

2042.82 

2,601 

132,651 

7.141 

3.708 

.019608 

52 

163.36 

2123.71 

2,704 

140,608 

7.211 

3.732 

.019231 

53 

166.50 

2206.18 

2,809 

148,877 

7.280 

3.756 

.018868 

54 

169.64 

2290.21 

2,916 

157,464 

7.348 

3.779 

.018519 

55 

172.78 

2375.82 

3,025 

166,375 

7.416 

3.802 

.018182 

56 

175.92 

2463.09 

3,136 

175,616 

7.483 

3.825 

.017857 

57 

179.07 

2551.75 

3,249 

185,193 

7.549 

3.848 

.017544 

58 

182.21 

2642.08 

3,364 

195,112 

7.615 

3.870 

.017241 

59 

185.35 

2733.97 

3,481 

205,379 

7.681 

3.892 

.016949 

60 

188.49 

2827.43 

3,600 

216,000 

7.745 

3.914 

.016667 

61 

191.63 

2922.46 

3,721 

226,981 

7.810 

3.936 

.016393 

62 

194.77 

3019.07 

3,844 

238,328 

7.874 

3.957 

.016129 

63 

197.92 

3117.24 

3,969 

250,047 

7.937 

3.979 

.015873 

64 

201.06 

3216.99 

4,096 

262,144 

8.000 

4.000 

.015625 

65 

204.20 

3318.30 

4,225 

274,625 

8.062 

4.020 

.015385 

66 

207.34 

3421.18 

4,356 

287,496 

8.124 

4.041 

.015152 

67 

210.48 

3525.65 

4,489 

300,763 

8.185 

4.061 

.014925 

68 

213.62 

3631.68 

4,624 

314,432 

8.246 

4.081 

.014706 

69 

216.77 

3739.28 

4,761 

328,509 

8.306 

4.101 

.014493 

70 

219.91 

3848.45 

4,900 

343,000 

8.366 

4.121 

.014286 

71 

223.05 

3959.19 

5,041 

357,911 

8.426 

4.140 

.014085 

72 

226.19 

4071.50 

5,184 

373,248 

8.485 

4.160 

.013889 

73 

229.33 

4185.38 

5,329 

389,017 

8.544 

4.179 

.013699 

74 

232.47 

4300.84 

5,476 

405,224 

8.602 

4.198 

.013514 

75 

235.61 

4417.86 

5,625 

421,875 

8.660 

4.217 

.013333 

76 

238.76 

4536.45 

5,776 

438,976 

8.717 

4.235 

.013158 

77 

241.90 

4656.62 

5,929 

456,533 

8.744 

4.254 

.012987 

78 

245.04 

4778.36 

6,084 

474,552 

8.831 

4.272 

.012821 

79 

248.18 

4901.66 

6,241 

493,039 

8.888 

4.290 

.012658 

80 

251.32 

5026.54 

6,400 

512,000 

8.944 

4.308 

.012500 

81 

254.46 

5153.00 

6,561 

531,441 

9.000 

4.326 

.012346 

82 

257.61 

5281.01 

6,724 

551,368 

9.055 

4.344 

.012195 

83 

260.75 

5410.59 

6,889 

571,787 

9.110 

4.362 

.012048 

84 

263.89 

5541.77 

7,056 

592,704 

9.165 

4.379 

.011905 

85 

267.03 

5674.50 

7,225 

614,125 

9.219 

4.396 

.011765 

86 

270.17 

5808.80 

7,396 

636,056 

9.273 

4.414 

.011628 

87 

273.31 

5944.67 

7,569 

658,503 

9.327 

4.431 

.011494 

88 

276.46 

6082.11 

7,744 

681,472 

9.380 

4.447 

.011364 

89 

279.60 

6221  .  13 

7,921 

704,969 

9.433 

4.461 

.011236 

90 

282.74 

6361.72 

8,100 

729,000 

9.486 

4.481 

.011111 

[103] 


CIRCLES— AREAS,  SQUARES,  CUBES,  ETC. 
NUMBERS,  DIAMETERS  AND  AREAS,  ETC. — (Cont.) 


Number 
or 
Diameter 

Circum- 
ference 

Circular 
Area 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
Root 

Cube 
Root 

Reciprocal 

91 

285.88 

6503.87 

8,281 

753,571 

9.539 

4.497 

.010989 

92 

289.02 

6647.61 

8,464 

778,688 

9.591 

4.514 

.010870 

93 

292.16 

6792.90 

8,649 

804,357 

9.643 

4.530 

.010753 

94 

295.31 

6939.78 

8,836 

830,584 

9.695 

4.546 

.010638 

95 

298.45 

7088.21 

9,025 

857,375 

9.746 

4.562 

.010526 

96 

301.59 

7238.23 

9,216 

884,736 

9.797 

4.578 

.010417 

97 

304.73 

7389.81 

9,409 

912,673 

9.848 

4.594 

.010309 

98 

307.87 

7542.96 

9,604 

941,192 

9.899 

4.610 

.010204 

99 

311.01 

7697.68 

9,801 

970,299 

9.949 

4.626 

.010101 

100 

314.15 

7853.97 

10,000 

1,000,000 

10.000 

4.641 

.010000 

101 

317.30 

8011.86 

10,201 

1,030,301 

10.049 

4.657 

.009901 

102 

320.41 

8171.30 

10,404 

1,061,208 

10.099 

4.672 

.009804 

103 

323.58 

8332.30 

10,609 

,092,727 

10.148 

4.687 

.009709 

104 

326.72 

8494.88 

10,816 

,124,864 

10.198 

4.702 

.009615 

105 

329.86 

8659.03 

11,025 

,157,625 

10.246 

4.717 

.009524 

106 

333.00 

8824.75 

11,236 

,191,016 

10.295 

4.732 

.009434 

107 

336.15 

8992.04 

11,449 

,225,043 

10.344 

4.747 

.009346 

108 

339.29 

9160.90 

11,664 

,259,712 

10.392 

4.762 

.009259 

109 

342.43 

9331.33 

11,881 

,295,029 

10.440 

4.776 

.009174 

110 

345.57 

9503.34 

12,100 

1,331,000 

10.488 

4.791 

.009091 

111 

348.71 

9676.91 

12,321 

1,367,631 

10.535 

4.805 

.009009 

112 

351.85 

9852.05 

12,544 

1,404,928 

10.583 

4.820 

.008929 

113 

355.01 

10028.77 

12,759 

1,442,897 

10.630 

4.834 

.008850 

114 

358.14 

10207.05 

12,996 

1,481,544 

10.677 

4.848 

.008772 

115 

361.28 

10386.91 

13,225 

1,520,875 

10.723 

4.862 

.008696 

116 

364.42 

10568.34 

13,456 

1,560,896 

10.770 

4.876 

.008621 

117 

367.56 

10751.34 

13,689 

1,601,613 

10.816 

4.890 

.008547 

118 

370.70 

10935.90 

13,924 

1,643,032 

10.862 

4.904 

.008475 

119 

373.81 

11122.04 

14,161 

1,685,159 

10.908 

4.918 

.008403 

120 

376.99 

11309.76 

14,400 

1,728,000 

10.954 

4.932 

.008333 

121 

380.13 

11499.04 

14,641 

1,771,561 

11.000 

4.946 

.008264 

122 

383.27 

11689.89 

14,884 

1,815,848 

11.045 

4.959 

.008197 

123 

386.41 

11882.31 

15,129 

1,860,867 

11.090 

4.973 

.008130 

124 

389.55 

12076.31 

15,376 

1,906,624 

11.135 

4.986 

.008065 

125 

392.70 

12271.87 

15,625 

1,953,125 

11.180 

5.000 

.008000 

126 

395.84 

12469.01 

15,876 

2,000,376 

11.224 

5.013 

.007937 

127 

398.98 

12667.71 

16,129 

2,048,383 

11.269 

5.026 

.007874 

128 

402.12 

12867.99 

16,384 

2,097,152 

11.313 

5.039 

.007c?13 

129 

405.26 

13069.84 

16,641 

2,146,689 

11.357 

5.052 

.007752 

130 

408.10 

13273.26 

16,900 

2,197,000 

11.401 

5.065 

.007692 

131 

411.54 

13478.24 

17,161 

2,248,091 

11.445 

5.078 

.007634 

132 

414.69 

13694.80 

17,424 

2,299,968 

11.489 

5.091 

.007576 

133 

417.83 

13892.94 

17,689 

2,352,637 

11.532 

5.104 

.007519 

134 

420.97 

14102.64 

17.956 

2,406,104 

11.575 

5.117 

.007463 

135 

424.11 

14313.91 

18^225 

2,460,375 

11.618 

5.129 

.007407 

[104] 


CIRCLES— AREAS,  SQUARES,  CUBES,  ETC. 


NUMBERS,  DIAMETERS  AND  AREAS,    ETC. — (Cont.) 


Number 
or 
Diameter  ' 

Circum- 
ference 

Circular 
Area 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
Root 

Cube 
Root 

Reciprocal 

136 

427.25 

14526.75 

18,496 

2,515,456 

11.661 

5.142 

.007353 

137 

430.39 

14741.17 

18,769 

2,571,353 

11.704 

5.155 

.007299 

138 

433.54 

14957.15 

19,044 

2,620,872 

11.747 

5.167 

.007246 

139 

436.68 

15174.71 

19,321 

2,685,619 

11.789 

5.180 

.007194 

140 

439.82 

15393.84 

19,600 

2,744,000 

11.832 

5.192 

.007143 

141 

442.96 

15614.53 

19,881 

2,803,221 

11.874 

5.204 

.007092 

142 

446.10 

15836.80 

20,164 

2,863,288 

11.916 

5.217 

.007042 

143 

449.24 

16060.  <?4 

20,449 

2,924,207 

11.958 

5.229 

.006993 

144 

452.39 

16286.05 

20,736 

2,985,984 

12.000 

5.241 

.006944 

145 

455.53 

16513.03 

21,025 

3,048,625 

12.041 

5.253 

.006897 

146 

458.67 

16741.58 

21,316 

3,112,136 

12.083 

5.265 

.006849 

147 

461.81 

16971.70 

21,609 

3,176,523 

12.124 

5.277 

.006803 

148 

464.95 

17203.40 

21,904 

3,241,792 

12.165 

5.289 

.006757 

149 

468.09 

17436.66 

22,201 

3,307,949 

12.206 

5.301 

.006711 

150 

471.24 

17671.50 

22,500 

3,375,000 

12.247 

5.313 

.006667 

151 

474.38 

17907.90 

22,801 

3,442,951 

12.288 

5.325 

.006623 

152 

477.52 

18145.88 

23,104 

3,511,808 

12.328 

5.336 

.006579 

153 

480.66 

18385.42 

23,409 

3,581,577 

12.369 

5.348 

.006536 

154 

483.80 

18626.54 

23,716 

3,652,264 

12.409 

5.360 

.006494 

155 

486.94 

18869.23 

24,025 

3,723,875 

12.449 

5.371 

.006452 

156 

490.08 

19113.49 

24,336 

3,796,416 

12.489 

5.383 

.006410 

157 

493.23 

19359.32 

24,649 

3,869,893 

12.529 

5.394 

.006369 

158 

496.37 

19606.72 

24,964 

3,944,312 

12.569 

5.406 

.006329 

159 

499.51 

19855.69 

25,281 

4,019,679 

12.609 

5.417 

.006289 

160 

502.65 

20106.24 

25,600 

4,096,000 

12.649 

5.428 

.006250 

161 

505.79 

20358.35 

25,921 

4,173,281 

12.688 

5.440 

.006211 

162 

508.93 

20612.03 

26,244 

4,251,528 

12.727 

5.451 

.006173 

163 

512.08 

20867.20 

26,569 

4,330,747 

12.767 

5.462 

.006135 

164 

515.22 

21124.11 

26,896 

4,410,944 

12.806 

5.473 

.006098 

165 

518.36 

21382.51 

27,225 

4,492,125 

12.845 

5.484 

.006061 

166 

521.50 

21642.48 

27,556 

4,574,296 

12.884 

5.495 

.006024 

167 

524.64 

21904.02 

27,889 

4,657,463 

12.922 

5.506 

.005988 

168 

527.78 

22167.12 

28,224 

4,741,632 

12.961 

5.517 

.005952 

169 

530.93 

22431.80 

28,561 

4,826,809 

13.000 

5.528 

.005917 

170 

534.07 

22698.06 

28,900 

4,913,000 

13.038 

5.539 

.005882 

171 

537.31 

22965.88 

29,241 

5,000,211 

13.076 

5.550 

.005848 

172 

540.35 

23235.27 

29,584 

5,088,448 

13.114 

5.561 

.005814 

173 

543.49 

23506.23 

29,929 

5,177,717 

13.152 

5.572 

.005780 

174 

546.03 

23778.77 

30,276 

5,268,024 

13.190 

5.582 

.005747 

175 

549.78 

24052.87 

30,625 

5,359,375 

13.228 

5.593 

.005714 

176 

552.92 

24328.55 

30,976 

5,451,776 

13.266 

5.604 

.005682 

177 

556.06 

24605.79 

31,329 

5,545,233 

13.304 

5.614 

.005650 

178 

559.20 

24884.61 

31,684 

5,639,752 

!  13.  341 

5.625 

.005618 

179 

562.34 

25165.00 

32,041 

5,735,339 

13.379 

5.635 

.005587 

180 

565.48 

25446.96 

32,400 

5,832,000 

13.416 

5.646 

.005556 

[105] 


CIRCLES— AREAS,  SQUARES,  CUBES,  ETC. 
NUMBERS,  DIAMETERS  AND  AREAS,  ETC. — (Cont.) 


Number 
or 
Diameter 

Circum- 
ference 

Circular 
Area 

Square 

1 

Cube 

Square 
Root 

Cube 
Root 

Reciprocal 

181 

568.62 

25730.48 

32,761 

5,929,741 

13.453 

5.656 

.005525 

182 

571.77 

26015.58 

33,124 

6,028,568 

13.490 

5.667 

.005495 

183 

574.91 

26302.26 

33,489 

6,128,487 

13.527 

5.677 

.005464 

184 

578.05 

26590.50 

33,856 

6,229,504 

13.564 

5.687 

.005435 

185 

581.19 

26880.31 

34,225 

6,331,625 

13.601 

5.698 

.005405 

186 

584.33 

27171.69 

34,596 

6,434,856 

13.638 

5.708 

.005376 

187 

587.47 

27464.65 

34,969 

6,539,203 

13.674 

5.718 

.005348 

188 

590.62 

27759.17 

35,344 

6,644,672 

13.711 

5.728 

.005319 

189 

593.76 

28055.27 

35,721 

6,751,269 

13.747 

5.738 

.005291 

190 

596.90 

28352.94 

36,100 

6,859,000 

13.784 

5.748 

.005263 

191 

600.04 

28652.17 

36,481 

6,967,871 

13.820 

5.758 

.005236 

192 

603.18 

28952.98 

36,864 

7,077,888 

13.856 

5.768 

.005208 

193 

606.32 

29255.36 

37,249 

7,189,057 

13.892 

5.778 

.005181 

194 

609.47 

29559.31 

37,636 

7,301,384 

13.928 

5.788 

.005155 

195 

612.61 

29864.83 

38,025 

7,414,875 

13.964 

5.798 

.005128 

196 

615.75 

30171.92 

38,416 

7,529,536 

14.000 

5.808 

.005102 

197 

618.89 

30480.60 

38,809 

7,645,373 

14.035 

5.818 

.005076 

198 

622.03 

30790.82 

39,204 

7,762,392 

14.071 

5.828 

.005051 

199 

625.17 

31102.52 

39,601 

7,880,599 

14.106 

5.838 

.005025 

200 

628.32 

31416.00 

40,000 

8,000,000 

14.142 

5.848 

.005000 

201 

631.46 

31730.94 

40,401 

8,120,601 

14.177 

5.857 

.004975 

202 

634.60 

32047.46 

40,804 

8,242,408 

14.212 

5.867 

.004950 

203 

637.74 

32365.54 

41,209 

8,365,427 

14.247 

5.877 

.004926 

204 

640.88 

32685.20 

41,616 

8,489,664 

14.282 

5.886 

.004902 

205 

644.02 

33006.43 

42,025 

8,615,125 

14.317 

5.896 

.004878 

206 

647.16 

33329.23 

42,436 

8,741,816 

14.352 

5.905 

.004854 

207 

650.31 

33653.60 

42,849 

8,869,743 

14.387 

5.915 

.004831 

208 

653.45 

33979.54 

43,264 

8,998,912 

14.422 

5.924 

.004808 

209 

656.59 

34307.05 

43,681 

9,123,329 

14.456 

5.934 

.004785 

210 

659.73 

34636.14 

44,100 

9,261,000 

14.491 

5.943 

.004762 

211 

662.87 

34966.79 

44,521 

9,393,931 

14.525 

5.953 

.004739 

212 

666.01 

35299.01 

44,944 

9,528,128 

14.560 

5.962 

.004717 

213 

669.16 

35632.81 

45,369 

9,663,597 

14.594 

5.972 

.004695 

214 

672.30 

35968.17 

45,796 

9,800,344 

14.628 

5.981 

.004673 

215 

675.44 

36305.11 

46,225 

9,938,375 

14.662 

5.990 

.004651 

216 

678.58 

36643.62 

46,656 

10,077,696 

14.696 

6.000 

.004630 

217 

681.72 

36983.70 

47,089 

10,218,313 

14.730 

6.009 

.004608 

218 

684.86 

37325.34 

47,524 

10,360,232 

14.764 

6.018 

.004587 

219 

688.01 

37668.56 

47,961 

10,503,459 

14.798 

6.027 

.004566 

220 

691.15 

38013.36 

48,400 

.  10,648,000 

14.832 

6.036 

.004545 

221 

694.29 

38359.72 

48,841 

10,793,861 

14.866 

6.045 

.004525 

222 

697.43 

38707.65 

49,284 

10,941,048 

14.899 

6.055 

.004505 

223 

700.57 

39037.51 

49,729 

11,089,567 

14.933 

6.064 

.004484 

224 

703.71 

39408.23 

50,176 

11,239,424 

14.966 

6.073 

.004464 

225 

706.86 

39760.87 

50,625 

11,390,625 

15.000 

6.082 

.004444 

[106] 


CIRCLES— AREAS,  SQUARES,  CUBES,  ETC. 
NUMBERS,  DIAMETERS  AND  AREAS,  ETC. — (Cont.) 


Number  II 
or 
Diameter 

Circum- 
ference 

Circular 
Area 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
Root 

Cube 
Root 

Reciprocal 

226 

710.00 

40115.09 

51,076 

11,543,176 

15.033 

6.091 

]  .004425 

227 

713.14 

40470.87 

51,529 

11,697,083 

15.066 

6.100 

.004405 

228 

716.28 

40828.23 

51,984 

11,852,352 

15.099 

6.109 

.004386 

229 

719.42 

41187.16 

52,441 

12,008,989 

15.132 

6.118 

.004367 

230 

722.56 

41547.66 

52,900 

12,167,000 

15.165 

6.126 

.004348 

231 

725.70 

41909.72 

53,361 

12,326,391 

15.198 

6.135 

.004329 

232 

728.85 

42273.36 

53,824 

12,487,168 

15.231 

6.144 

.004310 

233 

731.99 

42638.58 

54,289 

12,649,337 

15.264 

6.153 

.004292 

234 

735.13 

43005.36 

54,756 

12,812,904 

15.297 

6.162 

.004274 

235 

738.27 

43373.71 

55,225 

12,977,875 

15.329 

6.171 

.004255 

236 

741.41 

43743.63 

55,696 

13,144,256 

15.362 

6.179 

.004237 

237 

744.55 

44115.11 

56,169 

13,312,053 

15.394 

6.188 

.004219 

238 

747.68 

44488.19 

56,644 

13,481,272 

15.427 

6.197 

.004202 

239 

750.88 

44862.83 

57,121 

13,651,919  ' 

15.459 

6.205 

.004184 

240 

753.98 

45239.04 

57,600 

13,824,000 

15.491 

6.214 

.004167 

241 

757.12 

45616.81 

58,081 

13,997,521 

15.524 

6.223 

.004149 

242 

760.26 

45996.16 

58,564 

14,172,488 

15.556 

6.231 

.004132 

243 

763.40 

46377.08 

59,049 

14,348,907 

15.588 

6.240 

.004115 

244 

766.52 

46759.57 

59,536 

14,526,784 

15.620 

6.248 

.004098 

245 

769.92 

47143.63 

60,025 

14,706,125 

15.652 

6.257 

.004082 

246 

772.83 

47529.26 

60,516 

14,886,936 

15.684 

6.265 

.004065 

247 

775.97 

47916.46 

61,009 

15,069,223 

15.716 

6.274 

.004049 

248 

779.11 

48305.24 

61,504 

15,252,992 

15.748 

6.282 

.004032 

249 

782.25 

48695.58 

62,001 

15,438,249 

15.779 

6.291 

.004016 

250 

785.40 

49087.50 

62,500 

15,625,000 

15.811 

6.299 

.004000 

251 

788.54 

49480.98 

63,001 

15,813,251 

15.842 

6.307 

.003984 

252 

791.68 

49876.04 

63,504 

16,003,008 

15.874 

6.316 

.003968 

253 

794.82 

50272.66 

64,009 

16,194,277 

15.905 

6.324 

.003953 

254 

797.96 

50670.86 

64,516 

16,387,064 

15.937 

6.333 

.003937 

255 

801.10 

51070.63 

65,025 

16,581,375 

15.968 

6.341 

.003922 

256 

804.24 

51471.96 

65,536 

16,777,216 

16.000 

6.349 

.003906 

257 

807.39 

51874.88 

66,049 

16,974,593 

16.031 

6.357 

.003891 

258 

810.53 

52279.36 

66,564 

17,173,512 

16.062 

6.366 

.003876 

259 

813.67 

52685.41 

67,081 

17,373,979 

16.093 

6.374 

.003861 

260 

816.81 

53093.04 

67,600 

17,576,000 

16.124 

6.382 

.003846 

261 

819.95 

53502.23 

68,121 

17,779,581 

16.155 

6.390 

.003831 

262 

823.09 

53912.99 

68,644 

17,984,728 

16.186 

6.398 

.003817 

263 

826:24 

54325.33 

69,169 

18,191,447 

16.217 

6.406 

.003802 

264 

829.38 

54739.23 

69,696 

18,399,744 

16.248 

6.415 

.003788 

265 

832.52 

55154.71 

70,225 

18,609,625 

16.278 

6.423 

.003774 

266 

835.66 

55571.76 

70,756 

18,821,096 

16.309 

6.431 

.003759 

267 

838.30 

55990.38 

71,289 

19,034,163 

16.340 

6.439 

.003745 

268 

841.94 

56410.56 

71,824 

19,248,832 

16.370 

6.447 

.003731 

269 

845.09 

56832.32 

72,361 

19,465,109 

16.401 

6.455 

.003717 

270 

848.23 

57255.66 

72,900 

19,683,000 

16.431 

6.463 

.003704 

[107] 


CIRCLES— AREAS,  SQUARES,  CUBES,  ETC: 
NUMBERS,  DIAMETERS  AND  AREAS,  ETC. — (Cont.) 


Number  || 
or 

Diameter)  1 

Circum- 
ference 

Circular 
Area 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
Root 

Cube 
Root 

Reciprocal 

271 

851.37 

57680.56 

73,441 

19,902,511 

16.462 

6.471 

.003690 

272 

854.51 

58107.03 

73,984 

20,123,648 

16.492 

6.479 

.003676 

273 

857.65 

58535.07 

74,529 

20,346,417 

16.522 

6.487 

.003663 

274 

860.79 

58964.69 

75,076 

20,570,824 

16.552 

6.495 

.003650 

275 

863.94 

59393.87 

75,625 

20,796,875 

16.583 

6.502 

.003636 

276 

867.08 

59828.63 

76,176 

21,024,576 

16.613 

6.510 

.003623 

277 

870.22 

60262.95 

76,729 

21,253,933 

16.643 

6.518 

.003610 

278 

873.36 

60698.85 

77,284 

21,484,952 

16.673 

6.526 

.003597 

279 

876.50 

61136.32 

77,841 

21,717,639 

16.703 

6.534 

.003584 

280 

879.64 

61573.36 

78,400 

21,952,000 

16.733 

6.542 

.003571 

281 

882.78 

62015.96 

78,961 

22,188,041 

16.763 

6.549 

.003559 

282 

885.93 

62458.14 

79,524 

22,425,768 

16.792 

6.557 

.003546 

283 

889.07 

62901.90 

80,089 

22,665,187 

16.822 

6.565 

.003534 

284 

892.21 

63347.22 

80,656 

22,906,304 

16.852 

6.573 

.  003522 

285 

895.35 

63794.11 

81,225 

23,149,125 

16.881 

6.580 

.003509 

286 

898.49 

64242.57 

81,796 

23,393,656 

16.911 

6.588 

.003497 

287 

901.63 

64692.61 

82,369 

23,639,903 

16.941 

6.596 

.003484 

288 

904.78 

65144.21 

82,944 

23,887,872 

16.970 

6.603 

.003472 

289 

907.92 

65597.39 

83,521 

24,137,569 

17.000 

6.611 

.003460 

290 

911.06 

66052.14 

84,100 

24,389,000 

17.029' 

6.619 

.003448 

291 

914.20 

66508.45 

84,681 

24,642,171 

17.059 

6.627 

.003436 

292 

917.34 

66966.34 

85,264 

24,897,088 

17.088 

6.634 

.003425 

293 

920.48 

67425.80 

85,849 

25,153,757 

17.117 

6.642 

.003413 

294 

923.63 

67886.83 

86,436 

25,412,184 

17.146 

6.649 

.003401 

295 

926.77 

68349.43 

87,025 

25,672,375 

17.176 

6.657 

.003390 

296 

929.91 

68813.60 

87,616 

25,934,336 

17.205 

6.664 

.003378 

297 

933.05 

69279.34 

88,209 

26,198,073 

17.234 

6.672 

.003367 

298 

936.19 

69746.66 

88,804 

26,463,592 

17.263 

6.679 

.003356 

299 

939.33 

70215.54 

89,401 

26,730,899 

17.292 

6.687 

.003344 

300 

942.48 

70686.00 

90,000 

27,000,000 

17.320 

6.694 

.003333 

301 

945.62 

71158.02 

90,601 

27,270,901 

17.349 

6.702 

.003322 

302 

948.76 

71631.62 

91,204 

27,543,608 

17.378 

6.709 

.003311 

303 

951.90 

72106.78 

91,809 

27,818,127 

17.407 

6.717 

.003301 

304 

955.04 

72583.52 

92,416 

28,094,464 

17.436 

6.724 

.003289 

305 

958.18 

73061.83 

93,025 

28,372,625 

17.464 

6.731 

.003279 

306 

961.32 

73541  .  71 

93,636 

28,652,616 

17.493 

6.739 

.003268 

307 

964.47 

74023.16 

94,249 

28,934,443 

17.521 

6.746 

.003257 

308 

967.61 

74506.18 

94,864 

29,218,112 

17.549 

6.753 

.003247 

309 

970.75 

74990.77 

95,481 

29,503,629 

17.578 

6.761 

.003236 

310 

973.89 

75476.94 

96,100 

29,791,000 

17.607 

6.768 

.003226 

311 

977.03 

75964.67 

96,721 

30,080,231 

17.635 

6.775 

.003215 

312 

980.17 

76453.93 

97,344 

30,371,328 

17.663 

6.782 

.003205 

313 

983.32 

76944.85 

97,969 

30,664,297 

17.692 

6.789 

.003195 

314 

986.45 

77437.29 

98,596 

30,959,144 

17.720 

6.797 

.003185 

315 

989.60 

77931.31 

99,225 

31,255,875 

17.748 

6.804 

.003175 

[108] 


CIRCLES— AREAS,  SQUARES,  CUBES,  ETC. 


NUMBERS,  DIAMETERS  AND  AREAS,  ETC. — (Cont.) 


Number  || 
or 
Diameter 

Circum- 
ference 

Circular 
Area 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
Root 

Cube 
Root 

Reciprocal 

316 

992.74 

78426.89 

99,856 

31,554,496 

17.776 

6.811 

.003165 

317 

995.88 

78924.06 

100,489 

31,855,013 

17.804 

6.818 

.003155 

318 

999.02 

79422.78 

101,124 

32,157,432 

17.832 

6.826 

.003145 

319 

1002.17 

79923.08 

101,761 

32,461,759 

17.860 

6.833 

.003135 

320 

1005.31 

80424.96 

102,400 

32,768,000 

17.888 

6.839 

.003125 

321 

1008.45 

80928.40 

103,041 

33,076,161 

17.916 

6.847 

.003115 

322 

1011.59 

81433.41 

103,684 

33,386,248 

17.944 

6.854 

.003106 

323 

1014.73 

81939.99 

104,329 

33,698,267 

17.972 

6.861 

.003096 

324 

1017.47 

82448.15 

104,976 

34,012,224 

18.000 

6.868 

.003086 

325 

1021.02 

82957.87 

105,625 

34,328,125 

18.028 

6.875 

.003077 

326 

1024.16 

83469.17 

106,276 

34,645,976 

18.055 

6.882 

.003067 

327 

1027.30 

83982.60 

106,929 

34,965,783 

18.083 

6.889 

.003058 

328 

1030.44 

84496.47 

107,584 

35,287,552 

18.111 

6.896 

.003049 

329 

1033.58 

85012.48 

108,241 

35,611,289 

18.138 

6.903 

.003040 

330 

1036.72 

85530.06 

108,900 

35,937,000 

18.166 

6.910 

.003030 

331 

1039.86 

86049.20 

109,561 

36,264,691 

18.193 

6.917 

.003021 

332 

1043.01 

86569.92 

110,224 

36,594,368 

18.221 

6.924 

.003012 

333 

1046.15 

87092.22 

110,889 

36,926,037 

18.248 

6.931 

.003003 

334 

1049.29 

87616.08 

111,556 

37,259,704 

18.276 

6.938 

.002994 

335 

1052.43 

88141.51 

112,225 

37,595,375 

18.303 

6.945 

.002985 

336 

1055.57 

88668.51 

112,896 

37,933,056 

18.330 

6.952 

.002976 

337 

1058.71 

89197.09 

113,569 

38,272,753 

18.357 

6.959 

.002967 

338 

1061.86 

89727.23 

114,244 

38,614,472 

18.385 

6.966 

.002959 

339 

1065.02 

90258.95 

114,921 

38,958,219 

18.412 

6.973 

.002950 

340 

1068.14 

90792.24 

115,600 

39,304,000 

18.439 

6.979 

.002941 

341 

1071.28 

91327.09 

116,281 

39,651,821 

18.466 

6.986 

.002933 

342 

1074.27 

91863.52 

116,964 

40,001,688 

18.493 

6.993 

.002924 

343 

1077.56 

92401.15 

117,649 

40,353,607 

18.520 

7.000 

.002915 

344 

1080.71 

92941.09 

118,336 

40,707,584 

18.547 

7.007 

.002907 

345 

1083.85 

93482.23 

119,025 

41,063,625 

18.574 

7.014 

.002899 

346 

1086.99 

94024.94 

119,716 

41,421,736 

18.601 

7.020 

.002890 

347 

1090.35 

94569.22 

120,409 

41,781,923 

18.628 

7.027 

.002882 

348 

1093.07 

95115.08 

121,104 

42,144,192 

18.655 

7.034 

.002874 

349 

1096.41 

95662.50 

121,801 

42,508,549 

18.681 

7.040 

.002865 

350 

1099.56 

96211.50 

122,500 

42,875,000 

18.708 

7.047 

.002857 

351 

1102.70 

96762.06 

123,201 

43,243,551 

18.735 

7.054 

.002849 

352 

1105.84 

97314.20 

123,904 

43,614,208 

18.762 

7.061 

.002841 

353 

1108.98 

97867.90 

124,609 

43,986,977 

18.788 

7.067 

.002833 

354 

1112.62 

98423.18 

125,316 

44,361,864 

18.815 

7.074 

.002825 

355 

1115.26 

98980.03 

126,025 

44,738,875 

18.842 

7.081 

.002817 

356 

1118.40 

99538.45 

126,736 

45,118,016 

18.868 

7.087 

.002809 

357 

1121.55 

100098.43 

127,449 

45,449,293 

18.894 

7.094 

.002801 

358 

1124.69 

100660.00 

128,164 

45,882,712 

18.921 

7.101 

.002793 

359 

1127.83 

101223.13 

128,881 

46,268,279 

18.947 

7.107 

.002786 

360 

1130.97 

101787.84 

129,600 

46,656,000 

18.974 

7.114 

.002778 

[109]   . 


CIRCLES— AREAS,  SQUARES,  CUBES,  ETC. 
NUMBERS,  DIAMETERS  AND  AREAS,  ETC. — (Cont.) 


Number 
or 
Diameter 

Circum- 
ference 

Circular 
Area 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
Root 

Cube 
Root 

Reciprocal 

361 

1134.11 

102354.11 

130,321 

47,045,881 

19.QOO 

7.120 

.002770 

362 

1137.25 

102921.95 

131,044 

47,437,928 

19.026 

7.127 

.002762 

363 

1140.40 

103491.31 

131,769 

47,832,147 

19.052 

7.133 

.002755 

364 

1143.54 

104062.35 

132,496 

48,228,544 

19.079 

7.140 

.002747 

365 

1146.68 

104634.91 

133,225 

48,627,125  . 

19.105 

7.146 

.002740 

366 

1149.82 

105209.04 

133,956 

49,027,896 

19.131 

7.153 

.002732 

367 

1152.96 

105784.74 

134,689 

49,430,863 

19.157 

7.159 

.002725 

368 

1156.10 

106362.00 

135,424 

49,836,032 

19.183 

7.166 

.002717 

369 

1159.25 

106940.84 

136,161 

50,243,409 

19.209 

7.172 

.002710 

370 

1162.39 

107521.26 

136,900 

50,653,000 

19.235 

7.179 

.002703 

371 

1165.53 

108103.22 

137,641 

51,064,811 

19.261 

7.185 

.002695 

372 

1168.67 

108686.79 

138,384 

51,478,848 

19.287 

7.192 

.002688 

373 

1171.81 

109271.91 

139,129 

51,895,117 

19.313 

7.198 

.002681 

374 

1174.95 

109858.62 

139,876 

52,313,624 

19.339 

7.205 

.002674 

375 

1178.10 

110446.87 

140,625 

52,734,375 

19.365 

7.211 

.002667 

376 

1181.24 

111036.71 

141,376 

53,157,376 

19.391 

7.218 

.002660 

377 

1184.38 

111628.11 

142,129 

53,582,633 

19.416 

7.224 

.002653 

378 

1187.52 

112221.09 

142,884 

54,010,152 

19.442 

7.230 

.002646 

379 

1190.66 

112815.64 

143,641 

54,439,939 

19.468 

7.237 

.002639 

380 

1193.80 

113411.76 

144,400 

54,872,000 

19.493 

7.243 

.002632 

381 

1196.94 

114009.46 

145,161 

55,306,341 

19.519 

7.249 

.002625 

382 

1200.09 

114608.70 

145,924 

55,742,968 

19.545 

7.256 

.002618 

383 

1203.23 

115209.54 

146,689 

56,181,887 

19.570 

7.262 

.002611 

384 

1206.37 

115811.94 

147,456 

56,623,104 

19.596 

7.268 

.002604 

385 

1209.51 

116415.91 

148,225 

57,066,625 

19.621 

7.275 

.002597 

386 

1212.65 

117021.45 

148,996 

57,512,456 

19.647 

7.281 

.002591 

387 

1215.79 

117628.57 

149,769 

57,960,603 

19.672 

7.287 

.002584 

388 

1218.94 

118237.25 

150,544 

58,411,072 

19.698 

7.294 

.002577 

389 

1222.08 

118846.51 

151,321 

58,863,869 

19.723 

7.299 

.002571 

390 

1225.22 

119453.94 

152,100 

59,319,000 

19.748 

7.306 

.002564 

391 

1228.36 

120072.73 

152,881 

59,776,471 

19.774 

7.312 

.002558 

392 

1231.50 

120687.70 

153,664 

60,236,288 

19.799 

7.319 

.002551 

393 

1234.64 

121304.24 

154,449 

60,698,457 

19.824 

7.325 

.002545 

394 

1237.79 

121922.43 

155,236 

61,162,984 

19.849 

7.331 

.002538 

395 

1240.93 

122542.03 

156,025 

61,629,875 

19.875 

7.337 

.002532 

396 

1244.07 

123163.28 

156,816 

62,099,136 

19.899 

7.343 

.002525 

397 

1247.21 

123786.10 

157,609 

62,570,773 

19.925 

7.349 

.002519 

398 

1250.35 

124412.10 

158,404 

63,044,792 

19.949 

7.356 

.002513 

399 

1253.49 

125036.46 

159,201 

63,521,199 

19.975 

7.362 

.002506 

400 

1256.64 

125664.00 

160,000 

64,000,000 

20.000 

7.368 

.002500 

401 

1259.78 

126293.10 

160,801 

64,481,201 

20.025 

7.374 

.002494 

402 

1262.92 

126923.88 

161,604 

64,964,808 

20.049 

7.380 

.002488 

403 

1266.06 

127556.02 

162,409 

65,450,827 

20.075 

7.386 

.002481 

404 

1269.20 

128189.84 

163,216 

65,939,264 

20.099 

7.392 

.002475 

405 

1272.34 

128825.23 

164,025 

66,430,125 

20.125 

7.399 

.002469 

i 

110] 


CIRCLES— AREAS,  SQUARES,  CUBES,  ETC. 


NUMBERS,  DIAMETERS  AND  AREAS,  ETC. — (Cont.) 


Number 
or 
Diameter 

Circum- 
ference 

Circular 
Area 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
Root 

Cube 
Root 

Reciprocal 

406 

1275.48 

129462.19 

164,836 

66,923,416 

20.149 

7.405 

.002463 

407 

1278.63 

130100.71 

165,649 

67,419,143 

20.174 

7.411 

.002457 

408 

1281.77 

130740.82 

166,464 

67,911,312 

20.199 

7.417 

.002451 

409 

1284.91 

131382.49 

167,281 

68,417,929 

20.224 

7.422 

.002445 

410 

1288.05 

132025.74 

168,100 

68,921,000 

20.248 

7.429 

.002439 

411 

1291.19 

132670.55 

168,921 

69,426,531 

20.273 

7.434 

.002433 

412 

1294.32 

133316.93 

169,744 

69,934,528 

20.298 

7.441 

.002427 

413 

1297.48 

133964.89 

170,569 

70,444,997 

20.322 

7.447 

.002421 

414 

1300.62 

134614.41 

171,396 

70,957,944 

20.347 

7.453 

.002415 

415 

1303.76 

135265.51 

172,225 

71,473,375 

20.371 

7.459 

.002410 

416 

1306.90 

135918.18 

173,056 

71,991,296 

20.396 

7.465 

.002407 

417 

1310.04 

136572.42 

173,889 

72,511,713 

20.421 

7.471 

.002398 

418 

1313.18 

137228.22 

174,724 

73,034,632 

20.445 

7.477 

.002392 

419 

1316.32 

137885.69 

175,561 

73,560,059 

20.469 

7.483 

.002387 

420 

1319.47 

138544.56 

176,400 

74,088,000 

20.494 

7.489 

.002381 

421 

1322.61 

139205.08 

177,241 

74,618,461 

20.518 

7.495 

.002375 

422 

1325.75 

139867.17 

178,084 

75,151,448 

20.543 

7.501 

.002370 

423 

1328.89 

140530.83 

178,929 

75,666,967 

20.567 

7.507 

.002364 

424 

1332.03 

141196.07 

179,776 

76,225,024 

20.591 

7.513 

.002358 

425 

1335.18 

141862.87 

180,625 

76,765,625 

20.615 

7.518 

.002353 

426 

1338.32 

142531.25 

181,476 

77,308,776 

20.639 

7.524 

.002347 

427 

1341.46 

143201.19 

182,329 

77,854,483 

20.664 

7.530 

.002342 

428 

1344.60 

143872.71 

183,184 

78,402,752 

20.688 

7.536 

.002336 

429 

1347.74 

144545.80 

184,041 

78,953,589 

20.712 

7.542 

.002331 

430 

1350.88 

145220.46 

184,900 

79,507,000 

20.736 

7.548 

.002326 

431 

1354.02 

145696.68 

185,761 

80,062,991 

20.760 

7.554 

.002320 

432 

1357.17 

146574.48 

186,624 

80,621,568 

20.785 

7.559 

.002315 

433 

1360.33 

147253.85 

187,489 

81,182,737 

20.809 

7.565 

.002309 

434 

1363.45 

147934.80 

188,356 

81,746,504 

20.833 

7.571 

.002304 

435 

1366.59 

148617.31 

189,225 

82,312,875 

20.857 

7.577 

.002299 

436 

1369.73 

149301.39 

190,096 

82,881,856 

20.881 

7.583 

.002294 

437 

1372.87 

149987.05 

190,969 

83,453,453 

20.904 

7.588 

.002288 

438 

1376.02 

150674.27 

191,844 

84,027,672 

20.928 

7.594 

.002283 

439 

1379.16 

151362.87 

192,721 

84,604,519 

20.952 

7.600 

.002278 

440 

1382.30 

152053.44 

193,600 

85,184,000 

20.976 

7.606 

.002273 

441 

1385.44 

152745.37 

194,481 

85,766,121 

21.000 

7.612 

.002268 

442 

1388.58 

153438.88 

195,364 

86,350,388 

21.024 

7.617 

.002262 

443 

1391  .  72 

154133.96 

196,249 

86,938,307 

21.047 

7.623 

.002257 

444 

1394.87 

154830.61 

197,136 

87,528,384 

21.071 

7.629 

.002252 

445 

1398.01 

155528.83 

198,025 

88,121,125 

21.095 

7.635 

.002247 

446 

1401  .  15 

156228.62 

198,916 

88,716,536 

21.119 

7.640 

.002242 

447 

1404.29 

156929.98 

199,809 

89,314,623 

21  .  142 

7.646 

.002237 

448 

1407.43 

157632.92 

200,704 

89,915,392 

21  .  166 

7.652 

.002232 

449 

1410.57 

158337.42 

201,601 

90,518,849 

21.189 

7.657 

.002227 

450 

1413.72 

159043.50 

202,500 

91,125,000 

21.213 

7.663 

.002222 

[111] 


CIRCLES— AREAS,  SQUARES.  CUBES,  ETC. 


NUMBERS,  DIAMETERS  AND  AREAS,  ETC. — (Cont.~) 


Number  || 
or 
Diameter 

Circum- 
ference 

Circular 
Area 

Square 

.      Cube 

Square 
Root 

Cube 
Root 

Reciprocal 

451 

1416.86 

159751  .  14 

203,401 

91,733,851 

21.237 

7.669 

.002217 

452 

1420.00 

160460.36 

204,304 

92,345,408 

21.260 

7.674 

.002212 

453 

1423.14 

161171.14 

205,209 

92,959,677 

21.284 

7.680 

.002208 

454 

1426.28 

161883.50 

206,106 

93,576,664 

21.307 

7.686 

.002203 

455 

1429.42 

162597.43 

207,025 

94,196,375 

21.331 

7.691 

.002198 

456 

1432.56 

163312.93 

207,936 

94,818,816 

21.354 

7.697 

.002193 

457 

1435.71 

164030.20 

208,849 

95,443,993 

21.377 

7.703 

.002188 

458 

1438.85 

164748.64 

209,764 

96,071,912 

21.401 

7.708 

.002183 

459 

1441.99 

165468.85 

210,681 

96,702,579 

21.424 

7.714 

.002179 

460 

1445.13 

166190.64 

211,600 

97,336,000 

21.447 

7.719 

.002174 

461 

1448.27 

166913.99 

212,521 

97,972,181 

21.471 

7.725 

.002169 

f462 

1451.41 

167638.91 

213,444 

98,611,128 

21.494 

7.731 

.002165 

463 

1454.56 

168365.41 

214,369 

99,252,847 

21.517 

7.736 

.002160 

464 

1457.70 

169093.47 

215,296 

99,897,345 

21.541 

7.742 

.002155 

465 

1460.84 

169823.11 

216,225 

100,544,625  , 

21.564 

7.747 

.002151 

466 

1463.98 

170554.32 

217,156 

101,194,696 

21.587 

7.753 

.002146 

467 

1467.12 

171287.10 

218,089 

101,847,563 

21.610 

7.758 

.002141 

468 

1470.26 

172021.44 

219,024 

102,503,232 

21.633 

7.764 

.002137 

469 

1473.41 

172757.36 

219,961 

103,161,709 

21.656 

7.769 

.002132 

470 

1476.55 

173494.86 

220,900 

103,823,000 

21.679 

7.775 

.002128 

471 

1479.69 

174233.92 

221,841 

104,487,111 

21.702 

7.780 

.002123 

472 

1482.83 

174974.55 

222,784 

105,154,048 

21.725 

7.786 

.002119 

473 

1485.97 

175716.75 

223,729 

105,823,817 

21.749 

7.791 

.002114 

474 

1489.11 

176460.45 

224,676 

106,496,424 

21.771 

7.797 

.002110 

475 

1492.26 

177205.87 

225,625 

107,171,875 

21.794 

7.802 

.002105 

476 

1495.36 

177952.79 

226,576 

107,850,176 

21.817 

7.808 

.002101 

477 

1498.54 

178701.27 

227,529 

108,531,333 

21.840 

7.813 

.002096 

478 

1501.68 

179451.33 

228,484 

109,215,352 

21.863 

7.819 

.002092 

479 

1504.82 

180202.96 

229,441 

109,902,239 

21.886 

7.824 

.002088 

480 

1507.96 

180956.16 

230,400 

110,592,000 

21.909 

7.830 

.002083 

481 

1511.10 

181712.92 

231,361 

111,284,641 

21.932 

7.835 

.002079 

482 

1514.25 

182467.26 

232,324 

111,980,168 

21.954 

7.840 

.002075 

483 

1517.39 

183225.18 

233,289 

112,678,587 

21.977 

7.846< 

.002070 

484 

1520.53 

183984.66 

234,256 

113,379,904 

22.000 

7.851 

.002666 

485 

1523.67 

184745.71 

235,225 

114,084,125 

22.023 

7.857- 

.002062 

486 

1526.81 

185508.33 

236,196 

114,791,256 

22.045 

7.862 

.002058 

487 

1529.95 

186272.53 

237,169 

115,501,303 

22.069 

7.868 

.002053 

488 

1533.90 

187038.29 

238,144 

116,214,272 

22.091 

7.873 

.002049 

489 

1536.24 

187805.63 

239,121 

116,936,169 

22.113 

7.878 

.002045 

490 

1539.38 

188574.54 

240,100 

117,649,000 

22.136 

7.884 

.002041 

491 

1542.52 

189345.01 

241,081 

118,370,771 

22.158 

7.889 

.002037 

492 

1545.66 

190117.06 

242,064 

119,095,488 

22.181 

7.894' 

.002033 

493 

1548.80 

190890.68 

243,049 

119,823,157 

22.204 

7.899 

.002028 

494 

1551.95 

191665.87 

244,036 

120,553,784 

22.226 

7.905 

.002024 

495 

1555.09 

192442.63 

245,025 

121,287,375 

22.248 

7.910 

.002020 

[112] 


CIRCLES— AREAS,  SQUARES,  CUBES,  ETC. 

NUMBERS,  DIAMETERS  AND  AREAS,  ETC. — (Cont.) 


Number  II 
or 
Diameter 

Circum- 
ference 

Circular 
Area 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
Root 

Cube 
Root 

Reciprocal 

496 

1558.23 

193220.96 

246,016 

122,023,936 

22.271 

7.915 

.002016 

497 

1561.37 

194000.86 

247,009 

122,763,473 

22.293 

7.921 

.002012 

498 

1564.51 

194782.34 

248,004 

123,505,992 

22.316 

7.926 

.002008 

499 

1567.55 

195565.38 

249,001 

124,251,499 

22.338 

7.932 

.002004 

500 

1570.80 

196350.00 

250,000 

125,000,000 

22.361 

7.937 

.002000 

501 

1573.94 

197136.18 

251,001 

125,751,501 

22.383 

7.942 

.001996 

502 

1577.08 

197923.94 

252,004 

126,506,008 

22.405 

7.947 

.001992 

503 

1580.22 

198713.26 

253,009 

127,263,527 

22.428 

7.953 

.001988 

504 

1583.36 

199504.16 

254,016 

128,024,864 

22.449 

7.958 

.001984 

505 

1586.50 

200296  .  63 

255,025 

128,787,625 

22.472 

7.963 

.001980 

506 

1589.64 

201090.67 

256,036 

129,554,216 

22.494 

7.969 

.001976 

507 

1592.79 

201886.28 

257,049 

130,323,843 

22.517 

7.974 

.001972 

508 

1595.93 

202683.46 

258,064 

131,096,512 

22.539 

7.979 

.001969 

509 

1599.07 

203487.70 

259,081 

131,872,229 

22.561 

7.984 

.001965 

510 

1602.21 

204282.54 

260,100 

132,651,000 

22.583 

7.989 

.001961 

511 

1605.35 

205064.43 

261,121 

133,432,831 

22.605 

7.995 

.001957 

512 

1608.49 

205887.84 

262,144 

134,217,728 

22.627 

8.000 

.001953 

513 

1611.64 

206692  .  93 

263,169 

135,005,697 

22.649 

8.005 

.001949 

514 

1614.78 

207499.53 

264,196 

135,796,744 

22.671 

8.010 

.001946 

515 

1617.92 

208307.71 

265,225 

136,590,875 

22.694 

8.016 

.001942 

516 

1621.06 

209117.46 

266,256 

137,388,096 

22.716 

8.021 

.001938 

517 

1624.20 

209928.78 

267,289 

138,188,413 

22.738 

8.026 

.001934 

518 

1627.34 

210741.66 

268,324 

138,991,832 

22.759 

8.031 

.001931 

519 

1630.49 

211556.12 

269,361 

139,798,359 

22.782 

8.036 

.001927 

520 

1633.63 

212372.16 

270,400 

140,608,000 

22.803 

8.041 

.001923 

521 

1636.77 

213189.76 

271,441 

141,420,761 

22.825 

8.047 

.001919 

522 

1639.93 

214008.93 

272,484 

142,236,648 

22.847 

8.052 

.001916 

523 

1643.05 

214829.67 

273,529 

143,055,667 

22.869 

8.057 

.001912 

524 

1646.19 

215651.99 

274,576 

143,877,824 

22.891 

8.062 

.001908 

525 

1649.34 

216475.87 

275,624 

144,703,125 

22.913 

8.067 

.001905 

526 

1652.48 

217301.33 

276,676 

145,531,576 

22.935 

8.072 

.001901 

527 

1655.62 

218128.35 

277,729 

146,363,183 

22.956 

8.077 

.001898 

528 

1658.76 

218956.95 

278,784 

147,197,952 

22.978 

8.082 

.001894 

529 

1661.90 

219787.12 

279,841 

148,035,889 

23.000 

8.087 

.001890 

530 

1665.04 

220618.86 

280,900 

148,877,000 

23.022 

8.093 

.001887 

531 

1668.18 

221452.16 

281,961 

149,721,291 

23.043 

8.098 

.001883 

532 

1671.33 

222287.04 

283,024 

150,568,768 

23.065 

8.103 

.001880 

533 

1674.47 

223123.50 

284,089 

151,419,437 

23.087 

8.108 

.001876 

534 

1677.61 

223961.52 

285,156 

152,273,304 

23.108 

8.113 

.001873 

535 

1680.75 

224801.11 

286,225 

153,130,375 

23.130 

8.118 

.001869 

536 

1683.80 

225642.27 

287,296 

153,990,656 

23.152 

8.123 

.001866 

537 

1687.04 

226487.01 

288,369 

154,854,153 

23.173 

8.128 

.001862 

538 

1690.18 

227329.31 

289,444 

155,720,872 

23.195 

8.133 

.001859 

539 

1693.32 

228175.19 

290,521 

156,590,819 

23.216 

8.138 

.001855 

540 

1696.46 

229022.64 

291,600 

157,464,000 

23.238 

8.143 

.001852 

113] 


CIRCLES— AREAS,  SQUARES,  CUBES,  ETC. 
NUMBERS,  DIAMETERS  AND  AREAS,  ETC. — (Cont.) 


*  s 

Circum- 
ference 

Circular 
Area 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
Root 

Cube 
Root 

Reciprocal 

>541 

1699.60 

229871.65 

292,681 

158,340,421 

23.259 

8.148 

.001848 

542 

1702.74 

230722.24 

293,764 

159,220,088 

23.281 

8.153 

.001845 

543 

1705.88 

231574.40 

294,849 

160,103,007 

23.302 

8.158 

.001842 

544 

1709.03 

232428.13 

295,936 

160,989,184 

23.324 

8.163 

.001838 

545 

1712.17 

233283.43 

297,025 

161,878,625 

23.345 

8.168 

.001835 

546 

1715.31 

234140.30 

298,116 

162,771,336 

23.367 

8.173 

.001832 

547 

1718.45 

234998.74 

299,209 

163,667,323 

23.388 

8.178 

.001828 

548 

1721.59 

235858.76 

300,304 

164,566,592 

23.409 

8.183 

.001825 

549 

1724.73 

236720.34 

301,401 

165,469,149 

23.431 

8.188 

.001821 

550 

1727.88 

237583.50 

302,500 

166,375,000 

23.452 

8.193 

.001818 

551 

1731.02 

238448.22 

303,601 

167,284,151 

23.473 

8.198 

.001815 

552 

1734.16 

239314.52 

304,704 

168,196,608 

23.495 

8.203 

.001812 

553 

1737.30 

240182.38 

305,809 

169,112,377 

23.516 

8.208 

.001808 

554 

1740.44 

241051.82 

306,916 

170,031,464 

23.537 

8.213 

.001805 

555 

1743.58 

241922.83 

308,025 

170,953,875 

23.558 

8.218 

.001802 

556 

1746.72 

242795.41 

309,136 

171,879,616 

23.579 

8.223 

.001799 

557 

1749.77 

243669.56 

310,249 

172,808,693 

23.601 

8.228 

.001795 

558 

1753.09 

244545.28 

311,364 

173,741,112 

23.622 

8.233 

.001792 

559 

1756.15 

245422.57 

312,481 

174,676,879 

23.643 

8.238 

.001789 

560 

1759.29 

246301.44 

313,600 

175,616,000 

23.664 

8.242 

.001786 

561 

1762.43 

247181.87 

314,721 

176,558,481 

23.685 

8.247 

.001783 

562 

1765.57 

248063.87 

315,844 

177,504,328 

23.706 

8.252 

.001779 

563 

1768.72 

248947.45 

316,969 

178,453,547 

23.728 

8.257 

.001776 

564 

1771.86 

249832.59 

318,096 

179,406,144 

23.749 

8.262 

.001773 

565 

1775.00 

250719.31 

319,225 

180,362,125 

23.769 

8.267 

.001770 

566 

1778.14 

251607.60 

320,356 

181,321,496 

23.791 

8.272 

.001767 

567 

1781.28 

252497.36 

321,489 

182,284,263 

23.812 

8.277 

.001764 

568 

1784.42 

253388.88 

322,624 

183,250,432 

23.833 

8.282 

.001761 

569 

1787.57 

254281.88 

323,761 

184,220,009 

23.854 

8.286 

.001757 

570 

1790.71 

255176.64 

£24,900 

185,193,000 

23.875 

8.291 

.001754 

571 

1793.85 

256072.60 

326,041 

186,169,411 

23.896 

8.296 

.001751 

572 

1796.99 

256970.31 

327,184 

187,149,248 

23.916 

8.301 

.001748 

573 

1800.13 

257869.59 

328,329 

188,132,517 

23.937 

8.306 

.001745 

574 

1803.27 

258770.45 

329,476 

189,119,224 

23.958 

8.311 

.001742 

575 

1806.42 

259672.87 

330,625 

190,109,375 

23.979 

8.315 

.001739 

576 

1809.56 

260576.87 

331,776 

191,102,976 

24.000 

8.320 

.001736 

577 

1812.80 

261482.43 

332,929 

192,100,033 

24.021 

8.325 

.001733 

578 

1815.84 

262388.57 

334,084 

193,100,552 

24.042 

8.330 

.001730 

579 

1818.98 

263298.28 

335,241 

194,104,539 

24.062 

8.335 

.001727 

580 

1822.12 

264208.56 

336,400 

195,112,000 

24.083 

8.339 

.001724 

581 

1825.26 

265120.46 

337,561 

196,122,941 

24.104 

8.344 

.001721 

582 

1828.41 

266033.82 

338,724 

197,137,368 

24.125 

8.349 

.001718 

583 

1831.55 

266948.82 

339,889 

198,155,287 

24.145 

8.354 

.001715 

584 

1834.69 

267865.38 

341,056 

199,176,704 

24.166 

8.359 

.001712 

585 

1837.83 

268783.57 

342,225 

200,201,625 

24.187 

8.363 

.001709 

[114] 


CIRCLES— AREAS,  SQUARES,  CUBES,  ETC. 

NUMBERS,  DIAMETERS  AND  AREAS,  ETC. — (Cont.) 


1  1 
*  s 

Circum- 
ference 

Circular 
Area 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
Root 

Cube 
Root 

Reciprocal 

586 

1840.97 

269703.21 

343,396 

201,230,056 

24.207 

8.368 

.001706 

587 

1844.11 

270624.49 

344,569 

202,262,003 

24.228 

8.373 

.001704 

588 

1847.26 

271547.33 

345,744 

203,297,472 

24.249 

8.378 

.001701 

589 

1850.40 

272471.75 

346,921 

204,336,469 

24.269 

8.382 

.001698 

590 

1853.54 

273397.74 

348,100 

205,379,000 

24.289 

8.387 

.001695 

591 

1856.68 

274325.29 

349,281 

206,425,071 

24.310 

8.392 

.001692 

592 

1859.82 

27  5254  .42 

350,464 

207,474,688 

24.331 

8.397 

.001689 

593 

1862.96 

276185.12 

351,649 

208,527,857 

24.351 

8.401 

.001686 

594 

1866.11 

277117.39 

352,836 

209,584,584 

24.372 

8.406 

.001684 

595 

1869.25 

278051.23 

354,025 

210,644,875 

24.393 

8.411 

.001681 

596 

1872.39 

278986.64 

355,216 

211,708,736 

24.413 

8.415 

.001678 

597 

1875.53 

279923.62 

356,409 

212,776,173 

24.433 

8.420 

.001675 

598 

1878.67 

280862.18 

357,604 

213,847,192 

24.454 

8.425 

.001672 

599 

1881.81 

281802.30 

358,801 

214,921,799 

24.474 

8.429 

.001669 

600 

1884.96 

282744.00 

360,000 

216,000,000 

24.495 

8.434 

.001667 

601 

1888.10 

283687.26 

361,201 

217,081,801 

24.515 

8.439 

.001664 

602 

1891.24 

284632.10 

362,404 

218,167,208 

24.536 

8.444 

.001661 

603 

1894.38 

285578.50 

363,609 

219,256,227 

24.556 

8.448 

.001658 

604 

1897.52 

286526.48 

364,816 

220,348,864 

24.576 

8.453 

.001656 

605 

1900.66 

287476.03 

366,025 

221,445,125 

24.597 

8.458 

.001653 

606 

1903.80 

288426.15 

367,236 

222,545,016 

24.617 

8.462 

.001650 

607 

1906..  95 

289379.84 

368,449 

223,648,543 

24.637 

8.467 

.001647 

608 

1910.09 

290334.10 

369,664 

224,755,712 

24.658 

8.472 

.001645 

609 

1913.23 

291289.93 

370,881 

225,886,529 

24.678 

8.476 

.001642 

610 

1916.37 

292247.34 

372,100 

226,981,000 

24.698 

8.481 

.001639 

611 

1919.51 

293206.31 

373,321 

228,099,131 

24.718 

8.485 

.001637 

612 

1922.65 

294166.85 

374,544 

229,220,928 

24.739 

8.490 

.001634 

613 

1925.80 

295128.97 

375,769 

230,346,397 

24.758 

8.495 

.001631 

614 

1928.94 

296092.65 

376,996 

231,475,544 

24.779 

8.499 

.001629 

615 

1932.08 

297057.91 

378,225 

232,608,375 

24.799 

8.504 

.001626 

616 

1935.22 

298024.74 

379,456 

233,744,896 

24.819 

8.509 

.001623 

617 

1938.36 

298993.14 

380,689 

234,885,113 

24.839 

8.513 

.001621 

618 

1941.50 

299963.00 

381,924 

236,029,032 

24.859 

8.518 

.001618 

619 

1944.65 

300934.64 

383,161 

237,176,659 

24.879 

8.522 

.001616 

620 

1947.79 

301907.76 

384,400 

238,628,000 

24.899 

8.527 

.001613 

621 

1950.93 

302882.44 

385,641 

239,483,061 

24.919 

8.532 

.001610 

622 

1954.07 

303858.69 

386,884 

240,641,848 

24.939 

8.536 

.001608 

623 

1957.21 

304836.51 

388,129 

241,804,367 

24.959 

8.541 

.001605 

624 

1960.35 

305815.91 

389,376 

242,970,624 

24.980 

8.545 

.001603 

625 

1963.50 

306796.87 

390,625 

244,140,625 

25.000 

8.549 

.001600 

626 

1966.64 

307779.41 

391,876 

245,314,376 

25.019 

8.554 

.001597 

627 

1969.78 

308763.41 

393,129 

246,491,883 

25.040 

8.559 

.001595 

628 

1972.92 

309749.19 

394,384 

247,673,152 

25.059 

8.563 

.001592 

629 

1976.06 

310736.44 

395,641 

248,858,189 

25.079 

8.568 

.001590 

630 

1979.20 

311725.26 

396,900 

250,047,000 

25.099 

8.573 

.001587 

[115] 


CIRCLES— AREAS,  SQUARES,  CUBES,  ETC. 


NUMBERS,  DIAMETERS  AND  AREAS,  ETC. — (Cont.) 


Number  || 
or 
Diameter] 

Circum- 
ference 

Circular 
Area 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
Root 

Cube 
Root 

Reciprocal 

631 

1982.34 

312715.64 

398,161 

251,239,591 

25.119 

^8.577 

.001585 

632 

1985.49 

313707.58 

399,424 

252,435,968 

25.139 

8.582 

.001582 

633 

1988.63 

314701.14 

400,689 

253,636,137 

25.159 

8.586 

.001580 

634 

1991  .  77 

315696.64 

401,956 

254,840,104 

25.179 

8.591 

.001577 

635 

1994.91 

316692.91 

403,225 

256,047,875 

25.199 

8.595 

.001575 

636 

1998.05 

317691  .  15 

404,496 

257,259,456 

25.219 

8.599 

.001572 

637 

2001.19 

318690.97 

405,769 

258,474,853 

25.239 

8.604 

.001570 

638 

2004.34 

319692.35 

407,044 

259,694,072 

25.259 

8.609 

.001567 

639 

2007.48 

320695.31 

408,321 

260,917,119 

25.278 

8.613 

.001565 

640 

2010.62 

321699.84 

409,600 

262,144,000 

25.298 

8.618 

.001563 

641 

2013.76 

322705.93 

410,881 

263,374,721 

25.318 

8.622 

.001560 

642 

2016.90 

323713.60 

412,164 

264,609,288 

25.338 

8.627 

.001558 

643 

2020.04 

324722.84 

413,449 

265,847,707 

25.357 

8.631 

.001555 

644 

2023.19 

325733.65 

414,736 

267,089,984 

25.377 

8.636 

.001553 

645 

2026.33 

326746.03 

416,025 

268,836,125 

25.397 

8.640 

.001550 

646 

2029.47 

327759.98 

417,316 

269,586,136 

25.416 

8.644 

.001548 

647 

2032.61 

328775.50 

418,609 

270,840,023 

25.436 

8.649 

.001546 

648 

2035.76 

329792.60 

419,904 

272,097,792 

25.456 

8.653 

.001543 

649 

2038.89 

330811.26 

421,201 

273,359,449 

25.475 

8.658 

.001541 

650 

2042.04 

331831  .  50 

422,500 

274,625,000 

25.495 

8.662 

.001538 

651 

2045.18 

332853.40 

423,801 

275,894,451 

25.515 

8.667 

.001536 

652 

2048.32 

333876.68 

425,104 

277,167,808 

25.534 

8.671 

.001534 

653 

2051.46 

334901.62 

426,409 

278,445,077 

25.554 

8.676 

.001531 

654 

2054.60 

335928.14 

427,716 

279,726,264 

25.573 

8.680 

.001529 

655 

2057.74 

336956.23 

429,025 

281,011,375 

25.593 

8.684 

.001527 

656 

2060.88 

337985.89 

.430,336 

282,800,416 

25.612 

8.689 

.001524 

657 

2064.03 

339017.12 

431,649 

283,593,393 

25.632 

8.693 

.001522 

658 

2067.17 

340049.92 

432,964 

284,890,312 

25.651 

8.698 

.001520 

659 

2070.31 

341084.29 

434,281 

286,191,179 

25.671 

8.702 

.001517 

660 

2073.45 

342120.24 

435,600 

287,496,000 

25.690 

8.706 

.001515 

661 

2076.59 

343157.75 

436,921 

288,804,781 

25.710 

8.711 

.001513 

662 

2079.73 

344196.33 

438,244 

290,117,528 

25.720 

8.715 

.001511 

663 

2082.88 

345237.49 

439,569 

291,434,247 

25.749 

8.719 

.001508 

664 

2086.02 

346279.71 

440,896 

292,754,944 

25.768 

8.724 

.001506 

665 

2089.16 

347323.51 

442,225 

294,079,625 

25.787 

8.728 

.001504 

666 

2092.30 

348368.88 

443,556 

295,408,296 

25.807 

8.733 

.001502 

667 

2095.44 

349416.40 

444,889 

296,740,963 

25.826 

8.737 

.001499 

668 

2098.58 

350464.32 

446,224 

298,077,632 

25.846 

8.742 

.001497 

669 

2101.73 

351514.30 

447,561 

299,418,309 

25.865 

8.746 

.001495 

670 

2104.87 

352566.06 

448,900 

300,763,000 

25.884 

8.750 

.001493 

671 

2108.01 

353619.28 

450,241 

302,111,711 

25.904 

8.753 

.001490 

672 

2111.15 

354674.07 

451,584 

303,464,448 

25.923 

8.759 

.001488 

673 

2114.29 

355730.43 

452,929 

304,821,217 

25.942 

8.763 

.001486 

674 

2117.43 

356788.37 

454,276 

306,182,024 

25.961 

8.768 

.001484 

675 

2120.58 

357847.87 

455,625 

307,546,875 

25.981 

8.772 

.001481 

[116] 


CIRCLES— AREAS,  SQUARES,  CUBES,  ETC. 


NUMBERS,  DIAMETERS  AND  AREAS,  ETC. — (Cont.) 


Number  II 
or 
Diameter 

Circum- 
ference 

Circular 
Area 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
Root 

Cube 
Root 

Reciprocal 

676 

2123.72 

358908.95 

456,976 

308,915,776 

26.000 

8.776 

.001479 

677 

2126.86 

359971.59 

458,329 

310,288,733 

26.019 

8.781 

.001477 

678 

2130.00 

361035.81 

459,684 

311,665,752 

26.038 

8.785 

.001475 

679 

2133.14 

362101.60 

461,041 

313,046,839 

26.058 

8.789 

.001473 

680 

2136.28 

363168.96 

462,400 

314,432,000 

26.077 

8.794 

.001471 

681 

2139.42 

364237.88 

463,761 

315,821,241 

26.096 

8.798 

.001468 

682 

2142.57 

365308.38 

465,124 

317,214,568 

26.115 

8.802 

.001466 

683 

2145.71 

366380.40 

466,489 

318,611,987 

26.134 

8.807 

.001464 

684 

2148.85 

367454.10 

467,856 

320,013,504 

26.153 

8.811 

.001462 

685 

2151.99 

368529.31 

469,225 

321,419,125 

26.172 

8.815 

.001460 

686 

2155.13 

369600.60 

470,596 

322,828,856 

26.192 

8.819 

.001458 

687 

2158.27 

370684.45 

471,969 

324,242,703 

26.211 

8.824 

.001456 

688 

2161.42 

371764.37 

473,344 

325,660,672 

26.229 

8.828 

.001453 

689 

2164.56 

372845.87 

474,721 

327,082,769 

26.249 

8.832 

.001451 

690 

2167.70 

373928.94 

476,100 

328,509,000 

26.268 

8.836 

.011449 

691 

2170.84 

375013.57 

477,481 

329,939,371 

26.287 

8.841 

.001447 

692 

2173.98 

376099  .  78 

478,864 

331,373,888 

26.306 

8.845 

.001445 

693 

2177.12 

377187.56 

480,249 

332,812,557 

26.325 

8.849 

.001443 

694 

2180.27 

378276.91 

481,636 

334,255,384 

26.344 

8.853 

.001441 

695 

2183.41 

379367.83 

483,025 

335,702,375 

26.363 

8.858 

.001439 

696 

2186.55 

380460.32 

484,416 

337,153,536 

26.382 

8.862 

.001437 

697 

2189.69 

381554.38 

485,809 

338,608,873 

26.401 

8.866 

.001435 

698 

2192.83 

382650.02 

487,204 

340,068,392 

26.419 

8.870 

.001433 

699 

2195.97 

383747.22 

488,601 

341,532,099 

26.439 

8.875 

.001431 

700 

2199.12 

384846.00 

490,000 

343,000,000 

26.457 

8.879 

.001429 

701 

2202.26 

385949.52 

491,401 

344,472,101 

26.476 

8.883 

.001427 

702 

2205.40 

387048.26 

492,804 

345,948,088 

26.495 

8.887 

.001425 

703 

2208.54 

388151.74 

494,209 

347,428,927 

26.514 

8.892 

.001422 

704 

2211.68 

389256.80 

495,616 

348,913,664 

26.533 

8.896 

.001420 

705 

2214.82 

390363.43 

497,025 

350,402,625 

26.552 

8.900 

.001418 

706 

2217.96 

391471.63 

498,436 

351,895,816 

26.571 

8.904 

.001416 

707 

2221.11 

392581.40 

499,849 

353,393,243 

26.589 

8.908 

.001414 

708 

2224.25 

393692.74 

501,264 

354,894,912 

26.608 

8.913 

.001412 

709 

2227.39 

394805.65 

502,681 

356,400,829 

26,627 

8.917 

.001410 

710 

2230.53 

395920.14 

504,100 

357,911,000 

26.644 

8.921 

.001408 

711 

2233.67 

397036.19 

505,521 

359,425,431 

26.664 

8.925 

.001406 

712 

2236.81 

398151.81 

506,944 

360,944,128 

26.683 

8.929 

.001404 

713 

2239.96 

399273.01 

508,369 

362,467,097 

26.702 

8.934 

.001403 

714 

2243.10 

400393.73 

509,796 

363,994,344 

26.721 

8.938 

.001401 

715 

2246.24 

401516.11 

511,225 

365,525,875 

26.739 

8.942 

.001399 

716 

2249.38 

402640.02 

512,656 

367,061,696  r 

26.758 

8.946 

.001397 

717 

2252.52 

403765.50 

514,089 

368,601,813 

26.777 

8.950 

.001395 

718 

2255.66 

404892.54 

515,524 

370,146,232 

26.795 

8.954 

.001393 

719 

2258.81 

406021  .  16 

516,961 

371,694,959 

26.814 

8.959 

.001391 

720 

2261.95 

407151.36 

518,400 

373,248,000 

26.833 

8.963 

.001389 

[117] 


CIRCLES— AREAS,  SQUARES,  CUBES,  ETC. 
NUMBERS,  DIAMETERS  AND  AREAS,  ETC. — (Cant.) 


Number  1  { 

Circum- 
ference 

Circular 
Area 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
Root 

Cube 
Root 

Reciprocal 

721 

2265.09 

408283.32 

519,841 

374,805,361 

26.851 

8.967 

.001387 

722 

2268.23 

409416.45 

521,284 

376,367,048 

26.870 

8.971 

.001385 

723 

2271.37 

410551.25 

522,729 

377,933,067 

26.889 

8.975 

.001383 

724 

2274.51 

411687.93 

524,176 

379,503,424 

26.907 

8.979 

.001381 

725 

2277.66 

412825.87 

525,625 

381,078,125 

26.926 

8.983 

.001379 

726 

2280.80 

413965.24 

527,076 

382,657,176 

26.944 

8.988 

.001377 

727 

2283.94 

415106.06 

528,529 

384,240,583 

26.963 

8.992 

.001376 

728 

2287.08 

416249.43 

529,984 

385,828,352 

26.991 

8.996 

.001374 

729 

2290.22 

417393.76 

531,441 

387,420,489 

27.000 

9.000 

.001372 

730 

2293.36 

418539.66 

532,900 

389,017,000 

27.018 

9.004 

.001370 

731 

2296.50 

419687.12 

534,361 

390,617,891 

27.037 

9.008 

.001368 

732 

2299.65 

420836.14 

535,824 

392,223,168 

27.055 

9.012 

.001366 

733 

2302.79 

421986.78 

537,289 

393,832,837 

27.074 

9.016 

.001364 

734 

2305.93 

423138.96 

538,756 

395,446,904 

27.092 

9.020 

.001362 

735 

2309.07 

424292.71 

540,225 

397,065,375 

27.111 

9.023 

.001361 

736 

2312.21 

425442.03 

541,696 

398,688,256 

27.129 

9.029 

.001359 

737 

2315.35 

426604.93 

543,169 

400,315,553 

27.148 

9.033 

.001357 

738 

2318.50 

427763.39 

544,644 

401,947,272 

27.166 

9.037 

.001355 

739 

2321.64 

428923.43 

546,121 

403,583,419 

27.184 

9.041 

.001353 

740 

2324.78 

430085.04 

547,600 

405,224,000 

27.203 

9.045 

.001351 

741 

2327.92 

431248.21 

549,081 

406,869,021 

27.221 

9.049 

.001350 

742 

2331.06 

432412.96 

550,564 

408,518,488 

27.239 

9.053 

.001348 

743 

2334.20 

433579.28 

552,049 

410,172,407 

27.258 

9.057 

.001346 

744 

2337.35 

434747.17 

553,536 

411,830,784 

27.276 

9.061 

.001344 

745 

2340.49 

435916.63 

555,025 

413,493,625 

27.295 

9.065 

.001342 

746 

2343.63 

437087.66 

556,516 

415,160,936 

27.313 

9.069 

.001340 

747 

2346.77 

438260.26 

558,009 

416,832,723 

27.331 

9.073 

.001339 

748 

2349.91 

439434.48 

559,504 

418,508,992 

27.349 

9.077 

.001337 

749 

2353.05 

440610.18 

561,001 

420,189,749 

27.368- 

9.081 

.001335 

750 

2356.20 

441787.50 

562,500 

421,875,000 

27.386 

-  9.086 

.001333 

751 

2359.34 

442966.38 

564,001 

423,564,751 

27.404 

9.089 

.001332 

752 

2362.48 

444146.84 

565,504 

424,525,900 

27.423 

9.094 

.001330 

753 

2365.62 

445328.86 

567,009 

426,957,777 

27.441 

9.098 

.001328 

754 

2368.76 

446512.46 

568,516 

428,661,064 

27.459 

9.102 

.001326 

755 

2371.90 

447697.63 

570,025 

430,368,875 

27.477 

9.106 

.001325 

756 

2375.04 

448884.37 

571,536 

432,081,216 

27.495 

9.109 

.001323 

757 

2378.19 

450072.68 

573,049 

433,798,093 

27.514 

9.114 

.001321 

758 

2381.33 

451262.56 

574,564 

435,519,512 

27.532 

9.118 

.001319 

759 

2384.47 

452454.01 

576,081 

437,245,479 

27.549 

9.122 

.001318 

760 

2387.61 

453647.04 

577,600 

438,976,000 

27.568 

9.126 

.001316 

761 

2390.75 

454841.63 

579,121 

440,711,081 

27.586 

9.129 

.001314 

762 

2393.89 

456037.87 

580,644 

442,450,728 

27.604 

9.134 

.001312 

763 

2397.04 

457235.53 

582,169 

444,194,947 

27.622 

9.138 

.001311 

764 

2400.18 

458435.83 

583,696 

445,943,744 

27.640 

9.142 

.001309 

765 

2403.32 

459635.71 

585,225 

447,697,125 

27.659 

9.146 

.001307 

[118] 


CIRCLES— AREAS,  SQUARES,  CUBES,  ETC. 


NUMBERS,  DIAMETERS  AND  AREAS,  ETC. — (Cont.) 


Numberl 
or 

Circum- 
ference 

Circular 
Area 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
Root 

Cube 
Root 

Reciprocal 

766 

2406.46 

460838.16 

586,756 

449,455,096 

27.677 

9.149 

.001305 

767 

2409.60 

462042.18 

588,289 

451,217,663 

27.695 

9.154 

.001304 

768 

2412.74 

463247.76 

589,824 

452,984,832 

27.713 

9.158 

.001302 

769 

2415.98 

464454.92 

591,361 

454,756,609 

27.731 

9.162 

.001300 

770 

2419.03 

465663.66 

592,900 

456,533,000 

27.749 

9.166 

.001299 

771 

2422.17 

466873.96 

594,441 

458,314,011 

27.767 

9.169 

.001297 

772 

2425.31 

468085.83 

595,984 

460,099,648 

27.785 

9.173 

.001295 

773 

2428.45 

469299.27 

597,529 

461,889,917 

27.803 

9.177 

.001294 

774 

2431.59 

470514.29 

599,076 

463,684,824 

27.821 

9.181 

.001292 

775 

2434.74 

471730.87 

600,625 

465,484,375 

27.839 

9.185 

.001290 

776 

2437.88 

472949.03 

602,176 

467,288,576 

27.857 

9.189 

.001289 

777 

2441.02 

474168.75 

603,729 

469,097,433 

27.875 

9.193 

.001287 

778 

2444.16 

475396.05 

605,284 

470,910,952 

27.893 

9.197 

.001285 

779 

2447.40 

476612.92 

606,841 

472,729,139 

27.910 

9.201 

.001284 

780 

2450.44 

477837.36 

608,400 

474,552,000 

27.928 

9.205 

.001282 

781 

2453.58 

479063.36 

609,961 

476,379,541 

27.946 

9.209 

.001280 

782 

2456.73 

480290.94 

611,524 

478,211,768 

27.964 

9.213 

.001279 

783 

2459.87 

481520.10 

613,089 

480,048,687 

27.982 

9.217 

.001277 

784 

2463.01 

482750.82 

614,656 

481,890,304 

28.000 

9.221 

.001276 

785 

2466.15 

483983.11 

616,225 

483,736,025 

28.017 

9.225 

.001274 

786 

2469.29 

485216.97 

617,796 

485,587,656 

28.036 

9.229 

.001272 

787 

2472.43 

486452.41 

619,369 

487,443,403 

28.053 

9.233 

.001271 

788 

2475.48 

487689.73 

620,944 

489,303,872 

28.071 

9.237 

.001269 

789 

2478.72 

488927.99 

622,521 

491,169,069 

28.089 

9.240 

.001267 

790 

2481.86 

490168.14 

624,100 

493,039,000 

28.107 

9.244 

.001266 

791 

2485.00 

491409.85 

625,681 

494,913,671 

28.125 

9.248 

.001264 

792 

2488.14 

492653  .  14 

627,264 

496,793,088 

28.142 

9.252 

.001263 

793 

2491.28 

493898.20 

628,849 

498,677,257 

28.160 

9.256 

.001261 

794 

2494.43 

495144.43 

630,436 

500,566,184 

28.178 

9.260 

.001259 

795 

2497.57 

496392.43 

632,025 

502,459,875 

28.196 

9.264 

.001258 

796 

2500.71 

497648.40 

633,616 

504,358,336 

28.213 

9.268 

.001256 

797 

2503.85 

498893.14 

635,209 

506,261,573 

28.231 

9.271 

•    .001255 

798 

2506.99 

500145.86 

636,804 

508,169,592 

28.249 

9.275 

.001253 

799 

2510.13 

501400.14 

638,401 

510,082,399 

28.266 

9.279 

.001251 

800 

2513.28 

502656.00 

640,000 

512,000,000 

28.284 

9.283 

.001250 

801 

2516.42 

503913.42 

641,601 

513,922,401 

28.302 

9.287 

.001248 

802 

2519.56 

505172.43 

643,204 

515,849,608 

28.319 

9.291 

.001247 

803 

2522.70 

506432.98 

644,809 

517,781,627 

28.337 

9.295 

.001245 

804 

2525.84 

507655.52 

646,416 

519,718,464 

28.355 

9.299 

.001244 

805 

2528.98 

508958.83 

648,025 

521,660,125 

28.372 

9.302 

.001242 

806 

2532.12 

510224.11 

649,636 

523,606,616 

28.390 

9.306 

.001241 

807 

2535.27 

511490.96 

651,249 

525,557,943 

28.408 

9.310 

-.001239 

808 

2538.41 

512759.38 

652,864 

527,514,112 

28.425 

9.314 

.001238 

809 

2541.55 

514029.37 

654,481 

529,474,129 

28.443 

9.318 

.001236 

810 

2544.09 

515300.94 

656,100 

531,441,000 

28.460 

9.321 

.001235 

119] 


CIRCLES— AREAS,  SQUARES,  CUBES,  ETC. 
NUMBERS,  DIAMETERS  AND  AREAS,  ETC. — (Cont.) 


1  Number  II 
or 

|  Diameter 

Circum- 
ference 

Circular     . 
Area 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
Root 

Cube 
Root 

Reciprocal 

811 

2547.83 

516574.07 

657,721 

533,411,731 

28.478 

9.325 

.001233 

812 

2550.97 

517848.77 

659,344 

535,387,328 

28.496 

9.329 

.001232 

813 

2554.12 

519125.05 

660,969 

537,366,797 

28.513 

9.333 

.001230 

814 

2557.26 

520402.85 

662,596 

539,353,144 

28.531 

9.337 

.001229 

815 

2560.40 

521682.31 

664,225 

541,343,375 

28.548 

9.341 

.001227 

816 

2563.54 

522663.30 

665,856 

543,338,496 

28.566 

9.345 

.001225 

817 

2566.68 

524245.86 

667,489 

545,338,513 

28.583 

9.348 

.001224 

818 

2569.82 

525529.98 

669,124 

547,343,432 

28.601 

9.352 

.001222 

819 

2572.97 

526815.68 

670,761 

549,353,259 

28.618 

9.356 

.001221 

820 

2576.11 

528102.96 

672,400 

551,368,000 

28.636 

9.360 

.001220 

821 

2579.25 

529391.80 

674,041 

553,387,661 

28.653 

9.364 

.001218 

822 

2582.39 

530682.21 

675,684 

555,412,248 

28.670 

9.367 

.001217 

823 

2585.53 

531974.39 

677,329 

557,441,767 

28.688 

9.371 

.001215 

824 

2588.64 

533267.75 

678,976 

559,476,224 

28.705 

9.375 

.001214 

825 

2591.82 

534562.87 

680,625 

561,515,625 

28.723 

9.379 

.001212 

826 

2594.96 

535859.57 

682,276 

563,559,976 

28.740 

9.383 

.001211 

827 

2598.10 

537159.83 

683,929 

565,609,283 

28.758 

9.386 

.001209 

828 

2601.24 

538457.62 

685,584 

567,663,552 

28.775 

9.390 

.001208 

829 

2604.38 

539759.08 

687,241 

569,722,789 

28.792 

9.394 

.001206 

830 

2607.52 

541062.06 

688,900 

571,787,000 

28.810 

9.398 

.001205 

831 

2610.66 

542366.60 

690,561 

573,856,191 

28.827 

9.401 

.001203 

832 

2613.81 

543672.72 

692,224 

575,930,368 

28.844 

9.405 

.001202 

833 

2616.95 

544980.52 

693,889 

578,009,537 

28.862 

9.409 

.001200 

834 

2620.09 

546289.68 

695,556 

580,093,704 

28.879 

9.413 

.001199 

835 

2623.23 

547600.51 

697,225 

582,182,875 

28.896 

9.417 

.001198 

836 

2626.37 

548912.91 

698,896 

584,277,056 

28.914 

9.420 

.001196 

837 

2629.51 

550226.89 

700,569 

586,376,253 

28.931 

9.424 

.001195 

838 

2632.64 

551542.43 

702,244 

588,480,472 

28.948 

9.428 

.001193 

839 

2635.80 

552859.58 

703,921 

590,589,719 

28.965 

9.432 

.001192 

840 

2638.94 

554178.24 

705,600 

592,704,000 

28.983 

9.435 

.001190 

841 

2642.08 

555498.49 

707,281 

594,823,321 

29.000 

9.439 

.001189 

842 

2645.22 

556820.32 

708,964 

596,947,688 

29.017 

9.443 

.001188 

843 

2648.35 

558143.72 

710,649 

599,077,107 

29.034 

9.447 

.001186 

844 

2651.51 

559468.69 

712,336 

601,211,584 

29.052 

9.450 

.001185 

845 

2654.65 

560795.23 

714,025 

603,351,125 

29.069 

9.454 

.001183 

846 

2657.79 

562123.34 

715,716 

605,495,736 

29.086 

9.458 

.001182 

847 

2660.93 

563456.82 

717,409 

607,645,423 

29.103 

9.461 

.001181 

848 

2664.07 

564784.28 

719,104 

609,800,192 

29.120 

9.465 

.001179 

849 

2667.21 

566117.10 

720,801 

611,960,049 

29.138 

9.469 

.001178 

850 

2670.36 

567451.59 

722,500 

614,125,000 

29.155 

9.473 

.001176 

851 

2673.50 

568787.46 

724,201 

616,295,051 

29.172 

9.476 

.001175 

852 

2Q76.64 

570125.00 

725,904 

618,470,208 

29.189 

9.480 

.001174 

853 

2679.78 

571464.10 

727,609 

620,650,477 

29.206 

9.483 

.001172 

854 

2682.92 

572804.78 

729,316 

622.835,864 

29.223 

9.487 

.001171 

855 

2686.06 

574147.03 

731,025 

625,026,374 

29.240 

9.491 

.001170 

120] 


CIRCLES— AREAS,  SQUARES,  CUBES,  ETC. 
NUMBERS,  DIAMETERS  AND  AREAS,  ETC. — (Cont.) 


Number  1  1 
or 
Diameter 

Circum- 
ference 

Circular 
Area 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
Root 

Cube 
Root 

Reciprocal 

856 

2689.20 

575490.85 

732,736 

627,222,016 

29.257 

9.495 

.001168 

857 

2692.35 

576836.24 

734,449 

629,422,793 

29.274 

9.499 

.001167 

858 

2695.49 

578183.20 

736,164 

631,628,712 

29.292 

9.502 

.001166 

859 

2698.63 

579531.73 

737,881 

633,839,779 

29.309 

9.506 

.001164 

860 

2701.77 

580881.84 

739,600 

636,056,000 

29.326 

9.509 

.001163 

861 

2704.91 

582233.51 

741,321 

638,277,381 

29.343 

9.513 

.001161 

862 

2708.05 

583586.75 

743,044 

640,503,928 

29.360 

9.517 

.001160 

863 

2711.20 

584941  .  57 

744,769 

642,735,647 

29.377 

9.520 

.001159 

864 

2714.34 

586297.95 

746,496 

644,972,544 

29.394 

9.524 

.001157 

865 

2717.48 

587655.91 

748,225 

647,214,625 

29.411 

9.528 

.001156 

866 

2720.66 

589015.41 

749,956 

649,461,896 

29.428 

9.532 

.001155 

867 

2723.76 

590376.54 

751,689 

651,714,363 

29.445 

9.535 

.001153 

868 

2726.90 

591739.20 

753,424 

653,972,032 

29.462 

9.539 

.001152 

869 

2730.05 

593103.44 

755,161 

656,234,909 

29.479 

9.543 

.001151 

870 

2733.19 

594469.26 

756,900 

658,503,000 

29.496 

9.546 

.001149 

871 

2736.33 

595836.44 

758,641 

660,776,311 

29.513 

9.550 

.001148 

872 

2739.87 

597205.59 

760,384 

663,054,848 

29.529 

9.554 

.001147 

873 

2742.61 

598576.91 

762,129 

665,338,617 

29.546 

9.557 

.001145 

874 

2745.75 

599948.21 

763,876 

667,627,624 

29.563 

9.561 

.001144 

875 

2748.90 

601321.87 

765,625 

669,921,875 

29.580 

9.565 

.001143 

876 

2752.04 

602697.11 

767,376 

672,221,376 

29.597 

9.568 

.001142 

877 

2755.18 

604073.91 

769,129 

674,526,133 

29.614 

9.572 

.001140 

878 

2758.32 

605451.49 

770,884 

676,836,152 

29.631 

9.575 

.001139 

879 

2761.46 

606832.24 

772,641 

679,151,439 

29.648 

9.579 

.001138 

880 

2764.60 

608213.76 

774,400 

681,472,000 

29.665 

9.583 

.001136 

881 

2767.74 

609596.84 

776,161 

683,797,841 

29.682 

9.586 

.001135 

882 

2770.89 

610981.50 

777,924 

686,128,968 

29.698 

9.590 

.001134 

883 

2774.03 

612367.74 

779,689 

688,465,387 

29.715 

9.594 

.001133 

884 

2777.17 

613755.54 

781,456 

690,807,104 

29.732 

9.597 

.001131 

885 

2780.31 

615144.91 

783,225 

693,154,125 

29.749 

9.601 

.001130 

886 

2783.45 

616535.85 

784,996 

695,506,456 

29.766 

9.604 

.001129 

887 

2786.59 

617928.37 

786,769 

697,864,103 

29.782 

9.608 

.001127 

888 

2789.75 

619322.45 

788,544 

700,227,072 

29.799 

9.612 

.001126 

889 

2792.88 

620718.11 

790,321 

702,595,369 

29.816 

9.615 

.001125 

890 

2796.02 

622115.34 

792,100 

704,969,000 

29.833 

9.619 

.001124 

891 

2799.16 

623514.13 

793,881 

707,347,971 

29.850 

9.623 

.001122 

892 

2802.30 

624914.50 

795,664 

709,732,288 

29.866 

9.626 

.001121 

893 

2805.44 

626316.44 

797,449 

712,121,957 

29.883 

9.630 

.001120 

894 

2808.59 

627719.95 

799,236 

714,516,984 

29.900 

9.633 

.001119 

895 

2811.73 

629120.35 

801,025 

716,917,375 

29.916 

9.637 

.001118 

896 

2814.87 

630531.68 

802,816 

719,323,136 

29.933 

9.640 

.001116 

897 

2818.82 

631939.90 

804,609 

721,734,273 

29.950 

9.644 

.001115 

898 

2821.15 

633349.70 

806,404 

724,150,792 

29.967 

9.648 

.001114 

899 

2824.29 

634768.13 

808,201 

726,572,699 

29.983 

9.651 

.001112 

900 

2827.44 

636174.00 

810,000 

729,000,000 

30.000 

9.655 

.001111 

121 


CIRCLES— AREAS,  SQUARES,  CUBES,  ETC. 


NUMBERS,  DIAMETERS  AND  AREAS,  ETC. — (Cont.) 


Number  II 
or 
Diameter 

Circum- 
ference 

Circular 
Area 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
Root 

Cube 
Root 

Reciprocal 

901 

2830.58 

637588.50 

811,804 

731,432,701 

30.017 

9.658 

.001110 

902 

2833.72 

639004.58 

813,604 

733,870,808 

30.033 

9.662 

.001109 

903 

2836.86 

640422.22 

815,409 

736,314,327 

30.050 

9.666 

.001107 

904 

2840.00 

641841.44 

817,216 

738,763,264 

30.066 

9.669 

.001106 

905 

2843.14 

643262.23 

819,025 

741,217,625 

30.083 

9.673 

.001105 

906 

2846.28 

644684.74 

820,836 

7^3,677,416 

30.100 

9.676 

.001104 

907 

2849.43 

646108.52 

822,649 

746,142,643 

30.116 

9.680 

.001103 

908 

2852.57 

647534.02 

824,464 

748,613,312 

30.133 

9.683 

.001101 

909 

2855.71 

648961.09 

826,281 

751,089,429 

30.150 

9.687 

.001100 

910 

2858.85 

650389.74 

828,100 

753,571,000 

30.163 

9.690 

.001099 

911 

2861.99 

651819.95 

829,921 

756,058,031 

30.183 

9.694 

.001098 

912 

2865.13 

653251.73 

831,744 

758,550,528 

30.199 

9.698 

.001096 

913 

2868.29 

654689.09 

833,569 

761,048,497 

30.216 

9.701 

.001095 

914 

2871.42 

656120.81 

835,396 

763,551,944 

30.232 

9.705 

.001094 

915 

2874.56 

657556.51 

837,225 

766,060,874 

30.249 

9.708 

.001093 

916 

2877.70 

658994.58 

839,056 

768,575,296 

30.265 

9.712 

.001092 

917 

2880.84 

660432.22 

840,880 

771,095,213 

30.282 

9.715 

.001091 

918 

2883.98 

661875.42 

842,724 

773,620,632 

30.298 

9.718 

.001089 

919 

2887.13 

663318.20 

844,561 

•776,151,559 

30.315 

9.722 

.001088 

.920 

2890.27 

664762.56 

846,400 

778,688,000 

30.331 

9.726 

.001087 

921 

2893.41 

666208.48 

848,241 

781,229,961 

30.348 

9.729 

.001086 

922 

2896.55 

667655.97 

850,084 

783,777,448 

30.364 

9.733 

.001085 

923 

2899.69 

669101.61 

851,929 

786,330,467 

30.381 

9.736 

.001083 

924 

2902.83 

670555.67 

853,776 

788,889,024 

30.397 

9.740 

.  101082 

925 

2905.98 

672007.87 

855,625 

791,453,125 

30.414 

9.743 

.001081 

926 

2909.12 

673461.65 

857,476 

794,022,776 

30.430 

9.747 

.001080 

927 

2912.26 

674916.99 

859,329 

796,597,983 

30.447 

9.750 

.001079 

928 

2915.40 

676373.91 

861,184 

799,178,752 

30.463 

9.754 

.001078 

929 

2918.54 

677832.40 

863,041 

801,765,089 

30.479 

9.757 

.001076 

930 

2921.68 

679292.46 

864,900 

804,357,000 

30.496 

9.761 

.001075 

931 

2924.82 

680754.08 

866,761 

806,954,491 

30.512 

9.764 

.001074 

932 

2927.97 

682217.30 

868,624 

809,557,568 

30.529 

9.768 

.001073 

933 

2931.11 

683682.06 

870,489 

812,166,237 

30.545 

9.771 

.001072 

934 

2934.25 

685148.40 

872,356 

814,780,504 

30.561 

9.775 

.001071 

935 

2937.39 

686616.31 

874,225 

817,400,375 

30.578 

9.778 

.001070 

936 

2940.53 

688085.79 

876,096 

820,025,856 

30.594 

9.783 

.001068 

937 

2943.67 

689556.85 

877,969 

822,656,953 

30.610 

9.785 

.001067 

938 

2946.82 

691029.47 

879,844 

825,293,672 

30.627 

9.789 

.001066 

939 

2949.96 

692503.67 

881,721 

827,936,019 

30.643 

9.792 

.001065 

940 

2953.10 

693979.44 

883,600 

830,584,000 

30.659 

9.796 

.001064 

941 

2956.24 

695456.77 

885,481 

833,237,621 

30.676 

9.799 

.001063 

942 

2959.38 

696935.68 

887,364 

835,896,888 

30.692 

9.803 

.001062 

943 

2962.43 

698416.14 

889,249 

838,561,807 

30.708 

9.806 

.001060 

944 

2965.67 

699898.21 

891,136 

841,232,384 

30.724 

9.810 

.001059 

945 

2968.81 

701381.83 

893,025 

843,908,625 

30.741 

9.813 

.001058 

[122] 


CIRCLES— AREAS,  SQUARES,  CUBES,  ETC. 
NUMBERS,  DIAMETERS  AND  AREAS,  ETC. — (Cont.) 


I_J 

Circum- 
ference 

Circular 
Area 

Square 

C-ibe 

Square 
Root 

Cube 
Root 

Reciprocal 

946 

2971.95 

702867.02 

894,916 

846,590,536 

30.757 

9.817 

.001057 

947 

2975.09 

704350.25 

896,809 

849,278,123 

30.773 

9.820 

.001056 

948 

2978.23 

705841.80 

898,704 

851,971,392 

30.790 

9.823 

.001055 

949 

2981.37 

707332.02 

900,601 

854,670,349 

30.806 

9.827 

.001054 

950 

2984.52 

708023.50 

902,500 

857,375,000 

30.822 

9.830 

.001053 

951 

2987.66 

710316.54 

904,401 

860,085,351 

30.838 

9.834 

.001052 

952 

2990.72 

711811.16 

906,304 

862,801,408 

30.854 

9.837 

.001050 

953 

2993.94 

713307.34 

908,209 

865,523,177 

30.871 

9.841 

.001049 

954 

2997.08 

714805.10 

910,116 

868,250,664 

30.887 

9.844 

.001048 

955 

3000.22 

716304.43 

912,025 

870,983,875 

30.903 

9.848 

.001047 

956 

3003.36 

717805.33 

913,936 

873,722,816 

30.919 

9.851 

.001046 

957 

3006.51 

719307.80 

915,849 

876,467,493 

30.935 

9.854 

.001045 

958 

3009.65 

720811.84 

917,764 

879,217,912 

30.951 

9.858 

.001044 

959 

3012.79 

722317.45 

919,681 

881,974,079 

30.968 

9.861 

.001043 

960 

3015.90 

723824.64 

921,600 

884,736,000 

30.984 

9.865 

.001042 

961 

3019.07 

725333.39 

923,521 

887,503,681 

31.000 

9.868 

.001041 

962 

3022.21 

726843.71 

925,444 

890,277,128 

31.016 

9.872 

.001040 

963 

3025.36 

728355.61 

927,369 

893,056,347 

31.032 

9.875 

.001038 

964 

3028.50 

729869.07 

929,296 

895,841,344 

31.048 

9.878 

.001037 

965 

3031.64 

731384.11 

931,225 

898,632,125 

31.064 

9.881 

.001036 

966 

3034.78 

732900.72 

933,156 

901,428,696 

31.080 

9.885 

.001035 

967 

3037.92 

734418.90 

935,089 

904,231,063 

31.097 

9.889 

.001034 

968 

3041.06 

735938.64 

937,024 

907,039,232 

31.113 

9.892 

.001033 

969 

3044.21 

737459.96 

938,961 

909,853,209 

31.129 

9.895 

.001032 

970 

3047.35 

738982.86 

940,900 

912,673,000 

31.145 

9.899 

.001031 

971 

3050.49 

740507.32 

942,841 

915,498,611 

31.161 

9.902 

.001030 

972 

3053.63 

742033.35 

944,784 

918,330,048 

31.177 

9.906 

.001029 

973 

3056.77 

743560.95 

946,729 

921,167,317 

31.193 

9.909 

.001028 

974 

3059.91 

745090.13 

948,676 

924,010,424 

31.209 

9.912 

.001027 

975 

3063.06 

746620.87 

950,625 

926,859,375 

31.225 

9.916 

.001026 

976 

3066.20 

748153.19 

952,576 

929,714,176 

31.241 

9.919 

.001025 

977 

3069.36 

749687.07 

954,529 

932,574,833 

31.257 

9.923 

.001024 

978 

3072.48 

751222.53 

856,484 

935,441,352 

31.273 

9.926 

.001022 

979 

3075.62 

752759.56 

958,441 

938,313,739 

31.289 

9.929 

.001021 

980 

3078.76 

754298.16 

960,400 

941,192,000 

31.305 

9.933 

.001020 

981 

3081.90 

755838.32 

962,361 

944,076,141 

31.321 

9.936 

.001019 

982 

3085.05 

757380.06 

964,324 

946,966,168 

31.337 

9.940 

.001018 

983 

3088.19 

758923.38 

966,289 

949,862,087 

31.353 

9.943 

.001017 

984 

3091.33 

760468.26 

968,256 

952,763,904 

31.369 

9.946 

.001016 

985 

3094.47 

762014.71 

970,225 

955,671,625 

31.385 

9.950 

.001015 

986 

3097.61 

733562.73 

972,196 

958,585,256 

31.401 

9.953 

.001014 

987 

3100.75 

765119.33 

974,169 

961,504,803 

31.416 

9.956 

.001013 

988 

3103.96 

766663.49 

976,144 

964,430,272 

31.432 

9.960 

.001012 

989 

3107.04 

768216.23 

978,121 

967,361,669 

31.448 

9.963 

.001011 

990 

3110.18 

769770.54 

980,100 

970,299,000 

31.464 

9.966 

.001010 

[123] 


CIRCLES— AREAS,  SQUARES,  CUBES,  ETC. 


NUMBERS,  DIAMETERS  AND  AREAS,  ETC. — (Cont.) 


Number  II 
or 
Diameter 

Circum- 
ference 

Circular 
Area 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
Root 

Cube 
Root 

Reciprocal 

991 

3113.32 

771326.41 

982,081 

973,242,271 

31.480 

9.970 

.001009 

992 

3116.46 

772883.86 

984,064 

976,191,488 

31.496 

9.973 

.001008 

993 

3119.60 

774442.88 

986,049 

979,146,657 

31.512 

9.977 

.001007 

994 

3122.75 

776003.47 

988,036 

982,107,784 

31.528 

9.980 

.001006 

995 

3125.89 

777565.63 

990,025 

985,074,875 

31.544 

9.983 

.001005 

996 

3129.03 

779129.36 

992,016 

988,047,936 

31.559 

9.987 

.001004 

997 

3132.17 

780694.66 

994,009 

991,026,973 

31.575 

9.990 

.001003 

998 

3135.11 

782261.54 

996,004 

994,011,992 

31.591 

9.993 

.001002 

999 

3138.45 

783829.98 

998,001 

997,002,999 

31.607 

9.997 

.001001 

1,000 

3141.60 

785400.00 

1,000,000 

1,000,000,000 

31.623 

10.000 

.001000 

To  Find  the  Length  of  Any  Arc  of  a  Circle. — Rule  1.  When  the  chord  of  the  arc  and 

the  versed  sine  of  half  the  arc  are  given.  To  fifteen  times  the  square  of  the  chord,  add 
thirty-three  times  the  square  of  the  versed  sine,  and  reserve  the  number.  To  the  square 
of  the  chord,  add  four  times  the  square  of  the  versed  sine, 
and  the  square  root  of  the  sum  will  be  twice  the  chord  of 
half  the  arc. 

Multiply  twice  the  chord  of  half  the  arc  by  ten  times 
the  square  of  the  versed  sine,  divide  the  product  by  the  re- 
serve number,  and  add  the  quotient  to  twice  the  chord  of 
half  the  arc :  the  sum  will  be  the  length  of  the  arc  very  nearly. 
When  the  Chord  of  the  Arc  and  Chord  of  Half  the  Arc 
are  Given. — From  the  square  of  the  chord  of  half  the  arc 
subtract  the  square  of  half  the  chord  of  the  arc,  the  re- 
mainder will  be  the  square  of  the  versed  sine;  then  proceed 
as  above. 

Rule  2.  When  the  Diameter  and  the  Versed  Sine  of 

Half  the  Arc  Are  Given. — From  sixty  times  the  diameter  subtract  twenty-seven  times 
the  versed  sine,  and  reserve  the  number. 

Multiply  the  diameter  by  the  versed  sine,  and  the  square  root  of  the  product  will 
be  the  chord  of  half  the  arc. 

Multiply  twice  the  chord  of  half  the  arc  by  ten  times  the  versed  sine,  divide  the 
product  by  the  reserve  number,  and  add  the  quotient  to  twice  the  chord  of  half  the  arc; 
the  sum  will  be  the  length  of  the  arc  very  nearly. 

NOTE. — 1.  When  the  diameter  and  chord  of  the  arc  are  given,  the  versed  sine  may 
be  found  thus:  From  the  square  of  the  diameter  subtract  the  square  of  the  chord, 
and  extract  the  square  root  of  the  remainder.  Subtract  this  root  from  the  diameter 
and  half  the  remainder  will  give  the  versed  sine  of  half  the  arc. 

2.  The  square  of  the  chord  of  half  the  arc  being  divided  by  the  diameter  will  give 
the  versed  sine,  or  being  divided  by  the  versed  sine  will 

give  the  diameter. 

3.  The  length  of  the  arc  may  also  be  found  by  multi- 
plying together  the  number   of  degrees  it  contains,  the 
radius  and  the  number  .01745329. 

To  Find  the  Area  of  a  Sector  of  a  Circle. — Rule:  Multi- 
ply half  the  length  of  the  arc  of  the  sector  by  the  radius. 

Or,  multiply  the  number  of  the  degrees  in  the  arc  by 
the  square  of  the  radius,  and  by  .008727. 

NOTE. — If  the  diameter  or  radius  is  not  given,  add  the 

[124] 


MENSURATION 


square  of  half  the  chord  of  the  arc  to  the  square  of  the  versed  sine  of  half  the  arc; 
this  sum  being  divided  by  the  versed  sine  will  give  the  diameter. 

To  Find  the  Area  of  a  Segment  of  a  Circle. — Rule  1 :  Find  the  area  of  the  sector  which 
has  the  same  arc  as  the  segment;    also  the  area  of  the  triangle  formed  by  the  radial 
sides  of  the  sector  and  the  chord  of  the  arc;  the  difference 
or  the  sum  of  these  areas  will  be  the  area  of  the  segment, 
according  as  it  is  less  or  greater  than  a  semicircle. 

NOTE. — The  difference  between  the  versed  sine  and 
radius,  multiplied  by  half  the  chord  of  the  arc,  will  give 
the  area  of  the  triangle.  •'  *x*%  !„''''  \ 

Rule  2.  Divide  the  height,  or  versed  sine,  by  the  diame-  ***TQ' 

ter,  and  find  the  quotient  in  the  table  of  versed  sines.  »  / 

Multiply  the  number  on  the  right  hand  of  the  versed          ^  / 

sines  by  the  square  of  the  diameter,  and  the  product  will  \  / 

be  the  area.  N^--J    ~*' 

NOTE  1. — When  the  quotient  arising  from  the  versed  sine  E~ 

divided  by  the  diameter  has  a  remainder  or  fraction  after 

the  third  place  of  decimals;  having  taken  the  area  answering  to  the  first  three  figures 
subtract  it  from  the  next  following  area,  multiply  the  remainder  by  the  said  fraction, 

and  add  the  product  to  the  first  area:  the  sum  will 
be  the  area  for  the  whole  quotient. 

NOTE  2. — The  table  to  which  this  rule  refers  is 
formed  of  the  areas  of  the  segments  of  a  circle 
whose  diameter  is  1;  and  which  is  supposed  to 
be  divided  by  perpendicular  chords  into  1000  equal 
parts. 

The  rule  depends  upon  this  property — that  the 
versed  sine  of  similar  segments  are  as  the  diameters 
of  the  circles  to  which  they  belong,  and  the  area  of 
those  segments  as  the  squares  of  the  diameter;  which 
may  be  thus  demonstrated: 

Let  A  D  B  A  and  adb  a  be  any  two  similar 
segments,  cut  off  from  the  similar  sectors  A  D  B  C  A 

and  adb  ca,  by  the  chords  A  B  and  a  b,  and  let  the  perpendicular  C  D  bisect  them. 
Then  by  similar  triangles,  DB:  db  ::  B  C  :  6  c  and  DB:  db  ::  ~Dm:dn',  whence, 
by  equality,  Bc:6c::Dw:dn,  or2BC:26c::Dm:dw. 


LENGTHS  OF  CIRCULAR  ARCS  FROM   1°  TO  180° 
Given  the  Degrees.    Radius  =  1 

In  this  table,  the  lengths  of  circular  arcs  are  given  proportionately  to  that  of 
radius  =  1,  as  determined  by  the  following  formula: 

Length  of  arc  =    '          X  radius  X  number  of  degrees.    The  numbers  of  degrees  in 

the  arc  are  given  in  the  first  column,  and  the  length  of  the  arc,  as  compared  with  the 
radius,  is  given  decimally  in  the  second  column. 

To  use  this  table:  Find  the  proportional  length  of  the  arc  corresponding  to  the 
degrees  in  the  arc,  and  multiply  it  by  the  actual  length  of  the  radius;  the  product  is 
the  length  of  the  arc. 

Example:  Required  the  length  of  a  circular  arc  corresponding  to  62°,  the  radius 
=  36. 

From  the  table,  62°  =  1.0821. 

Then  1.0821  X  36  =  38.9556,  the  required  length. 

[125] 


LENGTHS  OF  CIRCULAR  ARCS 


LENGTHS  OP  CIRCULAB  ARCS  FROM  1°  TO  180°.     GIVEN  THE  DEGREES. 

Radius  =  1. 


Degrees 

Length 

Degrees 

Length 

Degrees 

Length 

Degrees 

Length 

1 

.0174 

46 

.8028 

91 

.5882 

136 

2.3736 

2 

.0349 

47 

.8203 

92 

.6057 

137 

2.3911 

3 

.0524 

48 

.8377 

93 

.6231 

138 

2.4085 

4 

.0698 

49 

.8552 

94 

.6406 

139 

2.4260 

5 

.0873 

50 

.8727 

95 

.6581 

140 

2.4435 

6 

.0147 

51 

.8901 

96 

.6755 

141 

2.4609 

7 

.0222 

52 

.9076 

97 

.6930 

142 

2.4784 

8 

.0396 

53 

.9250 

98 

.7104 

143 

2.4958 

9 

.0571 

54 

.9424 

99 

.7279 

144 

2.5133 

10 

.1745 

55 

.9599 

100 

.7453 

145 

2.5307 

11 

.1920 

56 

.9774 

101 

.7628 

146 

2.5482 

12 

.2094 

57 

.9948 

102 

.7802 

147 

2.5656 

13 

.2269 

58 

1.0123 

103 

.7977 

148 

2.5831 

14 

.2443 

59 

1.0297 

104 

.8151 

149 

2.6005 

15 

.2618 

60 

1.0472 

105 

.8326 

150 

2.6180 

16 

.2792 

61 

1.0646 

106 

.8500 

151 

2.6354 

17 

.2967 

62 

1.0821 

107 

.8675 

152 

2.6529 

18 

.3141 

63 

.0995 

108 

.8849 

153 

2.6703 

19 

.3316 

64 

.1170 

109 

.9024 

154 

2.6878 

20 

.3491 

65 

.1345 

110 

.9199 

155 

2.7053 

21 

.3665 

66 

.1519 

111 

.9373 

156 

2.7227 

22 

.3840 

67 

.1694 

112 

.9548 

157 

2.7402 

23 

.4014 

68 

.1868 

113 

.9722 

158 

2.7576 

24 

.4189 

69 

.2043 

114 

.9897 

159 

2.7751 

25 

.4363 

70 

.2217 

115 

2.0071 

160 

2.7925 

26 

.4538 

71 

.2392 

116 

2.0246 

161 

2.8100 

27 

.4712 

72 

.2566 

117 

2.0420 

162 

2.8274 

28 

.4887 

73 

.2741 

118 

2.0595 

163 

2.8449 

29 

.5061 

74 

.2915 

119 

2.0769 

164 

2.8623 

30 

.5236 

75 

.3090 

120 

2.0944 

165 

2.8798 

31 

.5410 

76 

.3264 

121 

2.1118 

166 

2.8972 

32 

.5585 

77 

.3439 

122 

2.1293 

167 

2.9147 

33 

.5759 

78 

.3613 

123 

2.1467 

168 

2.9321 

34 

.5934 

79 

.3788 

124 

2.1642 

169 

2.9496 

35 

.6109 

80 

.3963 

125 

2.1817 

170 

2.9670 

36 

.6283 

81 

.4137 

126 

2.1991 

171 

2.9845 

37 

.6458 

82 

.4312 

127 

2.2166 

172 

3.0020 

38 

.6632 

83 

.4486 

128 

2.2304 

173 

3.0194 

39 

.6807 

84 

.4661 

129 

2.2515 

174 

3.0369 

40 

.6981 

85 

1.4835 

130 

2.2689 

175 

3.0543 

41 

.7156 

86 

1.5010 

131 

2.2864 

176 

3.0718 

42 

.7330 

87 

1.5184 

132 

2.3038 

177 

3.0892 

43 

.7505 

88 

1.5359 

133 

2.3213 

178 

3.1067 

44 

.7679 

89 

1.5533 

134 

2.3387 

179 

3.1241 

45 

.7854 

90 

1.5708 

135 

2.3562 

180 

3.1416 

[126] 


LENGTHS  OF  CIRCULAR  ARCS 

LENGTHS  OF  CIRCULAR  ARCS,  UP  TO  A  SEMICIRCLE 
Given  the  Height.    Chord  =  1 

In  this  table  the  chord  is  taken  =  1,  and  the  rise  or  height  of  the  arc,  expressed 
decimally  as  compared  with  the  chord,  is  given  in  the  first  column.  The  length  of  the 
arc  relatively  to  the  chord  is  given  in  the  second  column. 

To  use  this  table,  divide  the  height  of  the  arc  by  the  chord  for  the  proportional 
height  of  the  arc,  which  find  in  the  first  column  of  the  table.  The  proportional  length 
of  the  arc  corresponding  to  it,  being  multiplied  by  the  actual  length  of  the  chord,  gives 
the  actual  length  of  the  arc. 

NOTE. — The  length  of  an  arc  of  a  circle  may  be  found  nearly  thus:  Subtract  the 
chord  of  the  whole  arc  from  eight  times  the  chord  of  half  the  arc,  one-third  of  the 
remainder  is  the  length  nearly. 


LENGTHS  OF  CIRCULAR  ARCS,  UP  TO  A  SEMICIRCLE.    GIVEN  THE  HEIGHT. 

Chord  =  1. 


Height 

Length 

Height 

Length 

Height 

Length 

Height 

Length 

.100 

1.02645 

.101 

.02698 

.131 

1.04515 

.161 

1.06775 

.191 

.09461 

.102 

.02752 

.132 

1.04584 

.162 

1.06858 

.192 

.09557 

.103 

.02806 

.133 

1.04652 

.163 

1.06941 

.193 

.09654 

.104 

.02860 

.134 

1.04722 

.164 

1.07025 

.194 

.09752 

.105 

.02914 

.135 

1.04792 

.165 

1.07109 

.195 

.09850 

.106 

.02970 

.136 

1.04862 

.166 

1.07194 

.196 

1.09949 

.107 

.03026 

.137 

1.04932 

.167 

1.07279 

.197 

1.10048 

.108 

.03082 

.138 

1.05003 

.168 

1.07365 

.198 

1.10147 

.109 

.03139 

.139 

1.05075 

.169 

1.07451 

.199 

1.10247 

.110 

.03196 

.140 

1.05147 

.170 

1.07537 

.200 

1.10348 

.111 

.03254 

.141 

1.05220 

.171 

1.07624 

.201 

1.10447 

.112 

.03312 

.142 

1.05293 

.172 

1.07711 

.202 

1.10548 

.113 

.03371 

.143 

.05367 

.173 

1.07799 

.203 

1.10650 

.114 

.03430 

.144 

.05441 

.174 

1.07888 

.204 

1.10752 

.115 

.03490 

.145 

.05516 

.175 

1.07977 

.205 

1.10855 

.116 

.03551 

.146 

.05591 

.176 

1.08066 

.206 

.10958 

.117 

.03611 

.147 

.05667 

.177 

1.08156 

.207 

.11062 

.118 

.03672 

.148 

.05743 

.178 

1.08246 

.208 

.11165 

.119 

.03734 

.149 

.05819 

.179 

1.08337 

.209 

.  11269 

.120 

.03797 

.150 

1.05896 

.180 

1.08428 

.210 

.11374 

.121 

.03860 

.151 

1.05973 

.181 

1.08519 

.211 

1.11479 

.122 

.03923 

.152 

1.06051 

.182 

1.08611 

.212 

1.11584 

.123 

.03987 

.153 

1.06130 

.183 

1.08704 

.213 

1.11692 

.124 

.04051 

.154 

1.06209 

.184 

1.08797 

.214 

1.11796 

.125 

.04116 

.155 

1.06288 

.185 

1.08890 

.215 

1.11904 

.126 

.04181 

.156 

1.06368 

.186 

1.08984 

.216 

1.12011 

.127 

.04247 

.157 

1.06449 

.187 

1.09079 

.217 

1.12118 

.128 

.04313 

.158 

1.06530 

.188 

1.09174 

.218 

1.12225 

.129 

.04380 

.159 

1.06611 

.189  \ 

1.09269 

.219 

1  .  12334 

.130 

1.04447  , 

.160 

1.06693 

.190  j 

1.09365 

.220 

1.12445 

127] 


LENGTHS  OF  CIRCULAR  ARCS 
LENGTHS  OF  CIRCULAR  ARCS — (Cont.) 


Height 

Length 

Height 

Length 

Height 

Length 

Height 

Length 

.221 

1.12556 

.266 

.17912 

.311 

1.24070 

.356 

.30954 

.222 

1.12663 

.267 

.18040 

.312 

1.24216 

.357 

.31115 

.223 

1.12774 

.268 

.  18162 

.313 

1.24360 

.358 

.31276 

.224 

1.12885 

.269 

.18294 

.314 

1.24506 

.359 

.31437 

.225 

1.12997 

.270 

.18428 

.315 

1.24654 

.360 

.31599 

.226 

.13108 

.271 

.  18557 

.316 

1.24801 

.361 

.31761 

.227 

.13219 

.272 

.18688 

.317 

1.24946 

.362 

.31923 

.228 

.13331 

.273 

1  .  18819 

.318 

1.25095 

.363 

.32086 

.229 

.13444 

.274 

1.18969 

.319 

1.25243 

.364 

.32249 

.230 

.13557 

.275 

1.19082 

.320 

1.25391 

.365 

.32413 

.231 

1  .  13671 

.276 

1  .  19214 

.321 

1.25539 

.366 

.32577 

.232 

1.13786 

.277 

1.19345 

.322 

1.25686 

.367 

.32741 

.233 

1.13903 

.278 

1.19477 

.323 

1.25836 

.368 

.32905 

.234 

1.14020 

.279 

1.19610 

.324 

1.25987 

.369 

.33069 

.235 

1.14136 

.280 

1.19743 

.325 

1.26137 

.370 

.33234 

.236 

1  .  14247 

.281 

1.19887 

.326 

1.26286 

.371 

.33399 

.237 

1.14363 

.282 

1.20011 

.327 

1.26437 

.372 

.33564 

.238 

.  14480 

.283 

1.20146 

.328 

1.26588 

.373 

.33730 

.239 

.14597 

.284 

1.20282 

.329 

1.26740 

.374 

.33896 

.240 

.14714 

.285 

1.20419 

.330 

1.26892 

.375 

.34063 

.241 

.14831 

.286 

1.20558 

.331 

1.27044 

.376 

.34229 

.242 

.14949 

.287 

1.20696 

.332 

1.27196 

.377 

.34396 

.243 

.15067 

.288 

1.20828 

.333 

1.27349 

.378 

.34563 

.244 

.15186 

.289 

1.20967 

.334 

.27502 

.379 

.34731 

.245 

.15308 

.290 

1.21202 

.335 

.27656 

.380 

1.34899 

.246 

.15429 

.291 

1.21239 

.336 

.27810 

.381 

1.35068 

.247 

.15549 

.292 

1.21381 

.337 

.27864 

.382 

1.35237 

.248 

.15670 

.293 

.21520 

.338 

.28118 

.383 

1.35406 

.249 

.  15791 

.294 

.21658 

.339 

.28273 

.384 

1.35575 

.250 

.15912 

.295 

.21794 

.340 

.28428 

.385 

1.35744 

.251 

.16033 

.296 

.21926 

.341 

.28583 

.386 

1.35914 

.252 

.16157 

.297 

.22061 

.342 

.28739 

.387 

1.36084 

.253 

.  16279 

.298 

.22203 

.343 

.28895 

.388 

1.36254 

.254 

.16402 

.299 

.22347 

.344 

.29052 

.389 

1.36425 

.255 

1.16526 

.300 

.22495 

.345 

1.29209 

.390 

1.36586 

.256 

1.16649 

.301 

.22635 

.346 

1.29366 

.391 

.36767 

.257 

1.16774 

.302 

.22776 

.347 

1.29523 

.392 

.36939 

.258 

1  .  16899 

.303 

1.22918 

.348 

1.29681 

.393 

.37111 

.259 

1.17024 

.304 

1.23061 

.349 

1.29839 

.394 

.37283 

.260 

1.17150 

[305 

1.23205 

.350 

1.29997 

.395 

.37455 

.261 

1.17275 

.306 

1.23349 

.351 

1.30156 

.396 

1.37628 

.262 

1.17401 

.307 

1.23494 

.352 

1.30315 

.397 

1.37801 

.263 

1  .  17527 

.308 

1.23636 

.353 

1.30474 

.398 

1.37974 

.264 

1.17655 

.309 

1.23780 

.354 

1.30634 

.399 

1.38148 

.265 

1.17784 

.310 

1.23925 

.355 

1.30794 

.400 

1.38322 

[128] 


AREAS  OF  CIRCULAR  SEGMENTS 
LENGTHS  OP  CIRCULAR  ARCS — (Cont.) 


Height 

Length 

Height 

Length 

Height 

Length 

Height 

Length 

.401 

1.38496 

.426 

1.42945 

.451 

1.47565 

.476 

1.52346 

.402 

1.38671 

.427 

1.43127 

.452 

1.47753 

.477 

1.52541 

.403 

1.38846 

.428 

1.43309 

.453 

.47942 

.478 

1.52736 

.404 

1.39021 

.429 

1.43491 

.454 

.48131 

.479 

1.52931 

.405 

1.39196 

.430 

1.43673 

.455 

.48320 

.480 

1.53126 

.406 

1.39372 

.431 

1.43856 

.456 

.48509 

.481 

1.53322 

.407 

1.39548 

.432 

1.44039 

.457 

.48699 

.482 

1.53518 

.408 

1.39724 

.433 

1.44222 

.458 

.48889 

.483 

1.53714 

.409 

1.39900 

.434 

1.44405 

.459 

.49079 

.484 

1.53910 

.410 

1.40077 

.435 

1.44589 

.460 

.49269 

.485 

1.54106 

.411 

.40254 

.436 

1.44773 

.461 

1.49460 

.486 

1.54302 

.412 

.40432 

.437 

1.44957 

.462 

1.49651 

.487 

1.54499 

.413 

.40610 

.438 

1.45142 

.463 

1.49842 

.488 

1.54696 

.414 

.40788 

.439 

1.45327 

.464 

1.50033 

.489 

1.54893 

.415 

.40966 

.440 

1.45512 

.465 

1.50224 

.490 

1.55090 

.416 

.41145 

.441 

1.45697 

.466 

1.50416 

.491 

1.55288 

.417 

.41324 

.442 

1.45883 

.467 

1.50608 

.492 

1.55486 

.418 

.41503 

.443 

1.46069 

.468 

1.50800 

.493 

1.55685 

.419 

1.41682 

.444 

1.46255 

.469 

1.50992 

.494 

1.55854 

.420 

1.41861 

.445 

1.46441 

.470 

1.51185 

.495 

1.56083 

.421 

1.42041 

.446 

1.46628 

.471 

1.51378 

.496 

1.56282 

.422 

1.42222 

.447 

1.46815 

.472 

1.51571 

.497 

1.56481 

.423 

1.42402 

.448 

1.47002 

.473 

1.51764 

.498 

1.56680 

.424 

1.42583 

.449 

1.47189 

.474 

1.51958 

.499 

1.56879 

.425 

1.42764 

.450 

1.47377 

.475 

1.52152 

.500 

1.57079 

AREAS  OF  CIRCULAR  SEGMENTS 

The  areas  of  circular  segments  are  given,  in  proportional  superficial  measure,  the 
diameter  of  the  circle  of  which  the  segment  forms  a  portion  being  =  1.  The  height  of 
the  segment,  expressed  decimally  in  proportion  to  the  diameter,  is  given  in  the  first 
column,  and  the  relative  area  in  the  second  column. 

To  use  the  table,  divide  the  height  by  the  diameter,  find  the  quotient  in  the  table, 
and  multiply  the  corresponding  area  by  the  square  of  the  actual  length  of  the  diameter; 
the  product  will  be  the  actual  area. 

AREAS  OF  CIRCULAR  SEGMENTS,  UP  TO  A  SEMICIRCLE 
Diameter  of  Circle  =  1 


Height 

Area 

Height 

Area 

Height 

Area 

Height 

Area 

.001 

.00004 

.006 

.00062 

.011 

.00153 

.016 

.00268 

.002 

.00012 

.007 

.00078 

.012 

.00175 

.017 

.00294 

.003 

.00022 

.008 

.00095 

.013 

.00197 

.018 

.00320 

.004 

.00034 

.009 

.00114 

.014 

.00220 

.019 

.00347 

.005 

.00047 

.010 

.00133 

.015 

.00244 

.020 

.00375 

129] 


AREAS  OF  CIRCULAR  SEGMENTS 


AREAS  OF  CIRCULAR  SEGMENTS — (Cont.) 


Height 

Area 

Height 

Area 

Height 

Area 

Height 

Area 

.021 

.00403 

.066 

.02215 

.111 

.04763 

.156 

.07819 

.022 

.00432 

.067 

.02265 

.112 

.04826 

.157 

.07892 

.023 

.00461 

.068 

.02315 

.113 

.04889 

.158 

.07965 

.024 

.00492 

.069 

.02366 

.114 

.04953 

.159 

.08038 

.025 

.00523 

.070 

.02417 

.115 

.05016 

.160 

.08111 

.026 

.00555 

.071 

.02468 

.116 

.05080 

.161 

.08185 

.027 

.00587 

.072 

.02520 

.117 

.05145 

.162 

.08258 

.028 

.00619 

.073 

.02571 

.118 

.05209 

.163 

.08332 

.029' 

.00653 

.074 

.02624 

.119 

.05274 

.164 

.08406 

.030 

.00687 

.075 

.02676 

.120 

.05338 

.165 

.08480 

.031 

.00721 

.076 

.02729 

.121 

.05404 

.166 

.08554 

.032 

.00756 

.077 

.02782 

.122 

.05469 

.167 

.08629 

.033 

.00792 

.078 

.02836 

.123 

.05535 

.168 

.08704 

.034 

.00828 

.079 

.02889 

.124 

.05600 

.169 

.08778 

.035 

.00864 

.080 

.02943 

.125 

.05666 

.170 

.08854 

.036 

.00901 

.081 

.02997 

.126 

.05733 

.171 

.08929 

.037 

.00939 

.082 

.03053 

.127 

.05799 

.172 

.09004 

.038 

.00977 

.083 

.03108 

.128 

.05866 

.173 

.09080 

.039 

.01015 

.084 

.03163 

.129 

.05933 

.174 

.09155 

.040 

.01054 

.085 

.03219 

.130 

.06000 

.175 

.09231 

.041 

.01093 

.086 

.03275 

.131 

.06067 

.176 

.09307 

.042 

.01133 

.087 

.03331 

.132 

.06135 

.177 

.09383 

.043 

.01173 

.088 

.03385 

.133 

.06203 

.178 

.09460 

.044 

.01214 

.089 

.03444 

.134 

.06271 

.179 

.09537 

.045 

.01255 

.090 

.03501 

.135 

.06339 

.180 

.09613 

.046 

.01297 

.091 

.03538 

.136 

.06407 

.181 

.09690 

.047 

.01340 

.092 

.03616 

.137 

.06476 

.182 

.09767 

.048 

.01382 

.093 

.03674 

.138 

.06545 

.183 

.09845 

.049 

.01425 

.094 

.03732 

.139 

.06614 

.184 

.09922 

.050 

.01468 

.095 

.03790 

.140 

.06683 

.185 

.10000 

.051 

.01512 

.096 

.03850 

.141 

.06753 

.186 

.10077 

.052 

.01556 

.097 

.03909 

.142 

.06822 

.187 

.10153 

.053 

.01601 

.098 

.03968 

.143 

.06892 

.188 

.10233 

.054 

.01646 

.099 

.04028 

.144 

.06963 

.189 

.10317 

.055 

.01691 

.100 

.04087 

.145 

.07033 

.190 

.10390 

.056 

.01737 

.101 

.04148 

.146 

.07103 

.191 

.10469 

.057 

.01783 

.102 

.04208 

.147 

.07174 

.192 

.10547 

.058 

.01830 

.103 

.04269 

.148 

.07245 

.193 

.10626 

.059 

.01877 

.104 

.04330 

.149 

.07316 

.194 

.10705 

.060 

.01924 

.105 

.04391 

.150 

.07387 

.195 

.10784 

.061 

.01972 

.106 

.04452 

.151 

.07459 

.196 

.10864 

.062 

.02020 

.107 

.04514 

.152 

.07530 

.197 

.10943 

.063 

.02068 

.108 

.04576 

.153 

.07603 

.198 

.11023 

.064 

.02117 

.109 

.04638 

.154 

.07675 

.199 

.11102 

.065 

.02166 

.110 

.04701 

.155 

.07747 

.200 

.11182 

[130] 


AREAS  OF  CIRCULAR  SEGMENTS 
AREAS  OF  CIRCULAR  SEGMENTS — (Cont.) 


Height 

Area 

Height 

Area 

Height 

Area 

Height 

Area 

.201 

.11262 

.246 

.15009 

.291 

.18996 

.336 

.23169 

.202 

.11343 

.247 

.15096 

.292 

.19086 

.337 

.23263 

.203 

.11423 

.248 

.15182 

.293 

.19177 

.338 

.23358 

.204 

.11504 

.249 

.15268 

.294 

.19268 

.339 

.23453 

.205 

.11584 

.250 

.15355 

.295 

.19360 

.340 

.23547 

.206 

.11665 

.251 

.15442 

.296 

.19451 

.341 

.23642 

.207 

.11746 

.252 

.15528 

.297 

.19543 

.342 

.23737 

.208 

.11827 

.253 

.15615 

.298 

.19634 

.343 

.23832 

.209 

.11908 

.254 

.15702 

.299 

.19725 

.344 

.23927 

.210 

.11990 

.255 

.15789 

.300 

.19817 

.345 

.24025 

.211 

.12071 

.256 

.15876 

.301 

.19908 

.346 

.24117 

.212 

.12153 

.257 

.15964 

.302 

.20000 

.347 

.24212 

.213 

.12235 

.258 

.16051 

.303 

.20092 

.348 

.24307 

.214 

.12317 

.259 

.16139 

.304 

.20184 

.349 

.24403 

.215 

.12399 

.260 

.16226 

.305 

.20276 

.350 

.24498 

.216 

.12481 

.261 

.16314 

.306 

.20368 

.351 

.24593 

.217 

.12563 

.262 

.16402 

.307 

.20460 

.352 

.24689 

.218 

.12646 

.263 

.16490 

.308 

.20553 

.353 

.24784 

.219 

.12729 

.264 

.16578 

.309 

.20645 

.354 

.24880 

.220 

.12811 

.265 

.16666 

.310 

.20738 

.355 

.24976 

.221 

.12894 

.266 

.16755 

.311 

.20830 

.356 

.25071 

.222 

.12977 

.267 

.16843 

.312 

.20923 

.357 

.25167 

.223 

.13060 

.268 

.16932 

.313 

.21015 

.358 

.25263 

.224 

.13144 

.269 

.17020 

.314 

.21108 

.359 

.25359 

.225 

.13227 

.270 

.17109 

.315 

.21201 

.360 

.25455 

.226 

.13311 

.271 

.17198 

.316 

.21294 

.361 

.25551 

.227 

.13395 

.272 

.17287 

.317 

.21387 

.362 

.25647 

.228 

.13478 

.273 

.17376 

.318 

.21480 

.363 

.25743 

.229 

.13562 

.274 

.17465 

.319 

.21573 

.364 

.25839 

.230 

.13646 

.275 

.17554 

.320 

.21667 

.365 

.25936 

.231 

.13731 

.276 

.17644 

.321 

.21760 

.366 

.26032 

.232 

.13815 

.277 

.17733 

.322 

.21853 

.367 

.26128 

.233 

.13899 

.278 

.17823 

.323 

.21947 

.368 

.26225 

.234 

.13984 

.279 

.17912 

.324 

.22040 

.369 

.26321 

.235 

.14069 

.280 

.18002 

.325 

.22134 

.370 

.26418 

.236 

.14154 

.281- 

.18092 

.326 

.22228 

.371 

.26514 

.237 

.14239 

.282 

.18182 

.327 

.22322 

.372 

.26611 

.238 

.14324 

.283 

.18272 

.328 

.22415 

.373 

.26708 

.239 

.14409 

.284 

.18362 

.329 

.22509 

.374 

.26805 

.240 

.14494 

.285 

.18452 

.330 

.22603 

.375 

.26901 

.241 

.  14580 

.286 

.18542 

.331 

.22697 

.376 

.26998 

.242 

.14665 

.287 

.18633 

.332 

.22792 

.377 

.27095 

.243 

.14752 

.288 

.18723 

.333 

.22886 

.378 

.27192 

.244 

.14837 

.289 

.18814 

.334 

.22980 

.379 

.27289 

.245 

.14923 

.290 

.18905 

.335 

.23074 

.380 

.27386 

[131 


AREAS  OF  CIRCULAR  SEGMENTS 
AREAS  OF  CIRCULAR  SEGMENTS — (Cont.) 


Height 

Area 

Height 

Area 

Height 

Area 

Height 

Area 

.381 

.27483 

.406 

.29926 

.431 

.32392 

.462 

.35474 

.382 

.27580 

.407 

.30024 

.432 

.32491 

.464 

.35673 

.383 

.27678 

.408 

.30122 

.433 

.32590 

.466 

.35873 

.384 

.27775 

.409 

.30220 

.434 

.32689 

.468 

.36072 

.385 

.27872 

.410 

.30319 

.435 

.32788 

.470 

.36272 

.386 

.27969 

.411 

.30417 

.436 

.32887 

.471 

.36371 

.387 

.28070 

.412 

.30516 

.437 

.32987 

.473 

.36571 

.388 

.28164 

.413 

.30614 

.438 

.33086 

.475 

.36771 

.389 

.28262 

.414 

.30712 

.439 

.33185 

.477 

.36971 

.390 

.28359 

.415 

.30811 

.440 

.33284 

.479 

.37170 

.391 

.28457 

.416 

.30910 

.441 

.33384 

.482 

.37470 

.392 

.28554 

.417 

.31008 

.442 

.33483 

.484 

.37670 

.393 

.28652 

.418 

.31107 

.443 

.33582 

.486 

.37870 

.394 

.28750 

.419 

.31205 

.444 

.33682 

.488 

.38070 

.395 

.28848 

.420 

.31304 

.445 

.33781 

.490 

.38270 

.396 

.28945 

.421 

.31403 

.446 

.33880 

.491 

.38370 

.397 

.29043 

.422 

.31502 

.447 

.33980 

.492 

.38470 

.398 

.29141 

.423 

.31600 

.448 

.34079 

.493 

.38570 

.399 

.29239 

.424 

.31699 

.449 

.34179 

.494 

.38670 

.400 

.29337 

.425 

.31798 

.450 

.34278 

.495 

.38770 

.401 

.29435 

.426 

.31897 

.451 

.34378 

.496 

.38870 

.402 

.29533 

.427 

.31996 

.453 

.34577 

.497 

.38970 

.403 

.29631 

.428 

.32095 

.455 

.34776 

.498 

.39070 

.404 

.29729 

.429 

.32194 

.457 

.34975 

.499 

.39170 

.405 

.29827 

.430 

.32293 

.459 

.35175 

.500 

.39270 

To  Find  the  Area  of  a  Ring  Included  Between  the  Circumferences  of  Two  Concen- 
tric Circles. — Rule  1.  The  difference  between  the  areas  of  two  circles  will  be  the  area 
of  the  ring. 

Or,  multiply  the  sum  of  the  diameters  by  their  difference,  and  by  .7854. 


Rule  2.  Multiply  half  the  sum  of  the  circumferences  by  half  the  difference  of  the 
diameter,  and  the  product  will  be  the  area. 

This  rule  will  also  serve  for  any  part  of  the  ring,  using  half  the  sum  of  the  inter- 
cepted arc  for  half  the  sum  of  the  circumference. 

[132] 


MENSURATION 

To  Find  the  Length  of  the  Whole  Arc  of  a  Cycloid. — Rule:    Multiply  the  diameter 
of  the  generating  circle  by  4. 


To  Find  the  Area  of  a  Cycloid. — Rule:  Multiply  the  area  of  the  generating  circle 
by  3. 

To  Find  the  Area  of  a  Parabola. — Rule:  Multiply  the  base  by  the  height;  two- 
thirds  of  the  product  is  the  area. 

To  Find  the  Length  of  an  Arc  of  a  Parabola,  cut  off  by  a  double  ordinate  to  the  axis. 
Rule:   To  the  square  of  the  ordinate  add  four- 
fifths  of  the  square  of   the  abscissa;   twice   the 
square  root  of  the  sum  is  the  length  nearly. 

NOTE. — This  rule  is  an  approximation  which 
applies  to  those  cases  only  in  which  the  abscissa 
does  not  exceed  half  the  ordinate. 

To  Find  the  Circumference  of  an  Ellipse. — 
Multiply  the  square  root  of  half  the  sum  of  the 
squares  of  the  two  axes  by  3.1416. 

To  Find  the  Area  of  an  Ellipse. — Multiply  the 
product  of  the  two  axes  by  .7854. 

NOTE. — The  area  of  an  ellipse  is  equal  to  the  area  of  a  circle  of  which  the  diameter 
is  a  mean  proportional  between  the  two  axes. 

To  Find  the  Area  of  an  Elliptic  Segment,  the  base  of  which  is  parallel  to  either  axis 
of  the  ellipse.  Rule:  Divide  the  height  of  the  segment  by  the  axis  of  which  it  is  a 
part,  and  find  the  area  of  a  circular  segment  as  given  in  the  table  relating  to  circular 


segments,  of  which  the  height  is  equal  to  this  quotient;    multiply  the  area  thus  found 
by  the  two  axes  of  the  ellipse  successively ;  the  product  is  the  area. 

To  Describe  an  Elliptic  Figure,  When  One  Diameter  A  B  is  given: 

Divide  A  B  into  four  equal  parts.  From  C  and  D,  with  radius  C  A,  or  D  B,  de- 
scribe circles  touching  each  other  in  E.  From  C  and  D,  with  radius  C  D,  describe  arcs 
cutting  each  other  in  F  G. 

Draw  lines  G  C,  G  D,  F  C,  F  D,  and  produce  them  until  they  cut  the  circles  in 
H  IJ  and  K. 

From  F  and  G,  with  radius  F  K  or  G  I,  draw  arcs  uniting  H  with  I  and  J  with  K, 
which  will  complete  the  figure. 

[133] 


MENSURATION 


To  Describe  an  Ellipse  with  Arcs  of  Three  Radii. — On  the  transverse  axis  A  B  draw 
the  rectangle  B  G,  on  the  height  O  C;  to  the  diagonal  AC  draw  the  perpendicular 
G  H  D;  set  off  O  K  equal  to  O  C,  and  describe  a  semi-circle  on  A  K,  and  produce  O  C 
to  L;  set  off  O  M  equal  to  C  L,  and  on  D  describe  an  arc  with  radius  DM;  on  A, 


with  radius  O  L,  cut  this  arc  at  a.     Thus  the  five  centers  D,  a,  6,  H,  H'  are  found,  from 
which  the  arcs  are  described  to  form  the  ellipse. 

NOTE. — This  process  works  well  for  nearly  all  proportions  of  ellipses.  It  is  em- 
ployed in  striking  out  vaults,  stone  bridges,  etc. 

To  Find  the  Length  of  an  Arc  of  a  Hyperbola,  beginning  at  the  vertex.     Rule  1. 
To  nineteen  times  the  transverse  axis  add  twenty-one  times  the  parameter  to  this  axis, 
and  multiply  the  sum  by  the  quotient  of  the  abscissa  divided 
by  the  transverse. 

2.  To  nine  times  the  transverse  add  twenty-one  times  the 
parameter,  and   multiply  the   sum   by   the   quotient  of  the 
abscissa  divided  by  the  transverse,. 

3.  To  each  of  these  products  add  fifteen  times   the   pa- 
rameter and  then,  as  the  latter  sum  :  is  to  the  former  sum  : :  so 
is  the  ordinate  :  to  the  length  of  the  arc,  nearly. 

To  Find  the  Area  of  a  Hyperbola. — Rule:  To  the  product 
of  the  transverse  and  abscissa  add  five-sevenths  of  the  square 
of  the  abscissa,  and  multiply  the  square  root  of  the  sum  by  21; 
to  this  product  add  four  times  the  square  root  of  the  product 
of  the  transverse  and  abscissa;  multiply  the  sum  by  four  times 
the  product  of  the  conjugate  and  abscissa,  and  divide  by  seventy-five  times  the  trans- 
verse. The  quotient  is  the  area  nearly. 

To  Find  the  Areas  of  Lunes,  or  the  spaces  between  the  intersecting  arcs  of  two 
eccentric  circles.  Rule:  Find  the  areas  of  the  two  segments  from  which  the  lune  is 
formed,  and  their  difference  will  be  the  area  required. 

NOTE. — A  lune  is  a  space  included  between  the  arcs  of  two  unequal  circles  inter- 


secting each  other  in  two  points,  and  having  their  centers  on  the  same  side  of  the  straight 
line  which  joins  these  points  of  intersection. 

The  lune  was  the  first  curvilinear  space  that  was  shown  to  be  exactly  equal  to  a 

[134] 


MENSURATION 


rectilinear  one,  and  this  was  first  effected  by  Hippocrates.     The  following  property  is 
one  of  the  most  curious: 

If  A  B  C  be  a  right-angled  triangle,  and  semicircles  be  described  on  the  three  sides 
as  diameters,  then  will  the  said  triangle  be  equal  to  the  two  lunes  D  and  F  taken  together. 
For  the  semicircles  described  on  A  C  and  B  C  =  the  one  described  on  A  B,  from  each 
take  the  segments  cut  off  by  A  C  and  B  C,  then  will  the  lune  A  F  C  E  and  B  D  C  G 
=  the  triangle  A  C  B. 

AREA  OF  AN  IRREGULAR  FIGURE 

The  area  of  an  irregular  figure,  as  D  E  C  B,  in  which  the  base  is  a  straight  line, 
and  the  perpendiculars  at  D  and  E  also  straight  lines,  the  line  B  C,  being  an  irregular 


I  i  i  fc 


line,  may  be  obtained  by  dividing  the  base  line  into  a  number  of  equal  parts  as  indi- 
cated by  full  lines,  and  erecting  an  ordinate  in  each  as  shown  by  .dotted  lines. 

The  length  of  each  ordinate  is  to  be  carefully  measured  and  all  are  added  together; 
the  sum  so  obtained  is  divided  by  the  number  of  ordinates;  the  quotient  is  the  mean 
height,  D  F.  Draw  F  G  parallel  to  D  E.  Produce  D  B  to  F,  and  E  C  to  G. 

The  parallelogram  D  E  F  G  is  equal  in  area  to  the  irregular  figure:  then  Area'  = 
Base  X  Height. 

Case  2.  A  Non-Symmetrical  Figure. — When  the  area  is  not  symmetrical  about  a 


line,  the  figure  should  be  enclosed  by  drawing  a  base  line  and  erecting  perpendiculars, 
each  touching  the  projecting  curves  at  that  side. 

Draw  A  B  parallel  to  C  D;  this  line  must  also  touch  the  highest  curve  at  the  top 
of  the  figure.  The  parallelogram  A  B  C  D  is  thus  formed  around  the  figure. 

The  base  C  D  is  to  be  divided  into  any  number  of  equal  parts,  and  in  the  center 
of  each  draw  ordinates,  efgh,  etc. 

Measure  the  ordinates,  add  them  together,  and  divide  the  sum  by  the  number  of 
ordinates,  the  quotient  will  be  the  equivalent  height  for  a  parallelogram  of  which'  the 
base  is  C  D. 

Simpson's  Rule. — Divide  the  base  line  A  B  into  a  number  of  equal  parts.  This 
ensures  that  the  number  of  ordinates  is  an  odd  number.  Draw  the  ordinates  from  the 
base  line  to  the  boundary  line. 

[135] 


TRIGONOMETRY 

Add  together  the  first  and  last  ordinates  and  call  the  sum  A. 

Add  together  the  even  ordinates  and  call  that  sum  B. 

Add  together  the  odd  ordinates,  except  the  first  and  last,  and  call  the  sum  C. 

Let  D  be  the  common  distance,  then 

A  +  4B  -f  2C  x  D 

=  Area  of  Figure. 

3 

Rule:  Add  together  the  extreme  ordinates,  four  times  the  sum  of  the  even  ordinates, 
and  twice  the  sum  of  the  odd  ordinates  (omitting  the  first  and  the  last).  Multiply  the 
result  by  one-third  the  common  interval  between  the  consecutive  ordinates. 


The  end  ordinates,  as  c  and  fc,  may  both  be  zero,  as  in  the  illustration,  the  curve 
commencing  from  the  base  line  A  B.  In  this  case  A  is  zero,  and  the  above  rule  expressed 
as  formula  becomes, 

Area  =  -  (O  +  4  B  =  2  C), 
o 

in  which  S  denotes  the  common  distance  or  space  between  the  ordinates. 


PLANE   TRIGONOMETRY 

The  circumference  of  a  circle  is  supposed  to  be  divided  into  360°  or  divisions,  and 
as  the  total  angularity  about  the  center  is  equal  to  four  right  angles,  each  right  angle 
contains  90  degrees,  or  90°,  and  half  a  right  angle  contains  45°.  Each  degree  is  divided 

into  60  minutes,  or  60';   and,  for  the  sake  of 

\still  further  minuteness  of  measurement,  each 
c«./,^«,/         minute  is  divided  into  60  seconds,  or  60".     In 

~~!         —  a  whole  circle  there  are,  therefore,  360  X  60  X 

60  =  1,296,000  seconds.  The  annexed  diagram 
exemplifies  the  relative  positions  of  the  sine, 
cosine,  versed  sine,  tangent,  cotangent,  secant, 
and  cosecant  of  an  angle.  It  may  be  stated, 
generally,  that  the  correlated  quantities,  name- 
ly, the  cosine,  cotangent,  and  cosecant  of  an 
angle,  are  the  sine,  tangent,  and  secant,  re- 
spectively, of  the  complement  of  the  given 

angle,  thecomplement  being  the  difference  between  the  given  angle  and  a  right  angle. 
The  supplement  of  an  angle  is  the  amount  by  which  it  is  less  than  two  right  angles. 

When  the  sines  and  cosines  of  angles  have  been  calculated  (by  means  of  formulas 
which  it  is  not  necessary  here  to  particularize)  the  tangents,  cotangents,  secants,  and 
cosecants  are  deduced  from  them  according  to  the  following  relations: 

rad2  rad2  rad2 


rad  X  sin 
tan  =  ;  cotan 


tan 


rad2 

sec  =  ;  cosec 

cos 


sin 


For  these  the  values  will  be  amplified  in  tabular  form. 

A  triangle  consists  of  three  sides  and  three  angles.     When  any  three  of  these  are 
given,  including  a  side,  the  other  three  may  be  found  by  calculation : 
Case  1. — When  a  side  and  its  opposite  angle  are  two  of  the  given  parts. 
Rule  1.   To  find  a  side,  work  the  following  proportion: 

as  the  sine  of  the  angle  opposite  the  given  side 

is  to  the  sine  of  the  angle  opposite  the  required  side, 

so  is  the  given  side 

to  the  required  side. 

[136] 


TRIGONOMETRY 

•  Rule  2.  To  find  an  angle: 

as  the  side  opposite  to  the  given  angle 
is  to  the  side  opposite  to  the  required  angle, 
so  is  the  sine  of  the  given  angle 
to  the  sine  of  the  required  angle. 

Rule  3.  In  a  right-angled  triangle,  when  the  angies  and  one  side  next  the  right  angle  are 
given,  to  find  the  other  side: 
as  radius 

is  to  the  tangent  of  the  angle  adjacent  to  the  given  side, 
so  is  this  side 
to  the  other  side. 

Case  2. — When  two  sides  and  the  included  angle  are  given. 
Rule  4.  To  find  the  other  side: 

as  the  sum  of  the  two  given  sides 
is  to  their  difference, 

so  is  the  tangent  of  half  the  sum  of  their  opposite  angles 
to  the  tangent  of  half  their  difference — 

add  this  half  difference  to  the  half  sum  to  find  the  greater  angle,  and  subtract  the 
half  difference  from  the  half  sum  to  find  the  less  angle.  The  other  side  may  then  be 
found  by  Rule  1. 

Rule  5.  When  the  sides  of  a  right-angled  triangle  are  given,  to  find  the  angles: 
as  one  side 
is  to  the  other  side, 
so  is  the  radius 

to  the  tangent  of  the  angle  adjacent  to  the  first  side. 
Case  3. — When  the  three  sides  are  given. 

Rule  6.  To  find  an  angle. — Subtract  the  sum  of  the  logarithms  of  the  sides-  which 
contain  the  required  angle  from  20,  and  to  the  remainder  add  the  logarithm  of  half  the 
sum  of  the  three  sides,  and  that  of  the  difference  between  this  half  sum  and  the  side 
opposite  to  the  required  angle.  Half  the  sum  of  these  three  logarithms  will  be  the 
logarithmic  cosine  of  half  the  required  angle.  The  other  angles  may  be  found  by 
Rule  1. 

Rule  7.  Subtract  the  sum  of  the  logarithms  of  the  two  sides  which  contain  the 
required  angle  from  20,  and  to  the  remainder  add  the  logarithms  of  the  differences 
between  these  two  sides  and  half  the  sum  of  the  three  sides.  Half  the  result  will  be 
the  logarithmic  sine  of  half  the  required  angle. 

NOTE. — In  all  ordinary  cases  either  of  these  rules  gives  sufficiently  accurate  results. 
It  is  recommended  that  Rule  6  should  be  used  when  the  required  angle  exceeds  90°; 
and  Rule  7  when  it  is  less  than  90°. 

TRIGONOMETRICAL   FORMULA 

The  diagram  shows  the  different  trigonometrical  expressions  in  terms  of  the  angle 
A.  In  the  following  formulae  Radius  =  1. 

Complement  of  an  angle  =  its  difference  from    90°. 
Supplement  of  an  angle  =  its  difference  from  180°. 

sin  = =  — -  =  V  (1  —  cos2) 

cosec       cot 

sin         1 

tan  =  —  = 

cos       cot 


sec  =  V  rad2  +  tan2  =  —  =  -7— 
cos       sin 

cos  =  V  (1  —  sin2)  =  -  -  =  sin  X  cot   = 

tan  sec 

cos         1  1 

cot  =  -r-  =  .  cosec  =  -r- 

sin       tan  sin 

[137] 


TRIGONOMETRY 

versin  =  rad  —  cos    coversin  =  rad  —  sin 
rad  =  tan  X  cot  =  V  sin2  +  cos2 

Solution  of  Right-Angled  Triangles. — 

hyp2  =  base2  +  perp2 
base2  =  (hyp  +  perp)  X  (hyp  -  perp) 
perp2  =  (hyp  +  base)  X  (hyp  -  base) 
A 


sin 


cos 


tana=A 

cosec  a  = — 
A 

seca=lf 


cot  a  =  —  - 

A. 

A 
cosb=- 


b  =  90°  -  a 
A  =  B  tan  a 
A  =  C  sin  a 


B  =  C  cos  a  =  A  cot  a  =  V  (C  +  A)  (C  -  A) 


C  = 


+  B2  = 


sin  a       cos  a 


Solution  of  Oblique-  Angled  Triangles.  —  Value  of  any  side  C  is: 


C  = 
C  = 


A  sin  c  _  B  sin  c  _  A 

sin  a          sin  b        cos  b  +  sin  b  cot  c 
B 


=  A  cos  b  +  A 


cos  a  -f-  sin  a  cot  c 
C  =  V  A2  +  B2  -  2  A  B  cos  c  =  B  cos  a  +  B  sin  a  cot  b 
Value  of  any  angle  a  is: 

A  sin  c      A  sin  b 


sui  a  = 


sin  (b  +  c) 


sin  a  =  sin  b  cos  c  -f  cos  b  sin  c. 
cos  a  =  sin  b  sin  c  —  cos  b  cos  c. 


cos  a 


tan  a 


C2  +  B2  -  A2 
2BC 

A  sin  c  A  sin  b 

B  —  A    cos    c  ~  C  —  A  cos  b 
[138] 


SINES,  COSINES,  TANGENTS,  ETC. 


SINES,  COSINES,  TANGENTS,  COTANGENTS,  SECANTS,  AND  COSECANTS 
OF  ANGLES  FROM   0°  TO  90° 

This  table  is  constructed  for  angles  of  from  0°  to  90°,  advancing  by  10',  or  one-sixth 
of  a  degree.  The  length  of  the  radius  is  equal  to  1,  and  forms  the  basis  for  the  relative 
lengths  given  in  the  table,  and  which  are  given  to  six  places  of  decimals.  Each  entry 
in  the  table  has  a  duplicate  significance,  being  the  sine,  tangent,  or  secant  of  one  angle, 
and  at  the  same  time  the  cosine,  cotangent,  or  cosecant  of  its  complement.  For  this 
reason,  and  for  the  sake  of  compactness,  the  headings  of  the  columns  are  reversed  at 
the  foot;  so  that  the  upper  headings  are  correct  for  the  angles  named  in  the  left-hand 
margin  of  the  table,  and  the  lower  headings  for  those  named  in  the  right-hand  margin. 

To  Find  the  Sine,  or  Other  Element,  to  Odd  Minutes. — Divide  the  difference  between 
the  sines,  etc.,  of  the  two  angles  greater  and  less  than  the  given  angle,  in  the  same 
proportion  that  the  given  angle  divides  the  difference  of  the  two  angles,  and  add  one 
of  the  parts  to  the  sine  next  it. 

By  an  inverse  process  the  angle  may  be  found  for  any  given  sine,  etc.,  not  found 
in  the  table. 


SINES,   COSINES,   TANGENTS,   COTANGENTS,   SECANTS  AND   COSECANTS   FOR  ANGLES 

0°  TO  90° 

Advancing  by  10'  or  one-sixth  of  a  Degree.     Radius  =  1 


Angle 

Sine 

Cosecant 

Tangent- 

Cotangent 

Secant 

Cosine 

0°  0' 

.000000 

Infinite 

.000000 

Infinite 

1.00000 

1.000000 

90°  0' 

10 

.002909 

343.77516 

.002909 

343.77371 

1.00000 

.999996 

50 

20 

.005818 

171.88831 

.005818 

171.88540 

1.00002 

.999983 

40 

30 

.008727 

114.59301 

.008727 

114.58865 

1.00004 

.999962 

30 

40 

.011635 

85.945609 

.011636 

85.939791 

1.00007 

.999932 

20 

50 

.014544 

68.757360 

.014545 

68.750087 

1.00011 

.999894 

10 

1°  0' 

.017452 

57.298688 

.017455 

57.289962 

.00015 

.999848 

89°  0' 

10 

.020361 

49.114062 

.020365 

49.103881 

.00021 

.999793 

50 

20 

.023269 

42.975713 

.023275 

42.964077 

.00027 

.999729 

40 

30 

.026177 

38.201550 

.026186 

38.188459 

.00034 

.999657 

30 

40 

.029085 

34.382316 

.029097 

34.367771 

.00042 

.999577 

20 

50 

.031992 

31.257577 

.032009 

31.241577 

.00051 

.999488 

10 

2°  0' 

.034899 

28.653708 

.034921 

28.636253 

.00061 

.999391 

88°  V 

10 

.037806 

26.450510 

.037834 

26.431600 

.00072 

.999285 

50 

20 

.040713 

24.562123 

.040747 

24.541758 

1.00083 

.999171 

40 

30 

.043619 

22.925586 

.043661 

22.903766 

1.00095 

.999048 

30 

40 

.046525 

21.493676 

.046576 

21.470401 

1.00108 

.998917 

'20 

50 

.049431 

20.230284 

.049491 

20.205553 

1.00122 

.998778 

10 

3°  0' 

.052336 

19.107323 

.052408 

19.081137 

1.00137 

.998630 

87°  0', 

10 

.055241 

18.102619 

.055325 

18.074977 

1.00153 

.998473 

50 

20 

.058145 

17.198434 

.058243 

17.169337 

1.00169 

.998308 

40 

30 

.061049 

16.380408 

.061163 

16.349855 

1.00187 

.998135 

30 

40 

.063952 

15.636793 

.064083 

15.604784 

1.00205 

.997857 

20 

50 

.066854 

14.957882 

.067004 

14.924417 

1.00224 

.997763 

10 

Cosine 

Secant 

Cotangent 

Tangent 

Cosecant 

Sine 

Angle 

[139] 


SINES,  COSINES,   TANGENTS,   ETC. 


SINES,  COSINES,  TANGENTS,  ETC. — (Cont.) 


Angle 

Sine 

Cosecant 

Tangent 

Cotangent 

Secant 

Cosine 

4°  0' 

.069756 

14.335587 

.069927 

14.300666 

1.00244 

.997564 

86°  0' 

10 

.072658 

13.763115 

.072851 

13.726738 

1.00265 

.997357 

50 

20 

.075559 

13.234717 

.075776 

13  .  196888 

1.00287 

.997141 

40 

30 

.078459 

12.745495 

.078702 

12.706205 

1.00309 

.996917 

30 

40 

.081359 

12.291252 

.081629 

12.2505505 

1.00333 

.  996685 

20 

50 

.084258 

11.868370 

.084558 

11.826167 

1.00357 

.996444 

10 

5°  0' 

.087156 

11.473713 

.087489 

11.430052 

1.00382 

.996195 

85°  0' 

10 

.090053 

11.104549 

.090421 

11.059431 

1.00408 

.995937 

50 

20 

.092950 

10.758488 

.093354 

•10.711913 

1.00435 

.995671 

40 

30 

.095846 

10.433431 

.096289 

10.385397 

1.00463 

.995396 

30 

40 

.098741 

10.127522 

.099226 

10.078031 

1.00491 

.995113 

20 

50 

.101635 

9.8391227 

.  102164 

9.7881732 

1.00521 

.994822 

10 

6°  0' 

.  104528 

9.5667722 

.  105104 

9.5143645 

1.00551 

.994522 

84°  0' 

10 

.  107421 

9.3091699 

.  108046 

9.2553035 

1.00582 

.994214 

50 

20 

.110313 

9.0651512 

.110990 

9.0098261 

1.00614 

.993897 

40 

30 

.113203 

8.8336715 

.113936 

8.7768874 

1.00647 

.993572 

30 

40 

.116093 

8.6137901 

.116883 

8.5555468 

1.00681 

.993238 

20 

50 

.118982 

8.4045586 

.119833 

8.3449558 

1.00715 

.992896 

10 

7°  0' 

.  121869 

8.2055090 

.  122785 

8.1443464 

1.00751 

.992546 

83°  0' 

10 

.  124756 

8.0156450 

.125738 

7.9530224 

1.00787 

.992187 

50 

20 

.127642 

7.8344335 

.  128694 

7.7703506 

1.00825 

.991820 

40 

30 

.  130526 

7.6612976 

.  131653 

7.5957541 

1.00863 

.991445 

30 

40 

.133410 

7.4957100 

.  134613 

7.4287064 

1.00902 

.991061 

20 

50 

.  136292 

7.3371909 

.137576 

7.2687255 

1.00942 

.990669 

10 

8°  0' 

.  139173 

7.1852965 

.  140541 

7.1153697 

1.00983 

.990268 

82°  0' 

10 

.142053 

7.0396220 

.  143508 

6.9682335 

1.01024 

.989859 

50 

20 

.  144932 

6.8997942 

.  146478 

6.8269437 

1.01067 

.989442 

40 

30 

.147809 

6.7654691 

.  149451 

6.6911562 

1.01111 

.989016 

30 

40 

.150686 

6.6363293 

.  152426 

6.5605538 

1.01155 

.988582 

20 

50 

.153561 

6.5120812 

.  155404 

6.4348428 

1.01200 

.988139 

10 

9°  0' 

.156434 

6.3924532 

.  158384 

6.3137515 

1.01247 

.987688 

81°  0' 

10 

.  159307 

6.2771933 

.  161368 

6.1970279 

1.01294 

.987229 

50 

20 

.  162178 

6.1660674 

.  164354 

6.0844381 

1.01332 

.986762 

40 

30 

.  165048 

6.0588980 

.  167343 

5.9757644 

1.01391 

.986286 

30 

40 

.  167916 

5.9553625 

.  170334 

5.8708042 

1.01440- 

.985801 

20 

50 

.170783 

5.8553921 

.  173329 

5.7693688 

1.01491 

.985309 

10 

10°  0' 

.173648 

5.7587705 

.  176327 

5.6712818 

1.01543 

.984808 

80°  0' 

10 

.176512 

5.6653331 

.  179328 

5.5763786 

1.01595 

.984298 

50 

20 

.  179375 

5.5749258 

.182332 

5.4845052 

1.01649 

.983781 

40 

30 

.182236 

5.4874043 

.  185339 

5.3955172 

1.01703 

.983255 

30 

40 

.  185095 

5.4026333 

.  188359 

5.3092793 

1.01758 

.982721 

20 

50 

.187953 

5.3204860 

.191363 

5.2256647 

1.01815 

.982178 

10 

Cosine 

Secant 

Cotangent 

Tangent 

Cosecant 

Sine 

Angle 

140] 


SINES,   COSINES,   TANGENTS,   ETC. 


SINES,  COSINES,  TANGENTS,  ETC. — (Cont.) 


Angle 

Sine 

Cosecant 

Tangent 

Cotangent 

Secant 

Cosine 

11°  0' 

.  190809 

5.2408431 

.  194380 

5.1445540 

.01872 

.981627 

79°  0' 

10 

.  193664 

5.1635924 

.  197401 

5.0658352 

.01930 

.981068 

50 

20 

.196517 

5.0886284 

.200425 

4.9894027 

.01989 

.980500 

40 

30 

.  199368 

5.0158317 

.203452 

4.9151570 

.02049 

.979925 

30 

40 

.202218 

4.9451687 

.206483 

4.8430045 

.02110 

.979341 

20 

50 

.205065 

4.8764907 

.209518 

4.7728568 

.02171 

.978748 

10 

12°  0' 

.207912 

4.8097343 

.212557 

4.7046301 

.02234 

.978148 

78°  0' 

10 

.210756 

4.7448206 

.215599 

4.6382457 

.02298 

.977539 

50 

20 

.213599 

4.6816748 

.218645 

4.5736287 

.02362 

.976921 

40 

30 

.216440 

4.6202263 

.221695 

4.5107085 

.02428 

.976296 

30 

40 

.219279 

4.5604080 

.224748 

4.4494181 

.02494 

.975662 

20 

50 

.222116 

4.5021565 

.227806 

4.3896940 

.02562 

.975020 

10 

13°  0' 

.224951 

4.4454115 

.230868 

4.3314759 

.02630 

.974370 

77°  0' 

10 

.227784 

4.3901158 

.233934 

4.2747066 

.02700 

.973712 

50 

20 

.230616 

4.3362150 

.237004 

4.2193318 

.02770 

.973045 

40 

30 

.233445 

4.2836576 

.240079 

4.1652998 

.02842 

.972370 

30 

40 

.236273 

4.2323943 

.243158 

4.1125614 

.02914 

.971687 

20 

50 

.239098 

4.1823785 

.246241 

4.0610700 

.02987 

.970995 

10 

14°  0' 

.241922 

4.1335655 

.249328 

4.0107809 

1.03061 

.970296 

76°  0' 

10 

.244743 

4.0859130 

.252420 

3.9616518 

1.03137 

.969588 

50 

20 

.247563 

4.0393804 

.255517 

3.9136420 

1.03213 

.968872 

40 

30 

.250380 

3.9939292 

.258618 

3.8667131 

1.03290 

.  968148 

30 

40 

.253195 

3.9495224 

.261723 

3.8208281 

1.03363 

.967415 

20 

50 

.256008 

3.9061250 

.264834 

3.7759519 

1.03447 

.966675 

10 

15°  0' 

.258819 

3.8637033 

.267949 

3.7320508 

1.03528 

.965926 

75°  0' 

10 

.261628 

3.8222251 

.271069 

3.6890927 

1.03609 

.965169 

50 

20 

.264434 

3.7816596 

.274195 

3.6470467 

1.03691 

.964404 

40 

30 

.267238 

3.7419775 

.277325 

3.6058835 

1.03774 

.  963630 

30 

40 

.270040 

3.7031506 

.280460 

3.5655749 

1.03858 

.962849 

20 

50 

.272840 

3.6651518 

.283600 

3.5260938 

1.03944 

.962059 

10 

16°  0' 

.275637 

3.6279553 

.286745 

3.4874144 

.04030 

.961262 

74°  0' 

10 

.278432 

3  .  5915363 

.289896 

3.4495120 

.04117 

.960456 

50 

20 

.281225 

3.5558710 

.293052 

3.4123626 

.04206 

.959642 

40 

30 

.284015 

3  .  5209365 

.296214 

3.3759434 

.04295 

.958820 

30 

40 

.286803 

3.4867110 

.299380 

3.3402326 

.04385 

.957990 

20 

50 

.289589 

3.4531735 

.302553 

3.3052091 

.04477 

.957151 

10 

17°  0' 

.292372 

3.4203036 

.305731 

3.2708526 

.04569 

.956305 

73°  0' 

10 

.295152 

3.3880820 

.308914 

3.2371438 

.04663 

.955450 

50 

20 

.297930 

3.3564900 

.312104 

3.2040638 

.04757 

.954588 

40 

30 

.300706 

3.3255095 

.315299 

3.1715948 

1.04853 

.953717 

30 

40 

.303479 

3.2951234 

.318500 

3.1397194 

1.04950 

.952838 

20 

50 

.306249 

3.2653149 

.321707 

3.1084210 

1.05047 

.951951 

10 

Cosine 

Secant 

Cotangent 

Tangent 

Cosecant 

Sine 

Angle 

141 


SINES,  COSINES,  TANGENTS,  ETC. 


SINES,  COSINES,  TANGENTS,  ETC. — (Cont.) 


Angle 

Sine 

Cosecant 

Tangent 

Cotangent 

Secant 

Cosine 

18°  0' 

.309017 

3.2360680 

.324920 

3.0776835 

1.05146 

.951057 

72°  0' 

10 

.311782 

3.2073673 

.328139 

3.0474915 

1.05246 

.950154 

50 

20 

.314545 

3.1791978 

.331364 

3.0178301 

1.05347 

.949243 

40 

30 

.317305 

3.1515453 

.334595 

2.9886850 

1.05449 

.948324 

30 

40 

.320062 

3.1243959 

.337833 

2.9600422 

1.05552 

.947397 

20 

50 

.322816 

3.0977363 

.341077 

2.9318885 

1.05657 

.946462 

10 

19°  0' 

.325568 

3.0715535 

.344328 

2.9042109 

1.05762 

.945519 

71°  0' 

10 

.328317 

3.0458352 

.347585 

2.8769970 

1.05869 

.944568 

50 

20 

.331063 

3.0205693 

.350848 

2.8502349 

1.05976 

.943609 

40 

30 

.333807 

2.9957443 

.354119 

2.8239129 

1.06085 

.942641 

30 

40 

.336547 

2.9713490 

.357396 

2.7980198 

1.06195 

.941666 

20 

50 

.339285 

2.9473724 

.360680 

2.7725448 

1.06306 

.940684 

10 

20°  0' 

.342020 

2.9238044 

.363970 

2.7474774 

1.06418 

.939693 

70°  0' 

10 

.344752 

2.9006346 

.367268 

2.7228076 

.06531 

.938694 

50 

20 

.347481 

2.8778532 

.370573 

2.6985254 

.06645 

.937687 

40 

30 

.350207 

2.8554510 

.373885 

2.6746215 

.06761 

.936672 

30 

40 

.352931 

2.8334185 

.377204 

2.6510867 

.06878 

.935650 

20 

50 

.355651 

2.8117471 

.380530 

2.6279121 

.06995 

.934619 

10 

21°  0' 

.358368 

2.7904281 

.383864 

2.6050891 

.07115 

.933580 

69°  0' 

10 

.361082 

2.7694532 

.387205 

2.5826094 

.07235 

.932534 

50 

20 

.363793 

2.7488144 

.390554 

2.5604649 

.07356 

.931480 

40 

30 

.366501 

2.7285038 

.393911 

2.5386479 

.07479 

.930418 

30 

40 

.369206 

2.7085139 

.397275 

2.5171507 

.07602 

.929348 

20 

50 

.371908 

2.6888374 

.400647 

2.4959661 

.07727 

.928270 

10 

22°  0' 

.374607 

2.6694672 

.404026 

2.4750869 

.07853 

.927184 

68°  0' 

10 

.377302 

2.6503962 

.407414 

2.4545061 

.07981 

.926090 

50 

20 

.379994 

2.6316180 

.410810 

2.4342172 

.08109 

.924989 

40 

30 

.382683 

2.6131259 

.414214 

2.4142136 

.08239 

.923880 

30 

40 

.385369 

2.5949137 

.417626 

2/3944889 

.08370 

.922762 

20 

50 

.388052 

2.5769753 

.421046 

2.3750372 

.08503 

.921638 

10 

23°  0' 

.390731 

2.5593047 

.424475 

2.3558524 

.08636 

.920505 

67°  0' 

10 

.393407 

2.5418961 

.427912 

2.3369287 

.08771 

.919364 

50 

20 

.396080 

2.5247440 

.431358 

2.3182606 

.08907 

.918216 

40 

30 

.398749 

2.5078428 

.434812 

2.2998425 

.09044 

.917060 

30 

40 

.401415 

2.4911874 

.438276 

2.2816693 

.09183 

.915896 

20 

50 

.404078 

2.4747726 

.441748 

2.2637357 

.09323 

.914725 

10 

24°  O7 

.406737 

2.4585933 

.445229 

2.2460368 

1.09464 

.913545 

66°  0' 

10 

.409392 

2.4426448 

.448719 

2.2285676 

1.09606 

.912358 

50 

20 

.412045 

2.4269222 

.452218 

2.2113234 

1.09750 

.911164 

40 

30 

.414693 

2.4114210 

.455726 

2.1942997 

1.09895 

.909961 

30 

40 

.417338 

2.3961367 

.459244 

2.1774920 

1  .  10041 

.908751 

20 

50 

.419980 

2.3810650 

.462771 

2.1608958 

1  .  10189 

.907533 

10 

Cosine 

Secant 

Cotangent 

Tangent 

Cosecant 

Sine 

Angle 

142] 


SINES,  COSINES,  TANGENTS,  ETC. 


SINES,  COSINES,  TANGENTS,  ETC. — (Cont.) 


Angle 

Sine 

Cosecant 

Tangent 

Cotangent 

Secant 

Cosine 

25°  0' 

.422618 

2.3662016 

.466308 

2.1445069 

1  .  10338 

.906308 

65°  0' 

10 

.425253 

2.3515424 

.469854 

2.1283213 

1.10488 

.905075 

50 

20 

.427884 

2.3370833 

.473410 

2.1123348 

1.10640 

.903834 

40 

30 

.430511 

2.3228205 

.476976 

2.0965436 

1.10793 

.902585 

30 

40 

.433135 

2.3087501 

.480551 

2.0809438 

1.10947 

.901329 

20 

50 

.435755 

2.2948685 

.484137 

2.0655318 

1.11103 

.900065 

10 

26°  0' 

.438371 

2.2811720 

.487733 

2.0503038 

1.11260 

.898794 

64°  0' 

10 

.440984 

2.2676571 

.491339 

2.0352565 

1.11419 

.897515 

50 

20 

.443593 

2.2543204 

.494955 

2.0203862 

1.11579 

.896229 

40 

30 

.446198 

2.2411585 

.498582 

2.0056897 

1.11740 

.894934 

30 

40 

.448799 

2.2281681 

.502219 

.9911637 

1.11903 

.893633 

20 

50 

.451397 

2.2153460 

.505867 

.9768050 

1.12067 

.892323 

10 

27°  0' 

.453990 

2.2026893 

.509525 

.9626105 

1.12233 

.891007 

63°  0' 

10 

.456580 

2.1901947 

.513195 

.9485772 

1.12400 

.889682 

50 

20 

.459166 

2.1778595 

.516876 

.9347020 

1.12568 

.888350 

40 

30 

.461749 

2.1656806 

.520567 

1.9209821 

1  .  12738 

.887011 

30 

40 

.464327 

2.1536553 

.524270 

1.9074147 

1.12910 

.885664 

20 

50 

.466901 

2.1417808 

.527984 

1.8939971 

1.13083 

.884309 

10 

28°  0' 

.469472 

2.1300545 

.531709 

1.8807265 

1.13257 

.882948 

62°  0' 

10 

.472038 

2.1184737 

.535547 

1.8676003 

1.13433 

.881578 

50 

20 

.474600 

2.1070359 

.539195 

1.8546159 

1  .  13610 

.880201 

40 

30 

.477159 

2.0957385 

.542956 

1.8417409 

1.13789 

.878817 

30 

40 

.479713 

2.0845792 

.546728 

1.8290628 

1.13970 

.877425 

20 

50 

.482263 

2.0735556 

.550515 

1.8164892 

1  .  14152 

.876026 

10 

29°  0' 

.484810 

2.0626653 

.554309 

1.8040478 

1  .  14335 

.874620 

61°  0' 

10 

.487352 

2.0519061 

.558118 

1.7917362 

1.14521 

.873206 

50 

20 

.489890 

2.0412757 

.561939 

1.7795524 

1.14707 

.871784 

40 

30 

.492424 

2.0307720 

.565773 

1.7674940 

1  .  14896 

.870356 

30 

40 

.494953 

2.0203929 

.569619 

1.7555590 

1.15085 

.868920 

20 

50 

.497479 

2.0101362 

.573478 

1.7437453 

1.15277 

.867476 

10 

30°  0' 

.500000 

2.0000000 

.577350 

1.7320508 

1.15470 

.866025 

60°  0' 

10 

.502517 

1.9899822 

.581235 

1.7204736 

1  .  15665 

.864567 

50 

20 

.505030 

1.9800810 

.585134 

1.7090116 

1  .  15861 

.863102 

40 

30 

.507538 

1.9702944 

.589045 

1.6976631 

.  16059 

.861629 

30 

40 

.510043 

1.9606206 

.592970 

1.6864261 

.  16259 

.860149 

20 

50 

.512543 

1.9510577 

.596908 

1.6752988 

.  16460 

.858662 

10 

31°  0' 

.515038 

1.9416040 

.600861 

1.6642795 

.16663 

.857167 

59°  0' 

10 

.517529 

1.9322578 

.604827 

1.6533663 

.16868 

.855665 

50 

20 

.520016 

1.9230173 

.608807 

1.6425576 

.  17075 

.854156 

40 

30 

.522499 

1.9138809 

.612801 

1.6318517 

.  17283 

.852640 

30 

40 

.524977 

1.9048469 

.616809 

1.6212469 

.  17493 

.851117 

20 

50 

.527450 

1.8959138 

.620832 

1.6107417 

.  17704 

.849586 

10 

Cosine 

Secant 

Cotangent 

Tangent 

Cosecant 

Sine 

Angle 

143 n 


SINES,  COSINES,  TANGENTS,  ETC. 


SINES,  COSINES,  TANGENTS,  ETC. — (Cont.) 


Angle 

Sine 

Cosecant 

Tangent 

Cotangent 

Secant 

Cosine 

32°  0' 

.529919 

1.8870799 

.624869 

1.6003345 

1  .  17918 

.848048 

58°  0' 

10 

.532384 

1.8783438 

.628921 

1.5900238 

1.18133 

.846503 

50 

20 

.534844 

1.8697040 

.632988 

1.5798079 

1.18350 

.844951 

40 

30 

.537300 

1.8611590 

.637079 

1.5696856 

1  .  18569 

.843391 

30 

40 

.  539751 

1.8527073 

.641167 

1.5596552 

1  .  18790 

.841825 

20 

50 

.542197 

1.8443476 

.645280 

1.5497155 

1  .  19012 

.840251 

10 

33°  0' 

.544639 

1.8360785 

.649408 

.  5398650 

1  .  19236. 

.838671 

57°  0' 

10 

.547076 

1.8278985 

.653531 

.5301025 

1  .  19463 

.837083 

50 

20 

.549509 

1.8198065 

.657710 

.5204261 

1  .  19691 

.835488 

40 

30 

.551937 

1.8118010 

.661886 

.5108352 

1  .  19920 

.833886 

30 

40 

.554360 

1.8038809 

.666077 

.5013282 

1.20152 

.832277 

20 

50 

.556779 

1.7960449 

.670285 

.4919039 

1.20386 

.830661 

10 

34°  0' 

.559193 

1.7882916 

.674509 

.4825610 

.20622 

.829038 

56°  0' 

10 

.561602 

1.7806201 

.678749 

.4732983 

.20859 

.827407 

50 

20 

.564007 

1.7730290 

.683007 

.4641147 

.21099 

.825770 

40 

30 

.566406 

1.7655173 

.687281 

.4550090 

.21341 

.824126 

30 

40 

.568801 

1.7580837 

.691573 

.4459801 

.21584 

.822475 

20 

50 

.571191 

1.7507273 

.695881 

.4370268 

.21830 

.820817 

10 

35°  0' 

.573576 

1.7434468 

.700208 

.4281480 

.22077 

.819152 

55°  0' 

10 

.575957 

1.7362413 

.  704552 

.4193427 

.22327 

.817480 

50 

20 

.578332 

1.7291096 

.708913 

.4106098 

1.22579 

.815801 

40 

30 

.580703 

1.7220508 

.713293 

.4019483 

1.22833 

.814116 

30 

40 

.583069 

1.7150639 

.717691 

.3933571 

1.23089 

.812423 

20 

50 

.585429 

1.7081478 

.722108 

.3848355 

1.23347 

.810723 

10 

36°  0' 

.587785 

.7013016 

.726543 

.3763810 

1.23607 

.809017 

54°  0' 

10 

.590136 

.6945244 

.730996 

.3679959 

1.23869 

.807304 

50 

20 

.592482 

.6878151 

.735469 

.3596764 

1.24134 

.805584 

40 

30 

.594823 

.6811730 

.739961 

.3514224 

1.24400 

.803857 

30 

40 

.597159 

.6745970 

.744472 

.3432331 

1.24669 

.802123 

20 

50 

.599489 

.6680864 

.749003 

.3351075 

1.24940 

.800383 

10 

37°  0' 

.601815 

.6616401 

.753554 

.3270448 

1.25214 

.798636 

53°  0' 

10 

.604136 

.6552575 

.758125 

.3190441 

1.25489 

.796882 

50 

20 

.606451 

.6489376 

.762716 

.3111046 

1  .  25767 

.795121 

40 

30 

.608761 

.6426796 

.767627 

.3032254 

1.26047 

.793353 

30 

40 

.611067 

.6364828 

.771959 

.2954057 

1.26330 

.791579 

20 

50 

.613367 

.6303462 

.776612 

.2876447 

1.26615 

.789798 

10 

38°  0' 

.615661 

1.6242692 

.781286 

.2799416 

1.26902 

.788011 

52°  0' 

10 

.617951 

1.6182510 

.785981 

.2722957 

1.27191 

.786217 

50 

20 

.620235 

1.6122908 

.790698 

.2647062 

1.27483 

.784416 

40 

30 

.622515 

1.6063879 

.795436 

.2571723 

1.27778 

.782608 

30 

40 

.624789 

1.6005416 

.800196 

.2496933 

1.28075 

.780794 

20 

50 

.627057 

1.5947511 

.804080 

.2422685 

1.28374 

.778973 

10 

Cosine 

Secant 

Cotangent 

Tangent 

Cosecant 

Sine 

Angle 

[144] 


SINES,  COSINES,  TANGENTS,  ETC. 


SINES,  COSINES,  TANGENTS,  ETC. — (Cont.) 


Angle 

Sine 

Cosecant 

Tangent 

Cotangent 

Secant 

Cosine 

39°  0' 

.629320 

1.5890157 

.809784 

1.2348972 

.28676 

.777146 

51°  0' 

10 

.631578 

1.5833318 

.814612 

1.2275786 

.28980 

.775312 

50 

20 

.633831 

1.5777077 

.819463 

1.2203121 

.29287 

.773472 

40 

30 

.636078 

1.5721337 

.824336 

1.2130970 

.29597 

.771625 

30 

40 

.638320 

1.5666121 

.829234 

1.2059327 

.29909 

.769771 

20 

50 

.640557 

1.5611424 

.834155 

1.1988184 

.30223 

.767911 

10 

40°  0' 

.642788 

1.5557238 

.839100 

1  .  1917536 

1.30541 

.766044 

50°  0' 

10 

.645013 

1.5503558 

.844069 

1.1847376 

1.30861 

.764171 

50 

20 

.647233 

1.5450378 

.849062 

1.1777698 

1.31183 

.762292 

40 

30 

.649448 

1.5397690 

.854081 

1  .  1708496 

1.31509 

.760406 

30 

40 

.651657 

1.5345491 

.859124 

1.1639763 

1.31837 

.758514 

20 

50 

.653861 

1.5293773 

.864193 

1.1571495 

1.32168 

.756615 

10 

41°  0' 

.656059 

1.5242531 

.869287 

.1503684 

1  .  32501 

.754710 

49°  0' 

10 

.658252 

1.5191759 

.874407 

.  1436326 

1.32838 

.752798 

50 

20 

.660439 

1.5141452 

.879553 

.  1369414 

1.33177 

.750880 

40 

30 

.662620 

1.5091605 

.884725 

.  1302944 

.33519 

.748956 

30 

40 

.664796 

1.5042211 

.889924 

.  1236909 

.33864 

.747025 

20 

50 

.666966 

1.4993267 

.895151 

.1171305 

.34212 

.745088 

10 

42°  0' 

.669131 

1.4944765 

.900404 

1.1106125 

.34563 

.743145 

48°  0' 

10 

.671289 

1.4896703 

.905685 

1  .  1041365 

.34917 

.741195 

50 

20 

.673443 

1.4849073 

.910994 

1.0977020 

1.35274 

.739239 

40 

30 

.675590 

1.4801872 

.916331 

1.0913085 

1.35634 

.737277 

30 

40 

.677732 

1.4755095 

.921697 

1.0849554 

1.35997 

.735309 

20 

50 

.679868 

1.4708736 

.927091 

1.0786423 

1.36363 

.733335 

10 

43°  0' 

.681998 

.4662792 

.932515 

.0723687 

1.36733 

.731354 

47°  0' 

10 

.684123 

.4617257 

.937968 

.0661341 

.37105 

.729367 

50 

20 

.686242 

.4572127 

.943451 

.0599381 

.37481 

.727374 

40 

30 

.688355 

.4527397 

.948965 

.0537801 

.37860 

.725374 

30 

40 

.690462 

.4483063 

.954508 

.0476598 

.38242 

.723369 

20 

50 

.692563 

1.4439120 

.960083 

.0415767 

.38628 

.721357 

10 

44°  0' 

.694658 

1.4395565 

.965689 

1.0355303 

.39016 

.719340 

46°  0' 

10 

.696748 

1.4352393 

.971326 

1.0295203 

.39409 

.717316 

50 

20 

.698832 

1.4309602 

.976996 

1.0235461 

1.39804 

.715286 

40 

30 

.700909 

1.4267182 

.982697 

1.0176074 

1.40203 

.713251 

30 

40 

.702981 

1.4225134 

.988432 

1.0117088 

1.40606 

.711209 

20 

50 

.705047 

1.4183454 

.994199 

1.0058348 

1.41012 

.709161 

10 

45°  0' 

.707107 

1.4142136 

1.000000 

1.0000000 

1.41421 

.707107 

45°  -0' 

Cosine 

Secant 

Cotangent 

Tangent 

Cosecant 

Sine 

Angle 

[145] 


LOGARITHMIC  SINES,  COSINES,  TANGENTS,  ETC. 


LOGARITHMIC  SINES,  COSINES,  TANGENTS,  AND   COTANGENTS   OF 
ANGLES  FROM   0°   TO  90° 

-This  table  is  constructed  similarly  to  the  table  of  natural  sines,  etc.,  preceding. 
To  avoid  the  use  of  logarithms  with  negative  indices,  the  radius  is  assumed,  instead  of 
being  equal  to  1,  to  be  equal  to  1010,  or  10,000,000,000;  consequently,  the  logarithm  of 
the  radius  =  10  log  10  =  10.  Whence,  if  to  log  sine  of  any  angle,  when  calculated  for 
a  radius  =  1,  there  be  added  10,  the  sum  will  be  the  log  sine  of  that  angle  for  a  radius 
=  1010. 

For  example,  to  find  the  logarithmic  sine  of  the  angle  15°  50': 
Nat.  sine  15°  50'  =  .272840;  its  log  =    1.435908 

add  =  10 


Logarithmic  sine  of  15°  50'          =    9.435908 

When  the  logarithmic  sines  and  cosines  have  been  found  in  this  manner,  the  loga- 
rithmic tangents,  cotangents,  secants,  and  cosecants  are  found  from  those  by  addition 
or  subtraction,  according  to  the  correlations  of  the  trigonometrical  elements  already 
given,  and  here  repeated  in  logarithmic  form: 

log  tan =  10  +  log  sin  —  log  cosin 

log  cotan =  20  —  log  tan 

log  sec =20  —  log  cosin 

log  cosec =  20  —  log  sin 

To  Find  the  Logarithmic  Sine,  Tangent,  etc.,  of  Any  Angle. — When  the  number  of 
degrees  is  less  than  45°,  find  the  degrees  and  minutes  in  the  left-hand  column  headed 
angle,  and  under  the  heading  sine  or  tangent,  etc.,  as  required,  the  logarithm  is  found 
in  a  line  with  the  angle. 

When  the  number  of  degrees  is  above  45°,  and  less  than  90°,  find  the  degrees  and 
minutes  in  the  right-hand  column  headed  angle,  and  in  the  same  line,  above  the  title 
at  the  foot  of  the  page,  sine  or  tangent,  etc.,  find  the  logarithm  in  a  line  with  the  angle. 

When  the  number  of  degrees  is  between  90°  and  180°,  take  their  supplement  to 
180°;  when  between  180°  and  270°,  diminish  them  by  180°;  and  when  between  270° 
and  360°,  take  their  complement  to  360°,  and  find  the  logarithm  of  the  remainder  as 
before. 

If  the  exact  number  of  minutes  is  not  found  in  the  table,  the  logarithm  of  the  nearest 
tabular  angle  is  to  be  taken  and  increased  or  diminished,  as  the  case  may  be,  by  the 
due  proportion  of  the  difference  of  the  logarithms  of  the  angles  greater  and  less  than 
the  given  angle. 


[146] 


LOGARITHMIC  SINES,  COSINES,  TANGENTS,  ETC. 


LOGARITHMIC  SINES,  COSINES,  TANGENTS,  AND  COTANGENTS  OF  ANGLES  FROM  0°  TO  90° 
Advancing  by  10',  or  one-sixth  of  a  Degree 


Angle 

Sine 

Tangent 

Cotangent 

Cosine 

0° 

0.000000 

0.000000 

Infinite 

10.000000 

90° 

10' 

7.463726 

7.463727 

12.536273 

9.999998 

50' 

20 

7.764754 

7.764761 

12.235239 

9.999993 

40 

30 

7.940842 

7.940858 

12.059142 

9.999983 

30 

40 

8.065776 

8.065806 

11.934194 

9.999971 

20 

50 

8.162681 

8.162727 

11.837273 

9.999954 

10 

1° 

8.241855 

8.241921 

11.758079 

9.999934 

89° 

10' 

8.308794 

8.308884 

11.691116 

9.999910 

50' 

20 

8.366777 

8.366895 

11.633105 

9.999882 

40 

30 

8.417919 

8.418068 

11.581932 

9.999851 

30 

40 

8.463665 

8.463849 

11.536151 

9.999816 

20 

50 

8.505045 

8.505267 

11.494733 

9.999778 

10 

2° 

8.542819 

8.543084 

11.456916 

9.999735 

88° 

10' 

8.577566 

8.577877 

11.422123 

9.999689 

50' 

20 

8.609734 

8.610094 

11.389906 

9.999640 

40 

30 

8.639680 

8.640093 

11.359907 

9.999586 

30 

40 

8.667689 

8.668160 

11.331840 

9.999529 

20 

50 

8.693998 

8.694529 

11.305471 

9.999469 

10 

3° 

8.718800 

8.719396 

11.280604 

9.999404 

87° 

10' 

8.742259 

8.742922 

11.257078 

9.999336 

50' 

20 

8.764511 

8.765246 

11.234754 

9.999265 

40 

30 

8.785675 

8.786486 

11.213514 

9.999189 

30 

40 

8.805852 

8.806742 

11.193258 

9.999110 

20 

50 

8.825130 

8.826103 

11.173897 

9.999027 

10 

4° 

8.843585 

8.844644 

11.155356 

9.998941 

86° 

10' 

8.861283 

8.862433 

11.137567 

9.998851 

50' 

20 

8.878285 

8.879529 

11.120471 

9.998757 

40 

30 

8.894643 

8.895984 

11.104016 

9.998659 

30 

40 

8.910404 

8.911846 

11.088154 

9.998558 

20 

50 

8.925609 

8.927156 

11.072844 

9.998453 

10 

5° 

8.940296 

8.941952 

11.058048 

9.998344 

85° 

10' 

8.954499 

8.956267 

11.043733 

9.998232 

50' 

20 

8.968249 

8.970133 

11.029867 

9.998116 

40 

30 

8.981573 

8.983577 

11.016423 

9.997996 

30 

40 

8.994497 

8.996624 

11.003376 

9.997872 

20 

50 

9.007044 

9.009298 

10.990702 

9.997745 

10 

6° 

9.019235 

9.021620 

10.978380 

9.997614 

84° 

10' 

9.031089 

9.033609 

10.966391 

9.997480 

50' 

20 

9.042625 

9.045284 

10.954716 

9.997341 

40 

30 

9.053859 

9.056659 

10.943341 

9.997199 

30 

40 

9.064806 

9.067752 

10.932248 

9.997053 

20 

50 

9.075480 

9.078576 

10.921424 

9.996904 

10 

Cosine 

Cotangent 

Tangent 

Sine 

Angle 

[147] 


LOGARITHMIC 'SINES,   COSINES,  TANGENTS,  ETC 


LOGARITHMIC  SINES,  COSINES,  TANGENTS,  ETC. — (Cont.) 


Angle 

Sine 

Tangent 

Cotangent 

Cosine 

7° 

9.085894 

9.089144 

10.910856 

9.996751 

83° 

10' 

9.096062 

9.099468 

10.900532 

9.996594 

50' 

20 

9.105992 

9.109559 

10.890441 

9.996433 

40 

30 

9.115698 

9.119429 

10.880571 

9.996269 

30 

40 

9.125187 

9.129087 

10.870913 

9.996100 

20 

50 

9.134470 

9.138542 

10.861458 

9.995928 

10 

8° 

9.143555 

9.147803 

10.852197 

9.995753 

82° 

10' 

9.152451 

9.156877 

10.843123 

9.995573 

50' 

20 

9.161164 

9.165774 

10.834226 

9.995390 

40 

30 

9.169702 

9.174499 

10.825501 

9.995203 

30 

40 

9.178072 

9.183059 

10.816941 

9.995013 

20 

50 

9.186280 

9.191462 

10.808538 

9.994818 

10 

9° 

9.194332 

9.199713 

10.800287 

9.994620 

81° 

10' 

9.202234 

9.207817 

10.792183 

9.994418 

50' 

20 

9.209992 

9.215780 

10.784220 

9.994212 

40 

30 

9.217609 

9.223607 

10.776393 

9.994003 

30 

40 

9.225092 

9.231302 

10.768698 

9.993789 

20 

50 

9.232444 

9.238872 

10.761128 

9.993572 

10 

10° 

9.239670 

9.246319 

10.753681 

9.993351 

80° 

10' 

9.246775 

9.253648 

10.746352 

9.993127 

50' 

20 

9.253761 

9.260863 

10.739137 

9.992898 

40 

30 

9.260633 

9.267967 

10.732033 

9.992666 

30 

40 

9.267395 

9.274964 

10.725036 

9.992430 

20 

50 

9.274049 

9.281858 

10.718142 

9.992190 

10 

11° 

9.280599 

9.288652 

10.711348 

9.991947 

79° 

10' 

9.287048 

9.295349 

10.704651 

9.991699 

50' 

20 

9.293399 

9.301951 

10.698049 

9.991448 

40 

30 

9.299655 

9.308463 

10.691537 

9.991193 

30 

40 

9.305819 

9.314885 

10.685115 

9.990934 

20 

50 

9.311893 

9.321222 

10.678778 

9.990671 

10 

12° 

9.317879 

9.327475 

10.672525 

9.990404 

78° 

10' 

9.323780 

9.333646 

10.666354 

9.990134 

50' 

20 

9.329599 

9.339739 

10.660261 

9.989860 

40 

30 

9.335337 

9.345755 

10.654245 

9.989582 

30 

40 

9.340996 

9.351697 

10.648303 

9.989300 

20 

50 

9.346779 

9.357566 

10.642434 

9.989014 

10 

13° 

9.352088 

9.363364 

10.636636 

9.988724 

77° 

10' 

9.357524 

9.369094 

10.630906 

9.988430 

50' 

20 

9.362889 

9.374756 

10.625244 

9.988133 

40 

30 

9.368185 

9.380354 

10.619646 

9.987832 

30 

40 

9.373414 

9.385888 

10.614112 

9.987526 

20 

50 

9.378577 

9.391360 

10.608640 

9.987217 

10 

Cosine 

Cotangent 

Tangent 

Sine 

Angle 

148] 


LOGARITHMIC  SINES,  COSINES,  TANGENTS,  ETC. 


LOGARITHMIC  SINES,  COSINES,  TANGENTS,  ETC. — (Cont.) 


Angle 

Sine 

Tangent 

Cotangent 

Cosine 

14° 

9.383675 

9.396771 

10.603229 

9.986904 

76° 

10' 

9.388711 

9.402124 

10.597876 

9.986587 

50' 

20 

9.393685 

9.407419 

10.592581 

9.986266 

40 

30 

9.398600 

9.412658 

10.587342 

9.985942 

30 

40 

9.403455 

9.417842 

10.582158 

9.985613 

20 

50 

9.408254 

9.422974 

10.577026 

9.985280 

10 

15° 

9.412996 

9.428052 

10.571948 

9.984944 

75° 

10' 

9.417684 

9.433080 

10.566920 

9.984603 

50' 

20 

9.422318 

9.438059 

10.561941 

9.984259 

40 

30 

9.426899 

9.442988 

10.557012 

9.983911 

30 

40 

9.431429 

9.447870 

10.552130 

9.983558 

20 

50 

9.435908 

9.452706 

10.547294 

9.983202 

10 

16° 

9.440338 

9.457496 

10.542504 

9.982842 

74° 

10' 

9.444720 

9.462242 

10.537758 

9.982477 

50' 

20 

9.449054 

9.466945 

10.533055 

9.982109 

40 

30 

9.453342 

9.471605 

10.528395 

9.981737 

30 

40 

9.457584 

9.476223 

10.523777 

9.981361 

20 

50 

9.461782 

9.480801 

10.519199 

9.980981 

10 

17° 

9.465935 

9.485339 

10.514661 

9.980596 

73° 

10' 

9.470046 

9.489838 

10.510162 

9.980208 

50' 

20 

9.474115 

9.494299 

10.505701 

9.979816 

40 

30 

9.478142 

9.498722 

10.501278 

9.979420 

30 

40 

9.482128 

9.503109 

10.496891 

9.979019 

20 

50 

9.486075 

9.507460 

10.492540 

9.978615 

10 

18° 

9.489982 

9.511776 

10.488224 

9.978206 

72° 

10' 

9.493851 

9.516057 

10.483943 

9.977794 

50' 

20 

9.497682 

9.520305 

10.479695 

9.977377 

40 

30 

9.501476 

9.524520 

10.475480 

9.976957 

30 

40 

9.505234 

9.528702 

10.471298 

9.976532 

20 

50 

9.508956 

9.532853 

10.467147 

9.976103 

10 

19° 

9.512642 

9.536972 

10.463028 

9.975670 

71° 

10' 

9.516294 

9.541061 

10.458939 

9.975233 

50' 

20 

9.519911 

9.545119 

10.454881 

9.974792 

40 

30 

9.523495 

9.549149 

10.450851 

9.974347 

30 

40 

9.527046 

9.553149 

10.446851 

9.973897 

20 

50 

9  .  530565 

9.557121 

10.442879 

9.973444 

10 

20° 

9.534052 

9.561066 

10.438934 

9.972986 

70° 

10' 

9.537507 

9.564983 

10.435017 

9.972524 

50' 

20 

9.540931 

9.568873 

10.431127 

9.972058 

40 

30 

9.544325 

9.572738 

10.427262 

9.971588 

30 

40 

9.547689 

9.576576 

10.423424 

9.971113 

20 

50 

9.551024 

9.580389 

10.419611 

9.970635 

10 

Cosine 

Cotangent 

Tangent 

Sine 

Angle 

149] 


LOGARITHMIC  SINES,  COSINES,  TANGENTS,  ETC. 


LOGARITHMIC  SINES,  COSINES,  TANGENTS,  ETC. — (Cont.) 


Angle 

Sine 

Tangent 

Cotangent 

Cosine 

21° 

9.554329 

9.584177 

10.415823 

9.970152 

69° 

10' 

9.557606 

9.587941 

10.412059 

9.969665 

50' 

20 

9.560855 

9.591681 

10.408319 

9.969173 

40 

30 

9.564075 

9.595398 

10.404602 

9.968678 

30 

40 

9.567269 

9.599091 

10.400909 

9.968178 

20 

50 

9.570435 

9.602761 

10.397239 

9.967674 

10 

22° 

9.573575 

9.606410 

10.393590 

9.967166 

68° 

10' 

9.576689 

9.610036 

10.389964 

9.966653 

50 

20 

9.579777 

9.613641 

10.386359 

9.966136 

40 

30 

9.582840 

9.617224 

10.382776 

9.965615 

30 

40 

9.585877 

9.620787 

10.379213 

9.965090 

20 

50 

9.588890 

9.624330 

10.375670 

9.964560 

10 

23° 

9.591878 

9.627852 

10.372148 

9.964026 

67° 

10' 

9.594842 

9.631355 

10.368645 

9.963488 

50' 

20 

9.597783 

9.634838 

10.365162 

9.962945 

40 

30 

9.600700 

9.638302 

10.361698 

9.962398 

30 

40 

9.603594 

9.641747 

10.358253 

9.961846 

20 

50 

9.606465 

9.645174 

10.354826 

9.961290 

10 

24° 

9.609313 

9.648583 

10.351417 

9.960730 

66° 

10' 

9.612140 

9.651974 

10.348026 

9.960165 

50' 

20 

9.614944 

9.655348 

10.344652 

9.959596 

40 

30 

9.617727 

9.658704 

10.341296 

9.959023 

30 

40 

9.620488 

9.662043 

10.337957 

9.958445 

20 

50 

9.623229 

9.665366 

10.334634 

9.957863 

10 

25° 

9.625948 

9.668673 

10.331328 

9.957276 

65° 

10' 

9.628647 

9.671963 

10.328037 

9.956684 

50' 

20 

9.631326 

9.675237 

10.324763 

9.956089 

40 

30 

9.633984 

9.678496 

10.321504 

9.955488 

30 

40 

9.636623 

9.681740 

10.318260 

9.954883 

20 

50 

9.639242 

9.684968 

10.315032 

9.954274 

10 

26° 

9.641842 

9.688182 

10.311818 

9.953660 

64° 

10' 

9.644423 

9.691381 

10.308619 

9.953042 

50' 

20 

9.646984 

9.694566 

10.305434 

9.952419 

40 

30 

9.649527 

9.697736 

10.302264 

9.951791 

30 

40 

9.652052 

9.700893 

10.299107 

9.951159 

20 

50 

9.654558 

9.704036 

10.295964 

9.950522 

10 

27° 

9.657047 

9.707166 

10.292834 

9.949881 

63° 

10' 

9.659517 

9.710282 

10.289718 

9.949235 

50' 

20 

9.661970 

9.713386 

10.286614 

9.948584 

40 

30 

9.664406 

9.716477 

10.283523 

9.947929 

30 

40 

9.666824 

9.719555 

10.280445 

9.947269 

20 

50 

9.669225 

9.722621 

10.277379 

9.946604 

10 

Cosine 

Cotangent 

Tangent 

Sine 

Angle 

11501 


LOGARITHMIC  SINES,  COSINES,  TANGENTS,  ETC. 


LOGARITHMIC  SINES,  COSINES,  TANGENTS,  ETC.— (Cont.) 


Angle 

Sine 

Tangent 

Cotangent 

Cosine 

28° 

9.671609 

9.725674 

10.274326 

9.945935 

62° 

10' 

9.673977 

9.728716 

10.271284 

9.945261 

50' 

20 

9.676328 

9.731746 

10.268254 

9.944582 

40 

30 

9.678663 

9.734764 

10.265236 

9.943899 

30 

40 

9.680982 

9.737771 

10.262229 

9.943210 

20 

50 

9.683284 

9.740767 

10.259233 

9.942517 

10 

29° 

9.685571 

9.743752 

10.256248 

9.941819 

61° 

10' 

9.687843 

9.746726 

10.253274 

9.941117 

50' 

20 

9.690098 

9.749689 

10.250311 

9.940409 

40 

30 

9.692339 

9.752642 

10.247358 

9.939697 

30 

40 

9.694564 

9.755585 

10.244415 

9.938980 

20 

50 

9.696775 

9.758517 

10.241483 

9.938258 

10 

30° 

9.698970 

9.761439 

10.238561 

9.937531 

60° 

10' 

9.701151 

9.764352 

10.235648 

9.936799 

50' 

20 

9.703317 

9.767255 

10.232745 

9.936062 

40 

30 

9.705469 

9.770148 

10.229852 

9.935320 

30 

40 

9.707606 

9.773033 

10.226967 

9.934574 

20 

50 

9.709730 

9.775908 

10.224092 

9.933822 

10 

31° 

9.711839 

9.778774 

10.221226 

9.933066 

59° 

10' 

9.713935 

9.781631 

10.218369 

9.932304 

50' 

20 

9.716017 

9.784479 

10.215521 

9.931537 

40 

30 

9.718085 

9.787319 

10.212681 

9.930766 

30 

40 

9.720140 

9.790151 

10.209849 

9.929989 

20 

50 

9.722181 

9.792974 

10.207026 

9.929207 

10 

32° 

9.724210 

9.795789 

10.204211 

9.928420 

58° 

10' 

9.726225 

9.798596 

10.201404 

9.927629 

50' 

20 

9.728227 

9.801396 

10.198604 

9.926831 

40 

30 

9.730217 

9.804187 

10.195813 

9.926029 

30 

40 

9.732193 

9.806971 

10.193029 

9.925222 

20 

50 

9.734147 

9.809748 

10.190252 

9.924409 

10 

33° 

9.736109 

9.812517 

10.187483 

9.923591 

57° 

10' 

9.738048 

9.815280 

10.184720 

9.922768 

50' 

20 

9.739975 

9.818035 

10.181965 

9.921940 

40 

30 

9.741889 

9.820783 

10.179217 

9.921107 

30 

40 

9.743792 

9.823524 

10.176476 

9.920268 

20 

50 

9.745683 

9.826259 

10.173741 

9.919424 

10 

34° 

9.747562 

9.828987 

10.171013 

9.918574 

56° 

10' 

9.749429 

9.831709 

10.168291 

9.917719 

50' 

20 

9.751284 

9.834425 

10.165575 

9.916859 

40 

30 

9.753128 

9.837134 

10.162866 

9.915994 

30 

40 

9.754960 

9.839838 

10.160162 

9.915123 

20 

50 

9.756782 

9.842535 

10.157465 

9.914246 

10 

Cosine 

Cotangent 

Tangent 

Sine 

Angle 

[151] 


LOGARITHMIC  SINES,  COSINES,   TANGENTS,   ETC. 


LOGARITHMIC  SINES,  COSINES,  TANGENTS,  ETC. — (Cont.) 


Angle 

Sine 

Tangent 

Cotangent 

Cosine 

35° 

9.758591 

9.845227 

10.154773 

9.913365 

55° 

10' 

9.760390 

9.847913 

10.152087 

9.912477 

50' 

20 

9.762177 

9.850593 

10.149407 

9.911584 

40 

30 

9.763954 

9.853268 

10.146732 

9.910686 

30 

40 

9.765720 

9.855938 

10.144062 

9.909782 

20 

50 

9.767475 

9.858602 

10.141398 

9.908873 

10 

36° 

9.769219 

9.861261 

10.138739 

9.907958 

54° 

10' 

9.770952 

9.863915 

10.136085 

9.907037 

50' 

20 

9.772675 

9.866564 

10.133436 

9.906111 

40 

30 

9.774388 

9.869209 

10.130791 

9.905179 

30 

40 

9.776090 

9.871849 

10.128151 

9.904241 

20 

50 

9.777781 

9.874474 

10.125516 

9.903298 

10 

37° 

9.779463 

9.877114 

10.122886 

9.902349 

53° 

10' 

9.781134 

9.879741 

10.120259 

9.901394 

50' 

20 

9.782796 

9.882363 

10.117637 

9.900433 

40 

30 

9.784447 

9.884980 

10.115020 

9.899467 

30 

40 

9.786089 

9.887594 

10.112406 

9.898494 

20 

50 

9.787720 

9.890204 

10.109796 

9.897516 

10 

38° 

9.789342 

9.892810 

10.107190 

9.896532 

52° 

10' 

9.790854 

9.895412 

10.104588 

9.895542 

50' 

20 

9.792557 

9.898010 

10.101990 

9.894546 

40 

30 

9.794150 

9.900605 

10.099395 

9.893344 

30 

40 

9.795733 

9.903197 

10.096803 

9.892536 

20 

50 

9.797307 

9.905785 

10.094215 

9.891523 

10 

39° 

9.798872 

9.908369 

10.091631 

9.890503 

51° 

10' 

9.800427 

9.910951 

10.089049 

9.889477 

50' 

20 

9.801973 

9.913529 

10.086471 

9.888444 

40 

30 

9.803511 

9.916104 

10.083896 

9.887406 

30 

40 

9.805039 

9.918677 

10.081323 

9.886362 

20 

50 

9.806557 

9.921247 

10.078753 

9.885311 

10 

40° 

9.808067 

9.923814 

10.076186 

9.884254 

50° 

10' 

9.809569 

9.926378 

10.073622 

9.883191 

50' 

20 

9.811061 

9.928940 

10.071060 

9.882121 

40 

30 

9.812544 

9.931499 

10.068501 

9.881046 

30 

40 

9.814019 

9.934056 

10.065944 

9.879963 

20 

50 

9.815485 

9.936611 

10.063389 

9.878875 

10 

41° 

9.816943 

9.939163 

10.060837 

9.877780 

49° 

10' 

9.818392 

9.941713 

10.058287 

9.876678 

50' 

20 

9.819832 

9.944262      10.055738 

9.875571 

40 

30 

9.821265 

9.946808 

10.053192 

9.874456 

30 

40 

9.822688 

9.949353 

10.050647 

9.873335 

20 

50 

9.824104 

9.951896 

10.048104 

9.872208 

10 

Cosine 

Cotangent 

Tangent 

Sine 

Angle 

[152] 


LOGARITHMIC  SINES,  COSINES,  TANGENTS,  ETC. 
LOGARITHMIC  SINES,  COSINES,  TANGENTS,  ETC. — (Cont.) 


Angle 

Sine 

Tangent 

Cotangent 

Cosine 

42° 

9.825511 

9.954437 

10.045563 

9.871073 

48° 

10' 

9.826910 

9.956977 

10.043023 

9.869933 

50' 

20 

9.828301 

9.959516 

10.040484 

9.868785 

40 

30 

9.829683 

9.962052 

10.037948 

9.867631 

30 

40 

9.831058 

9.964588 

10.035412 

9.866470 

20 

50 

9.83242S 

9.967123 

10.032877 

9.865302 

10 

43° 

9.833783 

9.969656 

10.030344 

9.864127 

47° 

10' 

9.835134 

9.972188 

10.027812 

9.862946 

50' 

20 

9.836477 

9.974720 

10.025280 

9.861758 

40 

30 

9.837812 

9.977250 

10.022750               9.860562 

30 

40 

9.839140 

9.979780 

10.020220 

9.859360 

20 

50 

9.840459 

9.982309 

10.017691 

9.858151 

10 

44° 

9.841771 

9.984837 

10.015163 

9.856934 

46° 

10' 

9.843076 

9.987365 

10.012635 

9.855711 

50' 

20 

9.844372 

9.989893 

10.010107 

9.854480 

40 

30 

9.845662 

9.992420 

10.007580 

9.853242 

30 

40 

9.846944 

9.994947 

10.005053 

9.851997 

20 

50 

9.848218 

9.997473 

10.002527 

9.850745 

10 

45° 

9.849485 

10.000000 

10.000000 

9.849485 

45° 

Cosine                     Cotangent 

Tangent 

Sine 

Angle 

MENSURATION   OF   SOLIDS 

To  Find  the  Solidity  of  a  Cube.— Rule:    Multiply  the  side  of  the  cube  by  itself 
and  that  product  again  by  the  side. 

NOTE. — The  surface  of  the  cube  is  equal  to  six  times  the  square  of  its  side. 


To  Find  the  Solidity  of  a  Parallelepipedon.— Rule:  Multiply  the  length  by  the 
breadth  and  that  product  by  the  depth  or  altitude. 

NOTE. — The  surface  of  the  parallelepipedon  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  areas  of 
each  of  its  sides  or  ends. 

To  Find  the  Solidity  of  a  Prism. — Rule:  Multiply  the  area  of  the  base  into  the 
perpendicular  height  of  the  prism. 

NOTE. — The  surface  of  a  prism  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  areas  of  the  two  ends  and 
each  of  its  sides. 

[153] 


MENSURATION 

To  Find  the  Convex  Surface  of  a  Cylinder. — Rule:  Multiply  the  circumference  of 
the  base  by  the  height  of  the  cylinder. 

NOTE. — If  twice  the  area  of  either  of  the  ends  be  added  to  the  convex  surface,  it 
will  give  the  whole  surface  of  the  cylinder. 


To  Find  the  Solidity  of  a  Cylinder. — Rule:  Multiply  the  area  of  the  base  by  the 
perpendicular  height. 

NOTE. — The  four  following  cases  contain  all  the  rules  for  finding  the  superfices  and 
solidities  of  cylindric  ungulas. 

Case  1.  When  the  Section  is  Parallel  to  the  Axis  of  the  Cylinder.— Rule  1.  Multiply 
the  length  of  the  arc  line  of  the  base  by  the  height  of  the  cylinder,  the  product  will  be 
the  curve  surface. 

Rule  2.  Multiply  the  area  of  the  base  by  the  height  of  the  cylinder,  the  product 
will  be  the  solidity. 

Case  2.  When  the  Section  Passes  Obliquely  Through  the  Opposite  Sides  of  the 
Cylinder. — Rule  1.  Multiply  the  circumference  of  the  base  of  the  cy Under  by  half 
the  sum  of  the  greatest  and  least  lengths  of  the  ungula,  the  product  will  be  the  curve 
surface. 

Rule  2.  Multiply  the  area  of  the  base  of  the  cylinder  by  half  the  sum  of  the  greatest 
and  least  lengths  of  the  ungula,  the  product  will  be  the  solidity. 


H 


Case  3.  When  the  Section  Passes  Through  the  Base  of  the  Cylinder,  and  One 
of  its  Sides.— -Rule  1.  Multiply  the  sine  of  half  the  arc  of  the  base  by  the  diameter  of 
the  cylinder,  and  from  this  product  subtract  the  product  of  the  arc  and  cosine. 

Rule  2.  Multiply  the  difference  thus  found,  by  the  quotient  of  the  height  divided 
by  the  versed  sine,  the  product  will  be  the  curve  surface. 

[1541 


MENSURATION 


Rule  3.  From  two-thirds  of  the  cube  of  the  right  sine  of  half  the  arc  of  the  base, 
subtract  the  product  of  the  area  of  the  base  and  the  cosine  of  the  said  half  arc. 

Multiply  the  difference  thus  found  by  the  quotient  arising  from  the  height  divided 
by  the  versed  sine,  the  product  will  be  the  solidity. 

Case  4.  When  the  Section  Passes  Obliquely  Through  Both  Ends  of  the  Cylinder. — 
Rule  1.  Conceive  the  section  to  be  continued  till  it  meets  the  side  of  the  cylinder 
produced;  then  as  the  difference  of  the  versed  sine  of  half  the  arcs  of  the  two  ends  of  the 
ungula  is  to  the  versed  sine  of  half  the  arc 
of  the  less  end,  so  is  the  height  of  the 
cylinder  to  the  part  of  the  side  produced. 

Rule  2.  Find  the  surface  of  each  of  the 
ungulas,  thus  formed,  by  Case  3,  and  their 
difference  will  be  the  surface  required. 

Rule  3.  In  like  manner  find  the  solidi- 
ties  of  each  of  the  ungulas,  and  their 
difference  will  be  the  solidity  required. 


To  Find  the  Convex  Surface  of  a  Cone. — Rule:  Multiply  the  circumference  of  the 
base  by  the  slant  height,  or  the  length  of  the  sides  of  the  cone,  and  half  the  product 
will  be  the  surface  required. 

To  get  the  complete  surface  of  the  above  cone  the  area  of  the  base  must  be  added. 

The  Convex  Surface  of  a  Cone  is  a  Sector  of  a  Circle. — To  construct  such  a  sector: 
Let  the  circumference  of  the  base  of  the  cone  be  divided  into  any  number  of  equal 


parts.  Then  with  A  C  as  a  radius  describe  the  arc  C  E.  Set  off  as  many  equal  spaces 
on  C  E  as  are  contained  in  the  circumference  of  the  base  of  the  cone. 

Draw  C  A  and  E  A,  the  sector  will  equal  the  convex  surface  of  the  cone. 

To  Find  the  Convex  Surface  of  the  Frustum  of  a  Cone. — Rule :  Multiply  the  sum 

[155] 


MENSURATION 


of  the  perimeters  of  the  two  ends  by  the  slant  height  of  the  frustum,  half  the  product 
will  be  the  surface  required. 

To  Find  the  Solidity  of  a  Cone. — Rule:    Multiply  the  area  of  the  base  by  one- 
third  of  the  perpendicular  height  of  the  cone,  the  product  will  be  the  solidity. 

To  Find  the  Solidity  of  a  Frustum  of  a  Cone. — Rule:  For  the  frustum  of  a  cone, 
the  diameters,  or  circumferences,  of  the  two  ends  and  the  height  being  given.  Add 
together  the  square  of  the  diameter  of  the  greater  end,  the  square  of  the  diameter  of  the 
less  ends,  and  the  product  of  the  two  diameters;  multiply  the  sum  by  .7854,  and  the 
product  by  the  height;  one-third  of 
the  last  product  will  be  the  solidity. 

Or,  add  together  the  square  of  the 
circumference  of  the  greater  end,  the 
square  of  the  circumference  of  the  less 
end,  and  the  product  of  the  two  cir- 
cumferences; multiply  the  sum  by 
.07958,  and  the  product  by  the  height; 
one-third  of  the  last  product  will  be 
the  solidity. 

To  Find  the  Surface  of  a  Pyramid. 


— Rule:  Multiply  the  perimeter  of  the  base  by  the  length  of  the  side,  or  slant  height 
of  the  pyramid,  and  half  the  product  will  be  the  surface  required. 

NOTE. — By  slant  height  is  meant  the  distance  Q  O  at  the  center  of  one  of  the  slant 
sides.  The  development  of  the  side  would  be  a  triangle  A  O  D  of  which  Q  O  is  the 
height. 

To  Develop  the  Convex  Surface  of  a  Pyramid. — In  this  case  hexagonal. 

The  pyramid  BAG  stands  upon  a  hexagonal  base,  shown  below  it. 

With  A  C  as  a  radius,  draw  an  arc,  and  from  a  central  point  as  at  G,  with  one  of 
the  sides  of  the  hexagonal  base  as  a  unit,  measure  off  three  lengths  to  B,  and  three 
lengths  to  D. 

Draw  B  A  and  D  A,  also  draw  through  the  intermediate  points  E,  F,  G,  H,  I,  radial 
lines  meeting  in  A. 

Draw  the  perimeter  lines  D  E,  E  F,  F  G,  etc.,  to  B. 

This  diagram  represents  the  convex  surface  of  the  pyramid. 

To  Find  the  Surface  of  the  Frustum  of  a  Pyramid. — Rule:  Multiply  the  sum  of  the 
perimeters  of  the  ends  by  the  slant  height,  and  half  the  product  will  be  the  surface 
required. 

Demonstration:  Let  A  B,  a  6,  represent  one  of  the  sides  of  the  frustum  of  the 
pyramid,  having  the  height  Q  t.  By  construction  draw  the  diagonal  A  b,  dividing  the 
figure  into  two  triangles.  Let  a  g  be  drawn  perpendicular  to  A  6,  and  B  /  perpendicular 
to  A  6. 

Then  the  triangle  A  a  b  =  %  (A  6  X  a  g\  and  the  triangle  AB6  =  HA6XB/). 

The  area  of  the  four-sided  figure  A  a  6  B  equals  the  area  of  the  two  triangles  into 

[156] 


MENSURATION 

which  the  figure  was  divided  by  the  line  A  6;  therefore  the  area  of  a  trapezium  may 
be  found  by  multiplying  the  sum  of  the  parallel  sides  by  half  the  perpendicular  distance 
between  them. 

To  Find  the  Solidity  of  a  Pyramid. — Rule:  Multiply  the  area  of  the  base  by  one- 
third  of  the  perpendicular  height. 

Let  A  B  represent  one  edge  of  a  cube,  and  lines  be  drawn  from  each  of  the  four 
corners  of  the  base  A,  B,  C,  D,  to  the  center  of  the  cube,  a  square  pyramid  will  be 


formed,  the  base  of  which  will  be  equal  to  the  base  of  the  cube,  and  its  height  equal 
to  one-half  the  height  of  the  cube. 

A  cube  consists  of  six  sides,  therefore  a  cube  will  contain  six  such  pyramids;  hence 
the  volume  of  the  pyramid  is  one-sixth  that  of  the  cube.  Inasmuch  as  the  pyramid 
is  only  one-half  the  height  of  the  cube,  two  such  pyramids  can  be  contained  within 
it  to  equal  the  same  height;  hence  the  volume  of  any  pyramid  is  equal  to  f  (area  of 
base  X  height). 

To  Find  the  Solidity  of  a  Frustum  of  a  Pyramid  Whose  Sides  Are  Regular  Poly- 
gons.— Add  together  the  square  of  a  side  of  the  greater  end,  and  the  square  of  a  side 
of  the  less  end,  and  the  product  of  these  two  sides;  multiply  the  sum  by  the  proper 
number  in  the  table  under  "  To  find  the  area  of  a  regular  polygon,  when  the  side  only 

is  given,"  and  the  product  by  the  height;  one-third 
of  the  last  product  will  be  the  solidity. 

NOTE. — When  the  ends  of  the  pyramids  are  not 


regular  polygons,  add  together  the  areas  of  the  two  ends  and  the  square  root  of 
their  product;  multiply  the  sum  by  the  height,  and  one-third  of  the  product  will 
be  the  solidity. 

To  Find  the  Solidity  of  a  Wedge.— Rule:    Add  twice  the  length  of  the  base  to  the 
length  of  the  edge,  and  reserve  the  number. 

Multiply  the  height  of  the  wedge  by  the  breadth  of  the  base,  and  this  product  by 
the  reserved  number;  one-sixth  of  the  last  product  will  be  the  solidity. 

NOTE. — When  the  length  of  the  base  is  equal  to  half  of  the  wedge,  the  wedge  is 
evidently  equal  to  half  a  prism  of  the  same  base  and  altitude, 

[157] 


MENSURATION 

To  Find  the  Solidity  of  a  Prismoid.— Rule:  To  the  sum  of  the  areas  of  the  two 
ends,  add  four  times  the  area  of  a  section  parallel  to  and  equally  distant  from  both 
ends,  and  this  last  sum  multiplied  by  one-sixth  of  the  height  will  give  the  solidity. 

NOTE. — The  length  of  the  middle  of  the  rectangle  is  equal  to  half  the  sum  of  the 
length  of  the  rectangle  of  the  two  ends,  and  its  breadth  equal  to  half  the  sum  of  the 
breadths  of  those  rectangles. 

To  Find  the  Convex  Surface  of  a  Sphere. — Rule:  Multiply  the  diameter  of  the 
sphere  by  its  circumference,  the  product  will  be  the  convex  superfices  required. 


NOTE. — The  curve  surface  of  any  zone  or  segment  will  also  be  found  by  multiplying 
its  height  by  the  whole  circumference  of  the  sphere. 

Cor.  1.  The  surface  of  a  sphere  is  also  equal  to  the  curve  surface  of  its  circumscribing 
cylinder. 

Cor.  2.  The  surface  of  a  sphere  is  also  equal  to  four  times  the  area  of  a  great  circle 
of  it. 

Lunar  Surface. — To  find  the  lunar  surface  included  between  two  great  circles  of 
the  sphere.  Rule:  Multiply  the  diameter  into  the  breadth  of  the  surface  in  the  middle, 
the  product  will  be  the  superfices  required.  Or, 

as  one  right  angle  is  to  the  great  circle  of  the  sphere, 
so  is  the  angle  made  by  the  two  great  circles 
to  the  surface  included  by  them. 

Spherical  Triangle. — To  find  the  area  of  a  spherical  triangle,  or  the  surf  ace  included 
by  the  intercepting  arcs,  of  three  great  circles  of  the  sphere.     Rule: 
As  two  right  angles,  or  180°, 
is  to  a  great  circle  of  the  sphere, 

so  is  the  excess  of  the  three  angles  above  two  right  angles 
to  the  area  of  a  triangle. 


To  Find  the  Solidity  of  a  Sphere. — Rule:  Multiply  the  cube  of  a  diameter  by  .5236, 
the  product  will  be  the  solidity. 

Cor. — A  sphere  is  equal  to  two-thirds  of  its  circumscribing  cylinder. 

A  cone,  hemisphere,  and  cylinder  of  the  same  base  and  altitude  are  to  each  other  J, 
J,  and  1;  or,  as  1,  2,  and  3.  All  spheres  are  to  each  other  as  the  cubes  of  their  diam- 

[158] 


MENSURATION 

eters.  For  cylinders  of  the  same  altitude  are  to  each  other  as  the  cubes  of  their  diam- 
eters; and  a  sphere  is  two-thirds  of  a  cy Under  whose  diameter  and  altitude  are  equal 
to  the  diameter  of  the  sphere. 

To  Find  the  Solidity  of  the  Segment  of  a  Sphere.— Rule:  To  three  times  the  square 
of  the  radius  of  its  base  add  the  square  of  its  height;  and  this  sum  multipUed  by  the 
height,  and  the  product  again  by  .5236,  will  give  the  soUdity.  Or, 

From  three  times  the  diameter  of  the  sphere  subtract  twice  the  height  of  the  seg- 
ment, multiply  by  the  square  of  the  height,  and  that  product  by  .5236;  the  last  product 
will  be  the  soUdity. 

To  Find  the  Solidity  of  a  Frustum  or  Zone  of  a  Sphere. — Rule:  To  the  sum  of 
the  squares  of  the  radii  of  the  two  ends,  add  one-third  of  the  square  of  their  distance, 
or  of  the  breadth  of  the  zone,  and  this  sum  multipUed  by  the  said  breadth,  and  the 
product  again  by  1.5708,  will  give  the  soUdity. 


To  Find  the  Solidity  of  a  Spheroid. — Rule:  Multiply  the  square  of  the  revolving 
axe  by  the  fixed  axe,  and  this  product  again  by  .5236,  and  it  will  given  the  solidity 
required. 

Where  note  that  .5236  =  £  of  3.1416. 

To  Find  the  Content  of  the  Middle  Frustum  of  a  Spheroid,  Its  Length,  the  Middle 
Diameter,  and  That  of  Either  of  the  Ends  Being  Given. 

Case  1.  When  the  Ends  are  Circular,  or  Parallel  to  the  Revolving  Axis.  Rule: 
To  twice  the  square  of  the  middle  diameter,  add  the  square  of  the  diameter  of  either 
of  the  ends,  and  this  sum  multiplied  by  the  length  of  the  frustum,  and  the  product 
again  by  .2618,  will  give  the  solidity. 

Where  note  that  .2618  =  &  of  3.1416. 

Case  2.  When  the  Ends  are  Elliptical  or  Perpendicular  to  the  Revolving  Axis. — 
Rule  1.  Multiply  twice  the  transverse  diameter  of  the  middle  section  by  its  conjugate 


diameter,  and  to  this  product  add  the  product  of  the  transverse  and  conjugate  diameters 
of  either  of  the  ends. 

2.  Multiply  the  sum  thus  found  by  the  distance  of  the  ends  or  the  height  of  the 
frustum,  and  the  product  again  by  .2618,  and  it  will  give  the  solidity  required. 

To  Find  the  Solidity  of  the  Segment  of  a  Spheroid.— Case  1.  When  the  Base  is 
Parallel  to  the  Revolving  Axis. 

[159] 


MENSURATION 

Rule  1.  Divide  the  square  of  the  revolving  axis  by  the  square  of  the  fixed  axe,  and 
multiply  the  quotient  by  the  difference  between  three  times  the  fixed  axe  and  twice 
the  height  of  the  segment. 

2.  Multiply  the  product,  thus  found,  by  the  square  of  the  height  of  the  segment, 
and  this  product  again  by  .5236,  and  it  will  give  the  solidity  required. 

Case  2.  When  the  Base  is  Perpendicular  to  the  Revolving  Axis. — Rule  1.  Divide 


the  fixed  axe  by  the  revolving  axe,  and  multiply  the  quotient  by  the  difference  between 
three  times  the  revolving  axe  and  twice  the  height  of  the  segment. 

2.  Multiply  the  product,  thus  found,  by  the  square  of  the  height  of  the  segment, 
and  this  prociuct  again  by  .5236,  and  it  wiU  give  the  solidity  required. 


To  Find  the  Solidity  of  a  Parabolic  Conoid. — Rule:  Multiply  the  area  of  the  base 
by  half  the  altitude,  and  the  product  will  be  the  content. 

NOTE. — The  parabolic  conoid  =  \  its  circumscribing  cylinder. 

The  rule  given  above  will  hold  for  any  segment  of  the  paraboloid,  whether  the  base 
be  perpendicular  or  oblique  to  the  axe  of  the  solid. 


To  find  the  Solidity  of  the  Frustum  of  a  Paraboloid,  When  Its  Ends  are  Perpen- 
dicular to  the  Axe  of  the  Solid. — Rule:  Multiply  the  sum  of  the  squares  of  the  diameters 
cf  the  two  ends  by  the  height  of  the  frustum,  and  the  product  again  by  .3927,  and  it 
will  give  the  solidity. 

To  Find  the  Solidity  of  an  Hyperboloid. — Rule:  To  the  square  of  the  radius  of  the 

[160] 


MENSURATION 

base  add  the  square  of  the  middle  diameter  between  the  base  and  the  vertex;  and 
this  sum  multiplied  by  the  altitude,  and  the  product  again  by  .5236  will  give  the  solidity. 

To  Find  the  Solidity  of  the  Frustum  of  an  Hyperbolic  Conoid.— Rule:  Add  together 
the  squares  of  the  greatest  and  least  semi-diameters,  and  the  square  of  the  whole 
diameter  hi  the  middle,  then  this  sum  being  multiplied  by  the  altitude,  and  the  product 
again  by  .5236  will  give  the  solidity. 

NOTE. — The  content  of  any  spindle  formed  by  the  revolution  of  a  conic  section 
about  its  axis  may  be  found  by  the  following  rule: 

Add  together  the  squares  of  the  greatest  and  least  diameters,  and  square  of  double 
the  diameter  in  the  middle  between  the  two,  and  this  sum  multiplied  by  the  length, 
and  the  product  again  by  .1309  will  give  the  solidity. 

And  the  rule  will  never  deviate  much  from  the  truth  when  the  figure  revolves  about 
any  other  line  which  is  not  the  axis. 

REGULAR  BODIES 

The  whole  number  of  regular  bodies  which  can  possibly  be  formed  is  five: 

1.  The  tetrahedron,  or  regular  pyramid,  which  has  four  triangular  faces. 

2.  The  hexahedron,  or  cube,  which  has  six  square  faces. 

3.  The  octahedron,  which  has  eight  triangular  faces. 

4.  The  dodecahedron,  which  has  twelve  pentagonal  faces. 

5.  The  icosahedron,  which  has  twenty  triangular  faces. 

NOTE. — There  are  only  three  kinds  of  equilateral  and  equiangular  plane  figures 
which,  when  joined  together,  will  form  a  solid  angle,  and  these  are  triangles,  squares, 


or  pentagons;    and  there  are  no  more  than  five  different  solids,  given  above,  which 
are  bounded  by  equilateral  and  equiangular  plane  figures. 

Tetrahedron. — The  solid  angles  of  a  tetrahedron  are  formed  by  three  equilateral 
plane  triangles,  and  the  solid  is  bounded  by  four  equal  and  equilateral  plane  triangles, 
therefore,  it  is  a  pyramid. 

Hexahedron. — The  solid  angles  of  a  hexahedron  are  formed  by  three  equal  squares, 
and  the  solid  is  bounded  by  six  equal  squares,  therefore,  it  is  a  cube. 

Octahedron. — The  solid  angles  of  an  octa- 
hedron are  formed  by  four  equal  and  equi- 
lateral plane  triangles,  and  the  solid  is  bounded 
by  eight  equal  and  equilateral  plane  triangles; 
consequently  it  is  formed  by  two  equal  square 
pyramids  joined  together  at  their  bases,  the 
sides  whereof  are  equilateral  triangles. 

Dodecahedron. — The  solid  angles  of  a  do- 
decahedron are  formed  by  three  equal,  equilateral, 
and  equiangular  pentagons;  and  the  solid  is 
bounded  by  twelve  equal,  equilateral  and 
equiangular  pentagons.  This  solid  may  be  con- 
ceived to  consist  of  twelve  equal  pentagonal  pyramids,  whose  vertices  meet  in  the 
center  of  a  sphere  circumscribing  it. 

[161] 


W\A 


MENSURATION 

Icosahedron. — The  solid  angles  of  an  icosahedron  are  formed  by  five  equal  and 
equilateral  plane  triangles,  and  the  solid  is  bounded  by  twenty  equal  and  equilateral 
plane  triangles.  The  solid  may  be  conceived  to  consist  of  twenty  equal  triangular 
pyramids,  whose  vertices  meet  in  the  center  of  a  sphere  circumscribing  it. 


To  Find  the  Solidity  of  a  Tetrahedron. — Rule:  Multiply  one-twelfth  of  the  cube  of 
the  linear  side  by  the  square  root  of  2,  and  the  product  will  be  the  solidity. 

To  Find  the  Solidity  of  a  Hexahedron. — Rule:  Multiply  the  side  of  the  cube  by 
itself,  and  that  product  again  by  the  side,  and  it  will  give  the  solidity  required. 

NOTE.— When  the  number  denoting  the  length  of  the  edge  of  the  cube  is  known, 
the  volume  is  obtained  by  cubing  the  given  number. 


The  converse  operation,  i.  e.,  given  the  volume  to  find  the  length  of  an  edge,  re- 
quires the  extraction  of  the  cube  root. 

To  Find  the  Solidity  of  an  Octahedron. — Rule:  Multiply  one-third  of  the  cube  of  the 
linear  side  by  the  square  root  of  2,  the  product  will  be  the  solidity. 

To  Find  the  Solidity  of  a  Dodecahedron. — Rule:    To  twenty-one  times  the  square 


root  of  5,  add  47,  and  divide  the  sum  by  40;  then  the  square  root  of  the  quotient  being 
multiplied  by  five  times  the  cube  of  the  linear  side  will  give  the  solidity  required. 

To  Find  the  Solidity  of  a  Icosahedron. — Rule:  To  three  times  the  square  root  of  5 
add  7,  and  divide  the  sum  by  2;  then  the  square  root  of  this  quotient  being  multiplied 
by  five-sixths  of  the  cube  of  the  linear  side  will  give  the  solidity  required. 

[102] 


MENSURATION 


That  is,     S3  X 


V 


(7  + 


solidity  when  S  is    =  to  the  linear  side. 


NOTE.  —  The  superfices  and  solidity  of  any  of  the  five  regular  bodies  may  be  found 
as  follows:  Rule  1.  Multiply  the  tabular  area  by  the  square  of  the  linear  edge,  and 
the  product  will  be  the  superfices. 

2.  Multiply  the  tabular  solidity  by  the  cube  of  the  linear  edge,  and  the  product  will 
be  the  solidity. 

SURFACES  AND  SOLIDITIES  OF  THE  REGULAR  BODIES 


No.  of 
Sides 

Names 

Surfaces 

Solidities 

4 

Tetrahedron  

1  73205 

0.11785 

6 

Hexahedron  

6.00000 

1.00000 

8 

Octahedron 

3  46410 

0  47140 

12 

Dodecahedron  .         .... 

20  64578 

7.66312 

20 

Icosahedron  

8.66025 

2.18169 

CYLINDRIC  RINGS 


To  Find  the  Convex  Superfices  of  a  Cylindric  Ring.— Rule:  To  the  thickness  of 
the  ring  add  the  inner  diameter,  and  this  sum  being  multiplied  by  the  thickness  and 
the  product  again  by  9.8696  will  give  the  superfices  required. 

NOTE. — A  solid  ring  of  this  kind  is  only  a  bent 
cylinder,  and  therefore  the  rules  for  obtaining  its 
superfices  or  solidity  are  the  same  as  those  already 
given.     For,  let  A  c  be  any  section  of  the  solid  per- 
pendicular to  its  axis  o  n,  and  then  A  c  X  3.1416  = 
circumference  of  that  section,  and  A  c  +  cd  (on)  X      . ...... 

3.1416  =  length  of  the  axis  on.  1WHI  1111311113 

To  Find  the  Solidity  of  a  Cylindric  Ring. — Rule 
1.  To  the  thickness  of  the  ring  add  the  inner  diame- 
ter, and  this  sum  being  multiplied  by  the  square  of 
half  the  thickness  and  the  product  again  by  9.8696 
will  give  the  solidity. 

Hule  2.  Add  together  the  inner  diameter  and  the 

thickness  of  the  ring  for  a  mean  diameter.     Multiply  the  mean  diameter  by  3.1416, 
and  the  product  by  the  area  of  the  cross-section  of  the  ring  will  give  the  solidity. 


LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS 

Logarithms  are  useful  in  shortening  and  facilitating  the  arithmetical  operations 
of  multiplication  and  division.  The  sum  of  the  logarithms  of  two  numbers  is  the 
logarithm  of  the  product  of  those  numbers;  and  since  logarithms  are  the  indices  of 
powers  of  the  same  basis,  the  difference  of  the  logarithms  of  two  numbers  is  the  logarithm 
of  the  quotient;  also  the  multiple  of  the  logarithm  of  a  number  is  the  logarithm  of  the 
power  of  that  number,  and  a  fraction  of  the  logarithm  of  a  number  is  the  logarithm 
of  the  corresponding  root.  Hence,  a  complete  table  of  logarithms  would  enable  one 
to  perform  multiplication  by  addition,  division  by  subtraction,  involution  by  multi- 
plication, and  evolution  by  division. 

There  are  two  systems  of  logarithms  in  use:  The  common  system,  in  which  the 
base  is  10,  and  the  Naperian  system,  in  which  the  base  (denoted  by  e)  is  2.718281828. 
Naperian  logarithms  are  also  called  natural,  but  commonly  hyperbolic  logarithms. 

[163] 


LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS 

The  common  system  of  logarithms  is  generally  referred  to  as  the  Briggs'  system, 
after  their  inventor.  In  this  system  the  logarithm  of  every  number  between  1  and 
10  is  some  number  between  0  and  1,  that  is,  it  is  a  fractional  number.  As  all  numbers 
are  to  be  regarded  as  powers  of  10,  we  have 

10°  =  1,          and  0  is  the  logarithm  of  1 

101  =  10,        and  1  is  the  logarithm  of  10 

102  =  100,      and  2  is  the  logarithm  of  100 

103  =  1000,    and  3  is  the  logarithm  of  1000 

104  =  10000,  and  4  is  the  logarithm  of  10000 

The  logarithm,  therefore,  of  every  number  between  10  and  100  is  some  number 
between  1  and  2,  that  is,  it  is  1+  a  fraction;  similarly,  every  number  between  100  and 
1000  is  some  number  between  2  and  3,  that  is,  2+  a  fraction. 

This  principle  is  extended  to  fractions  by  means  of  negative  exponents,  thus 
lO  —  i  =o.l,        and  —1  is  the  logarithm  of  0. 1 
10—2  =0.01,      and  —2  is  the  logarithm  of  0.01 
10  — 3  =  0.001,    and  —3  is  the  logarithm  of  0.001 
10-4  =  0.0001,  and  -4  is  the  logarithm  of  0.0001 

The  logarithm  of  every  number  between  1  and  0.1  is  some  number  between  0  and 
—  1,  *or  may  be  represented  by  —1+  a  fraction;  the  logarithm  of  every  number  be- 
tween 0.1  and  .01  is  some  number  between  —1  and  —2,  or  may  be  represented  by  —  2  + 
a  fraction,  and  so  on.  The  negative  sign  is  commonly  placed  over  the  figure,  2"  rather 
than  —2.  Writing  the  minus  sign  over  the  characteristic,  and  not  before  it,  indicates 
that  the  characteristic  only  is 'negative,  and  not  the  whole  expression. 

The  Logarithm  of  a  Number  Consists  of  Two  Parts,  an  integral  part  and  a  fractional 
part.  The  integral  part  is  called  the  characteristic,  and  the  fractional  part  the  mantissa. 

The  Characteristic  of  the  Logarithm  of  any  number  greater  than  unity  is  one  less 
than  the  number  of  integral  figures  in  the  given  number.  Thus,  the  logarithm  of  385 
is  2+  a  fraction;  that  is  the  characteristic  of  the  logarithm  of  385  is  one  less  than  the 
number  of  integral  figures,  or  2. 

The  characteristic  of  the  logarithm  of  a  decimal  fraction  is  a  negative  number,  and 
is  equal  to  the  number  of  places  by  which  its  first  significant  figure  is  removed  from 
the  place  of  units.  Thus,  the  logarithm  of  .0047  is  —3+  a  fraction;  that  is,  the  char- 
acteristic of  the  logarithm  is  —3  (3  ),  the  first  significant  figure  4  being  removed  three 
paces  from  the  unit. 

To  Add  Two  Negative  Characteristics,  take  their  sum  and  make  it  negative.  Thus 
5+2  =  7. 

To  Add  a  Positive  to  a  Negative  Characteristic,  take  their  difference  and  make  its 
sign  the  sign- of  the  greater;  thus,  3  +  5  =2,  and  3+5  =  2. 

To  Subtract  a  Negative  Characteristic^  changejts  sign  _to  plus  and  proceed  as  in 
addition;  thus,  4-3  =  4  +  3=7,  and  4-3  =  4  +  3  =  1. 

To  Subtract  a  Positive  Characteristic^change  rts  sign  to  minus  and  proceed  as  in 
addition;  thus,  4-3  =  4+3=1,  and  4-3  =4+3  =  7. 

To  Multiply  a  Negative  Characteristic,  multiply  as  if  positive  and  make  the  product 
negative;  thus,  2X3=6. 

The  Mantissa  of  a  logarithm  is  its  decimal  part.  The  mantissa  is  always  positive, 
the  minus  sign  being  usually  written  over  the  characteristic  and  not  before  it,  to  in- 
dicate that  the  characteristic  only  and  not  the  whole  expression  is  negative;  thus, 
1.4084604  stands  for  -1+  .4084604. 

Multiplication. — The  logarithm  of  the  product  of  two  or  more  factors  is  equal  to 
the  sum  of  the  logarithm  of  those  factors.  If  it  is  required  to  multiply  two  or  more 
numbers  by  each  other,  we  have  only  to  add  their  logarithms:  the  sum  will  be  the 
logarithm  of  their  product.  Then  look  in  the  table  for  the  number  answering  to  that 
logarithm  and  obtain  the  required  product. 

Division. — The  logarithm  of  the  quotient  of  one  number  divided  by  another  is 
equal  to  the  difference  of  the  logarithm  of  those  numbers.  If  it  is  required  to  divide 
one  number  by  another,  we  have  only  to  subtract  the  logarithm  of  the  divisor  from 
that  of  the  dividend;  the  difference  will  be  the  logarithm  of  the  quotient. 

[164J 


LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS 

The  Decimal  Part  of  the  Logarithm  of  any  number  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  number 
multiplied  or  divided  by  10,  100,  1000,  etc.  That  is,  if  any  number  be  multiplied  or 
divided  by  10,  its  logarithm  will  be  increased  or  diminished  by  1;  and  as  this  is  an 
integer,  it  will  only  change  the  characteristic  of  the  logarithm,  without  affecting  the 
decimal  part. 

Thus,  -the  logarithm  of  47,630  =  4.677881 

4,763  =  3.677881 

476.3  =  2.677881 

47.63          =  1.677881 

4.763        =  0.677881 

.4763      =  L677881 

.04763    =2.677881 

.004763  =  3.677881 

To  Divide  a  Logarithm  Having  a  Negative  Characteristic. — If  the  characteristic  is 
divisible  by  the  divisor  without  a  remainder,  write  _the  quotient  with  a  negative  sign 
and  divide  the  decimal  part  in  the  usual  way;  6.458938  -=-  2  =  3.229469.  If  the 
characteristic  is  not  divisible  by  the  divisor  without  a  remainder,  add  such  a  negative 
number  to  it  as  will  make  it  divisible  without  a  remainder  and  prefix  an  equal  positive 
number  to  the  decimal  part  of  the  logarithm,  then  divide  the  increased  negative  char- 
acteristic and  the  other  part  of  the  logarithm  separately;  thus 

7.135718  -r-  3  =  (2+7+2.135718)  ^  3  =  (9  +  2.135718)  -=-!}  =  3.711906. 

To  Find  the  Logarithm  of  a  Vulgar  Fraction. — Reduce  the  vulgar  fraction  to  a  deci- 
mal, and  find  its  logarithm;  or,  since  the  value  of  a  fraction  is  equal  to  the  quotient  of 
the  numerator  divided  by  the  denominator,  we  may  subtract  the  logarithm  of  the 
denominator  from  that  of  the  numerator;  the  difference  will  be  the  logarithm  of  the 
fraction. 

Involution  by  Logarithm. — On  the  principle  that  the  logarithm  of  any  power  of  a 
number  is  equal  to  the  logarithm  of  that  number  multiplied  by  the  exponent  of  the 
power,  we  have  the  following  rule.  Multiply  the  logarithm  of  the  number  by  the 
exponent  of  the  power  required. 

Example,  required  the  square  of  428: 

The  logarithm  of  428  is 2.631444 

2 


Square  183184,  log 5 .262888 

It  should  be  remembered,  that  what  is  carried  from  the  decimal  part  of  the  logarithm, 
is  positive,  whether  the  characteristic  is  positive  or  negative. 
Example,  required  the  cube  of  .07654: 


Cube,  .0004484,  log 4.651664 

Evolution  by  Logarithm. — The  logarithm  of  any  root  of  a  number  is  equal  to  the 
logarithm  of  that  number  divided  by  the  index  of  the  root.  To  extract  the  root  of  a 
number  by  logarithm  we  have  the  following  rule: 

Divide  the  logarithm  of  the  number  by  the  index  of  the  root  required. 

Example,  required  the  cube  root  of  482.38. 

The  logarithm  of  482.38  is  2.683389. 

Dividing  by  3,  we  have  0.894463  which  corresponds  to  7.842,  which  is  the  root 
required. 

When  the  characteristic  of  the  logarithm  is  negative,  and  is  not  divisible  by  the 
given  divisor,  we  may  increase  the  characteristic  by  any  number  which  will  make  it 
exactly  divisible,  provided  we  prefix  an  equal  positive  number  to  the  decimal  part  of 
the  logarithm. 

Example,  required  the  seventh  root  of  0.005846. 

[165] 


LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS 

The  logarithm  of  0.005846  is  3~.766859,  which  may  be  written  1  +  4.766859. 
To  Find  the  Reciprocal  of  a  Number. — Subtract  the  decimal  part  of  the  logarithm 
of  the  number  from  0.000000;    add  1  to  the  index  of  the  logarithm,  and  change  the 
sign  of  the  index.     This  completes  the  logarithm  of  the  reciprocal. 
Example,  to  find  the  reciprocal  of  230: 

0.000000 
Log         230  =  2.361728 

3.638272  =  log  0.004348  the  reciprocal. 

Inversely,  to  find  the  reciprocal  of  the  decimal  .00438 : 

0.000000 
Log  .004348  =  3.638272 

2.361728  =  log  230  the  reciprocal. 

TO  FIND  THE  LOGARITHM  OF  A  NUMBER  BY  THE  TABLES 

To  find  the  logarithm  of  a  number  containing  one  or  two  digits,  look  for  the  number 
in  the  preliminary  table,  which  gives  all  numbers  from  1  to  100;  the  logarithm  will  be 
found  in  the  adjoining  column.  For  example,  required  the  logarithm  of  84.  In  the 
preliminary  table,  opposite  84,  is  1.924279,  which  includes  the  integer.  Or,  annex  a 
cipher  to  it,  making  the  number  840  and  find  that  number  hi  the  larger  table;  opposite 
will  be  the  decimal  .924279,  to  which  is  to  be  prefixed  the  integer  1,  included  hi  the  pre- 
liminary table.  As  84  was  multiplied  by  10,  the  base  of  the  system,  the  decimal  was 
not  changed,  nor  would  it  have  been  if  multiplied  by  100,  1000,  or  any  other  multiple 
of  10. 

The  logarithm  of  any  number  between  100  and  10000  can  be  found  in  the  larger 
table  by  locating  the  number,  if  less  than  1000,  in  column  N;  the  logarithm  will  be  in 
the  adjoining  column  under  O.  If  the  number  be  over  1000  and  less  than  10000, 
say  6849,  find  the  first  three  of  the  numbers  (684)  in  column  N;  in  the  adjoining  column 
will  be  found  .83,  which  is  to  be  prefixed  to  the  figures  5627,  found  on  the  same  line 
under  heading  9;  the  mantissa  of  logarithm  is  .835627,  to  which  must  be  added  the 
integer  3,  then  3.835627  is  the  logarithm  of  6849. 

To  fine  the  logarithm  of  a  number  consisting  of  five  or  more  digits,  find  the  logarithm 
for  the  first  four  as  above;  multiply  the  difference,  in  column  D,  by  the  remaining 
digits,  and  divide  by  10,  if  there  be  only  one  digit  more,  or  by  100,  if  there  be  two  more, 
and  so  on;  add  the  quotient  to  the  logarithm  for  the  first  four.  The  sum  is  the  decimal 
part  of  the  required  logarithm,  to  which  the  index  is  to  be  prefixed.  For  example, 
take  3.1416.  The  logarithm  of  3141  is  .497068,  decimal  part;  and  the  difference  138 
times  6  -^  10  =  83,  is  to  be  added,  thus 

0.497068 
83 

Making  the  complete  logarithm 0.497151 

To  Find  the  Number  Corresponding  to  a  Given  Logarithm,  look  for  the  logarithm 
without  the  index.  If  it  be  found  exactly,  or  within  two  or  three  units  of  the  right-hand 
digit,  then  the  first  three  figures  of  the  indicated  number  will  be  found  in  the  number 
column,  in  a  line  with  the  logarithm,  and  the  fourth  figure  at  the  top  or  the  foot  of 
the  column  containing  the  logarithm.  Annex  the  fourth  figure  to  the  first  three,  and 
place  the  decimal  point  in  its  proper  position,  on  the  principles  already  explained. 
If  the  given  logarithm  differs  by  more  than  two  or  three  units  from  the  nearest  in  the 
table,  find  the  number  for  the  next  less  tabulated  logarithm,  which  will  give  the  first 
four  digits  of  the  required  number.  To  find  the  fifth  and  sixth  digit,  subtract  the 
tabulated  logarithm  from  the  given  logarithm,  add  two  ciphers  and  divide  by  the 
difference  found  in  column  D,  opposite  the  logarithm.  Annex  the  quotient  to  the  four 

[166] 


LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS 

digits  already  found,  and  place  the  decimal  point.     For  example,  to  find  the  number 
represented  by  the  logarithm  2.564732: 

2.564732  given  logarithm, 
Logarithm  367.0      =  2.564666  nearest  less 


.056 


D  118)6600(56  nearly 
590 


367.056 

700 
708 

showing  that  the  required  number  is  367.056. 


LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS 
From  1  to  1000 


No. 

Log. 

No. 

Log. 

No. 

Log. 

No. 

Log. 

-   1 

0.000000 

26 

.414973 

51 

1.707570 

76 

1.880814 

.  .,2 

0.301030 

27 

.431364 

52 

1.716003 

77 

1.886491 

3 

0.477121 

28 

.447158 

53 

1.724276 

78 

1.892095 

4 

0.602060 

29 

.462398 

54 

1.732394 

79 

1.897627 

5 

0.698970 

30 

.477121 

55 

1.740363 

80 

1.903090 

6 

0.778151 

31 

1.491362 

56 

.748188 

81 

1.908485 

ii,7 

0.845098 

32 

1.505150 

57 

.755875 

82 

1.913814 

•;-s 

0.903090 

33 

1.518514 

58 

.763428 

83 

1.919078 

9 

0.954243 

34 

1.531479 

59 

.770852 

84 

1.924279 

10 

1.000000 

35 

1.544068 

60 

.778151 

85 

1.929419 

11 

.041393 

36 

1.556303 

61 

1.785330 

86 

.934498 

12 

.079181 

37 

1.568202 

62 

1.792392 

87 

.939519 

13 

.113943 

38 

1.579784 

63 

1.799341 

88 

.944483 

14 

.  146128 

39 

1.591065 

64 

1.806180 

89 

.949390 

15 

.  176091 

40 

1.602060 

65 

1.812913 

90 

.954243 

16 

1.204120 

41 

.612784 

66 

1.819544 

91 

1.959041 

17 

1.230449 

42 

.623249 

67 

1.826075 

92 

1.963788 

18 

1.255273 

43 

.633468 

68 

1.832509 

93 

1.968483 

19 

1.278754 

44 

.643453 

69 

1.838849 

94 

1.973128 

20 

1.301030 

45 

.653213 

70 

1.845098 

95 

1.977724 

21 

.322219 

46 

.662758 

71 

1.851258 

96 

1.982271 

22 

.342423 

47 

.672098 

72 

1.857332 

97 

1.986772 

23 

.361728 

48 

.681241 

73 

1.863323 

98 

1.991226 

24 

.380211 

49 

.690196 

74 

1.869232 

99 

1.995635 

25 

.397940 

50 

.698970 

75 

1.875061 

100 

2.000000 

[167] 


LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS 
LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS  FROM  1  TO  1000 — (Cont.) 


N 

0 

i 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

100 
101 
102 

00- 
00- 
00- 

0000 
4321 
8600 

0434 
4751 
9026 

0868 
5181 
9451 

1301 
5609 
9876 

1734 
6038 

2166 
6466 

2598 
6894 

3029 
7321 

3461 

7748 

3891 
8174 

432 

428 
4?5 

102 

01- 

0300 

0724 

1147 

1570 

1993 

2415 

424 

103 
104 

01- 
01- 

2837 
7033 

3259 
7451 

3680 

7868 

4100 

8284 

4521 
8700 

4940 
9116 

5360 
9532 

5779 
9947 

6197 

6616 

420 
417 

104 

02- 

0361 

0775 

416 

105 
106 
107 

02- 
02- 
02- 

1189 
5306 
9384 

1603 
5715 

9789 

2016 
6125 

2428 
6533 

2841 
6942 

3252 
7350 

3664 

7757 

4075 
8164 

4486 
8571 

4896 
8978 

412 
408 
405 

107 
108 
109 

03- 
03- 
03- 

3424 
7426 

3826 

7825 

0195 
4227 

8223 

0600 
4628 
8620 

1004 
5029 
9017 

1408 
5430 
9414 

1812 
5830 
9811 

2216 
6230 

2619 
6629 

3021 
7028 

404 
400 

398 

109 

04- 

0207 

0602 

0998 

397 

110 
111 
112 

04- 
04- 
04- 

1393 
5323 
9218 

1787 
5714 
9606 

2182 
6105 
9993 

2576 
6495 

2969 

6885 

3362 
7275 

3755 
7664 

4148 
8053 

4540 
8442 

4932 
8830 

393 

389 

388 

11? 

05- 

0380 

0766 

1153 

1538 

1924 

2309 

2694 

386 

113 
114 
114 

05- 
05- 
06- 

3078 
6905 

3463 

7286 

3846 
7666 

4230 
8046 

4613 
8426 

4996 
8805 

5378 
9185 

5760 
9563 

6142 
9942 

6524 
0320 

383 
383 
37Q 

115 
116 
117 

06- 

06- 
06- 

0698 
4458 
8186 

1075 

4832 
8557 

1452 
5206 
8927 

1829 
5580 
9298 

2206 
5953 
9668 

2582 
6326 

2958 
6699 

3333 
7071 

3709 
7443 

4083 
7815 

376 
373 

380 

117 

07- 

0038 

0407 

0776 

1145 

1514 

370 

118 
119 

120 

07- 
07- 

07- 

1882 
5547 

9181 

2250 
5912 

9543 

2617 
6276 

9904 

2985 
6640 

3352 
7004 

3718 
7368 

4085 
7731 

4451 
8094 

4816 
8457 

5182 

8819 

366 
363 

36? 

1?0 

08- 

0266 

0626 

0987 

1347 

1707 

2067 

2426 

360 

121 
122 
123 

08- 
08- 
08- 

2785 
6360 
9905 

3144 
6716 

3503 
7071 

3861 
7426 

4219 

7781 

4576 
8136 

4934 
8490 

5291 

8845 

5647 
9198 

6004 
9552 

357 
355 
355 

123 
124 

125 
125 

09- 
09- 

09- 
10- 

3422 
6910 

0258 
3772 

7257 

0611 
4122 

7604 

0963 
4471 

7951 

1315 

4820 

8298 

1667 
5169 

8644 

2018 
5518 

8990 

2370 
5866 

9335 

2721 
6215 

9681 

3071 
6562 

0026 

353 
349 

348 
346 

126 
127 
128 

128 

10- 
10- 
10- 
11- 

0371 
3804 
7210 

0715 
4146 
7549 

1059 

4487 
7888 

1403 

4828 
8227 

1747 
5169 
8565 

2091 
5510 
8903 

2434 
5851 
9241 

2777 
6191 
9579 

3119 
6531 
9916 

3462 

6871 

0253 

343 
341 
338 
337 

129 

130 
131 
131 

11- 

11- 
11- 

12- 

0590 

3943 
7271 

0926 

4277 
7603 

1263 

4611 
7934 

1599 

4944 
8265 

1934 

5278 
8595 

2270 

5611 

8926 

2605 

5943 
9256 

2940 

6276 
9586 

3275 

6608 
9915 

3609 
6940 
0245 

335 

333 
331 
330 

N 

o 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

[168] 


LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS 
LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS  FROM  1  TO  1000 — (ConO 


N 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

132 

12- 

0574 

0903 

1231 

1560 

1888 

2216 

2544 

2871 

3198 

3525 

328 

133 

12- 

3852 

4178 

4504 

4830 

5156 

5481 

5806 

6131 

6456 

6781 

325 

134 

12- 

7105 

7429 

7753 

8076 

8399 

8722 

9045 

9368 

9690 

.... 

323 

134 

13- 

0012 

323 

135 

13- 

0334 

0655 

0977 

1298 

1619 

1939 

2260 

2580 

2900 

3219 

321 

136 

13- 

3539 

3858 

4177 

4496 

4814 

5133 

5451 

5769 

6086 

6403 

318 

137 

13- 

6721 

7037 

7354 

7671 

7987 

8303 

8618 

8934 

9249 

9564 

316 

138 

13- 

9879 

315 

138 

14- 

0194 

0508 

0822 

1136 

1450 

1763 

2076 

2389 

2702 

314 

139 

14- 

3015 

3327 

3639 

3951 

4263 

4574 

4885 

5196 

5507 

5818 

311 

140 

14- 

6128 

6438 

6748 

7058 

7367 

7676 

7985 

8294 

8603 

8911 

309 

141 

14- 

9219 

9527 

9835 

308 

141 

15- 

0142 

0449 

0756 

1063 

1370 

1676 

1982 

307 

142 

15- 

2288 

2594 

2900 

3205 

3510 

3815 

4120 

4424 

4728 

5032 

305 

143 

15- 

5336 

5640 

5943 

6246 

6549 

6852 

7154 

7457 

7759 

8061 

303 

144 

15- 

8362 

8664 

8965 

9266 

9567 

9868 

302 

144 

16- 

0168 

0469 

0769 

1068 

301 

145 

16- 

1368 

1667 

1967 

2266 

2564 

2863 

3161 

3460 

3758 

4055 

299 

146 

16- 

4353 

4650 

4947 

5244 

5541 

5838 

6134 

6430 

6726 

7022 

297 

147 

16- 

7317 

7613 

7908 

8203 

8497 

8792 

9086 

9380 

9674 

9968 

295 

148 

17- 

0262 

0555 

0848 

1141 

1434 

1726 

2019 

2311 

2603 

2895 

293 

149 

17- 

3186 

3478 

3769 

4060 

4351 

4641 

4932 

5222 

5512 

5802 

291 

150 

17- 

6091 

6381 

6670 

6959 

7248 

7536 

7825 

8113 

8401 

8689 

289 

151 

17- 

8977 

9264 

9552 

9839 

287 

151 

18- 

0126 

0413 

0699 

0986 

1272 

1558 

287 

152 

18- 

1844 

2129 

2415 

2700 

2985 

3270 

3555 

3839 

4123 

4407 

285 

153 

18- 

4691 

4975 

5259 

5542 

5825 

6108 

6391 

6674 

6956 

7239 

283 

154 

1&- 

7521 

7803 

8084 

8366 

8647 

8928 

9209 

9490 

9771 

281 

154 

19- 

0051 

281 

155 

19- 

0332 

0612 

0892 

1171 

1451 

1730 

2010 

2289 

2567 

2846 

279 

156 

19- 

3125 

3403 

3681 

3959 

4237 

4514 

4792 

5069 

5346 

5623 

278 

157 

19- 

5900 

6176 

6453 

6729 

7005 

7281 

7556 

7832 

8107 

8382 

276 

158 

19- 

8657 

8932 

9206 

9481 

9755 

275 

158 

20- 

0029 

0303 

0577 

0850 

1124 

274 

159 

20- 

1397 

1670 

1943 

2216 

2488 

2761 

3033 

3305 

3577 

3848 

272 

160 

20- 

4120 

4391 

4663 

4934 

5204 

5475 

5746 

6016 

6286 

6556 

271 

161 

20- 

6826 

7096 

7365 

7634 

7904 

8173 

8441 

8710 

8979 

9247 

269 

162 

20- 

9515 

9783 

.... 

.... 

268 

162 

21- 

.... 

0051 

0319 

0586 

0853 

1121 

1388 

1654 

1921 

267 

163 

21- 

2188 

2454 

2720 

2986 

3252 

3518 

3783 

4049 

4314 

4579 

266 

164 

21- 

4844 

5109 

5373 

5638 

5902 

6166 

6430 

6694 

6957 

7221 

264 

165 

21- 

7484 

7747 

8010 

8273 

8536 

8798 

9060 

9323 

9585 

9846 

262 

166 

22- 

0108 

0370 

0631 

0892 

1153 

1414 

1675 

1936 

2196 

2456 

261 

N 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

[169] 


LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS 

LOGABITHMS   OF   NUMBERS   FROM    1    TO    1000 (Cont.) 


N 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4  . 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

167 

168 
169 
169 

22- 
22- 
22- 
23- 

2716 
5309 

7887 

2976 
5568 
8144 

3236 

5826 
8400 

3496 
6084 
8657 

3755 
6342 
8913 

4015 
6600 
9170 

4274 

6858 
9426 

4533 
7115 
9682 

4792 
7372 
9938 

5051 
7630 

0193 

259 
258 
257 

2cifi 

170 
171 
172 
173 
173 

23- 
23- 
23- 
23- 

24r- 

0449 
2996 

5528 
8046 

0704 
3250 
5781 
8297 

0960 
3504 
6033 

8548 

1215 
3757 
6285 
8799 

1470 
4011 
6537 
9049 

1724 
4264 
6789 
9299 

1979 
4517 
7041 
9550 

2234 
4770 
7292 
9800 

2488 
5023 
7544 

0050 

2742 
5276 
7795 

0300 

255 
253 
252 
251 
250 

174 

175 
176 
177 
177 

24- 

24- 
24- 
24- 
25- 

0549 

3038 
5513 
7973 

0799 

3286 
5759 
8219 

1048 

3534 
6006 
8464 

1297 

3782 
6252 
8709 

1546 

4030 
6499 
8954 

1795 

4277 
6745 
9198 

2044 

4525 
6991 
9443 

2293 

4772 
7237 
9687 

2541 

5019 

7482 
9932 

2790 

5266 

7728 

0176 

249 

248 
246 
246 
245 

178 
179 

180 
181 
182 
183 
184 

185 
186 

25- 
25- 

25- 
25- 
26- 
26- 
26- 

26- 
26- 

0420 
2853 

5273 
7679 
0071 
2451 

4818 

7172 
9513 

0664 
3096 

5514 
7918 
0310 
2688 
5054 

7406 
9746 

0908 
3338 

5755 
8158 
0548 
2925 
5290 

7641 
9980 

1151 
3580 

5996 
8398 
0787 
3162 
5525 

7875 

1395 
3822 

6237 
8637 
1025 
3399 
5761 

8110 

1638 
4064 

6477 
8877 
1263 
3636 
5996 

8344 

1881 
4306 

6718 
9116 
1501 
3873 
6232 

8578 

2125 
4548 

6958 
9355 
1739 
4109 
6467 

8812 

2368 
4790 

7198 
9594 
1976 
4346 
6702 

9046 

2610 
5031 

7439 
9833 
2214 
4582 
6937 

9279 

243 

242 

241 
239 
238 
237 
235 

234 
?34 

186 

27- 

0213 

0446 

0679 

0912 

1144 

1377 

1609 

233 

187 
188 
189 

190 

27- 
27- 

27- 

27- 

1842 
4158 
6462 

8754 

2074 
4389 
6692 

8982 

2306 
4620 
6921 

9211 

2538 
4850 
7151 

9439 

2770 
5081 
7380 

9667 

3001 
5311 
7609 

9895 

3233 
5542 

7838 

3464 
5772 
8067 

3696 
6002 
8296 

3927 
6232 
8525 

232 
230 
229 

??8 

190 

28- 

0123 

0351 

0578 

0806 

??8 

191 
192 
193 
194 

195 
196 
197 
198 
199 

28- 
28- 
28- 
28- 

29- 
29- 
29- 
29- 
29- 

1033 
3301 
5557 

7802 

0035 
2256 
4466 
6665 
8853 

1261 
3527 

5782 
8026 

0257 

2478 
4687 
6884 
9071 

1488 
3753 
6007 
8249 

0480 
2699 
4907 
7104 
9289 

1715 
3979 
6232 

8473 

0702 
2920 
5127 
7323 
9507 

1942 
4205 
6456 
8696 

0925 
3141 
5347 
7542 
9725 

2169 
4431 
6681 
8920 

1147 
3363 
5567 
7761 
9943 

2396 
4656 
6905 
9143 

1369 
3584 

5787 
7979 

2622 

4882 
7130 
9366 

1591 
3804 
6007 

8198 

2849 
5107 
7354 
9589 

1813 
4025 
6226 
8416 

3075 
5332 

7578 
9812 

2034 
4246 
6446 
8635 

227 
226 
225 
223 

222 
221 
220 
219 
218 

199 

30- 

0161 

0378 

0595 

0813 

218 

200 
201 
202 
203 

30- 
30- 
30- 
3O- 

1030 
3196 
5351 
7496 

1247 
3412 
5566 
7710 

1464 
3628 
5781 
7924 

1681 
3844 
5996 
8137 

1898 
4059 
6211 
8351 

2114 
4275 
6425 
8564 

2331 
4491 
6639 

8778 

2547 
4706 
6854 
8991 

2764 
4921 
7068 
9204 

2980 
5136 

7282 
9417 

217 
216 
215 
213 

N 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

[170J 


LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS 
LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS  FROM  1  TO  1000 — (Cont.) 


N' 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

?04 

30- 

9630 

9843 

• 

?13 

?04 

31- 

0056 

0268 

0481 

0693 

0906 

1118 

1330 

1542 

21? 

205 
206 
207 
208 
209 

210 
211 
212 
?13 

31- 
31- 
31- 
31- 
32- 

32- 
32- 
32- 
32- 

1754 
3867 
5970 
8063 
0146 

2219 
4282 
6336 
8380 

1966 
4078 
6180 

8272 
0354 

2426 

4488 
6541 
8583 

2177 
4289 
6390 
8481 
0562 

2633 
4694 
6745 

8787 

2389 
4499 
6599 
8689 
0769 

2839 
4899 
6950 
8991 

2600 
4710 
6809 

8898 
0977 

3046 
5105 
7155 
9194 

2812 
4920 
7018 
9106 
1184 

3252 
5310 
7359 
9398 

3023 
5130 

7227 
9314 
1391 

3458 
5516 
7563 
9601 

3234 
5340 
7436 
9522 
1598 

3665 
5721 
7767 
9805 

3445 
5551 
7646 
9730 
1805 

3871 
5926 
7972 

3656 
5760 
7854 
9938 
2012 

4077 
6131 
8176 

211 
210 
209 
208 
207 

206 
205 
204 
?04 

213 

33- 

0008 

0211 

?03 

214 

215 
216 
217 
?18 

33- 

33- 
33- 
33- 
33- 

0414 

2438 
4454 
6460 
8456 

0617 

2640 
4655 
6660 
8656 

0819 

2842 
4856 
6860 

8855 

1022 

3044 
5057 
7060 
9054 

1225 

3246 
5257 
7260 
9253 

1427 

3447 
5458 
7459 
9451 

1630 

3649 
5658 
7659 
9650 

1832 

3850 
5859 

7858 
9849 

2034 

4051 
6059 
8058 

2236 

4253 
6260 

8257 

202 

202 
201 
200 
?00 

218 

34- 

0047 

0246 

19P 

219 

220 
221 
222 
223 
223 

34- 

34- 
34- 
34- 
34- 
35- 

0444 

2423 
4392 
6353 
8305 

0642 

2620 
4589 
6549 
8500 

0841 

2817 
4785 
6744 
8694 

1039 

3014 
4981 
6939 

8889 

1237 

3212 
5178 
7135 
9083 

1435 

3409 
5374 
7330 
9278 

1632 

3606 
5570 
7525 
9472 

1830 

3802 
5766 
7720 
9666 

2028 

3999 
5962 
7915 
9860 

2225 

4196 
6157 
8110 

0054 

198 

197 
196 
195 
194 
1<H 

224 

225 
226 
227 

228 
229 

35- 

35- 
35- 
35- 
35- 
35- 

0248 

2183 
4108 
6026 
7935 
9835 

0442 

2375 
4301 
6217 
8125 

0636 

2568 
4493 
6408 
8316 

0829 

2761 
4685 
6599 
8506 

1023 

2954 
4876 
6790 
8696 

1216 

3147 
5068 
6981 

8886 

1410 

3339 
5260 
7172 
9076 

1603 

3532 
5452 
7363 
9266 

1796 

3724 
5643 
7554 
9456 

1989 

3916 
5834 
7744 
9646 

193 

193 
192 
191 
190 
189 

229 

230 
231 
232 
233 
234 

36- 

36- 
36- 
36- 
36- 
36- 

1728 
3612 
5488 
7356 
9216 

0025 

1917 
3800 
5675 
7542 
9401 

0215 

2105 

3988 
5862 
7729 
9587 

0404 

2294 
4176 
6049 
7915 
9772 

0593 

2482 
4363 
6236 
8101 
9958 

0783 

2671 
4551 
6423 

8287 

0972 

2859 
4739 
6610 
8473 

1161 

3048 
4926 
6796 
8659 

1350 

3236 
5113 
6983 

8845 

1539 

3424 
5301 
7169 
9030 

189 

188 
188 
187 
186 
186 

234 

37- 

0143 

0328 

0513 

0698 

0883 

185 

235 
236 
237 
238 
239 
239 

37- 
37- 
37- 
37- 
37- 
38- 

1068 
2912 

4748 
6577 
8398 

1253 
3096 
4932 
6759 
8580 

1437 
3280 
5115 
6942 
8761 

1622 
3464 
5298 
7124 
8943 

1806 
3647 
5481 
7306 
9124 

1991 
3831 
5664 

7488 
9306 

2175 
4015 
5846 
7670 

9487 

2360 
4198 
6029 

7852 
9668 

2544 
4382 
6212 
8034 
9849 

2728 
4565 
6394 
8216 

0030 

184 
184 
183 
182 
182 
181 

N 

0 

l 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

[171 


LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS 
LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS  FROM  1  TO  1000 — (Cont.} 


N 

0 

l 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

240 

38- 

0211 

0392 

0573 

0754 

0934 

1115 

1296 

1476 

1656 

1837 

181 

241 

38- 

2017 

2197 

2377 

2557 

2737 

2917 

3097 

3277 

3456 

3636 

180 

242 

38- 

3815 

3995 

4174 

4353 

4533 

4712 

4891 

5070 

5249 

5428 

179 

243 

38- 

5606 

5785 

5964 

6142 

6321 

6499 

6677 

6856 

7034 

7212 

178 

244 

38- 

7390 

7568 

7746 

7923 

8101 

8279 

8456 

8634 

8811 

8989 

178 

245 

38- 

9166 

9343 

9520 

9698 

9875 

177 

245 

39- 

0051 

0228 

0405 

0582 

0759 

177 

246 

39- 

0935 

1112 

1288 

1464 

1641 

1817 

1993 

2169 

2345 

2521 

176 

247 

3&- 

2697 

2873 

3048 

3224 

3400 

3575 

3751 

3926 

4101 

4277 

176 

248 

3&- 

4452 

4627 

4802 

4977 

5152 

5326 

5501 

5676 

5850 

6025 

175 

249 

39- 

6199 

6374 

6548 

6722 

6896 

7071 

7245 

7419 

7592 

7766 

174 

250 

39- 

7940 

8114 

8287 

8461 

8634 

8808 

8981 

9154 

9328 

9501 

173 

251 

39- 

9674 

9847 

173 

251 

40- 

0020 

0192 

0365 

0538 

0711 

0883 

1056 

1228 

173 

252 

40- 

1401 

1573 

1745 

1917 

2089 

2261 

2433 

2605 

2777 

2949 

172 

253 

40- 

3121 

3292 

3464 

3635 

3807 

3978 

4149 

4320 

4492 

4663 

171 

254 

40- 

4834 

5005 

5176 

5346 

5517 

5688 

5858 

6029 

6199 

6370 

171 

255 

40- 

6540 

6710 

6881 

7051 

7221 

7391 

7561 

7731 

7901 

8070 

170 

256 

40- 

8240 

8410 

8579 

8749 

8918 

9087 

9257 

9426 

9595 

9764 

169 

257 

40- 

9933 

169 

257 

41- 

0102 

0271 

0440 

0609 

0777 

0946 

1114 

1283 

1451 

169 

258 

41- 

1620 

1788 

1956 

2124 

2293 

2461 

2629 

2796 

2964 

3132 

168 

259 

41- 

3300 

3467 

3635 

3803 

3970 

4137 

4305 

4472 

4639 

4806 

167 

260 

41- 

4973 

5140 

5307 

5474 

5641 

5808 

5974 

6141 

6308 

6474 

167 

261 

41- 

6641 

6807 

6973 

7139 

7306 

7472 

7638 

7804 

7970 

8135 

166 

262 

41- 

8301 

8467 

8633 

8798 

8964 

9129 

9295 

9460 

9625 

9791 

165 

263 

41- 

9956 

165 

263 

42- 

0121 

0286 

0451 

0616 

0781 

0945 

1110 

1275 

1439 

165 

264 

42- 

1604 

1768 

1933 

2097 

2261 

2426 

2590 

2754 

2918 

3082 

164 

265 

42- 

3246 

3410 

3574 

3737 

3901 

4065 

4228 

4392 

4555 

4718 

164 

266 

42- 

4882 

5045 

5208 

5371 

5534 

5697 

5860 

6023 

6186 

6349 

163 

267 

42- 

6511 

6674 

6836 

6999 

7161 

7324 

7486 

7648 

7811 

7973 

162 

268 

42- 

8135 

8297 

8459 

8621 

8783 

8944 

9106 

9268 

9429 

9591 

162 

269 

42- 

9752 

9914 

162 

269 

43- 

0075 

0236 

0398 

0559 

0720 

0881 

1042 

1203 

161 

270 

43- 

1364 

1525 

1685 

1846 

2007 

2167 

2328 

2488 

2649 

2809' 

161 

271 

43- 

2969 

3130 

3290 

3450 

3610 

3770 

3930 

4090 

4249 

4409 

160 

272 

43- 

4569 

4729 

4888 

5048 

5207 

5367 

5526 

5685 

5844 

6004 

159 

273 

43- 

6163 

6322 

6481 

6640 

6799 

6957 

7116 

7275 

7433 

7592 

159 

274 

43- 

7751 

7909 

8067 

8226 

8384 

8542 

8701 

8859 

9017 

9175 

158 

275 

43- 

9333 

9491 

9648 

9806 

9964 

158 

275 

44- 

0122 

0279 

0437 

0594 

0752 

158 

276 

44- 

0909 

1066 

1224 

1381 

1538 

1695 

1852 

2009 

2166 

2323 

157 

N 

0 

i 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

172] 


LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS 
LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS  FROM  1  TO  1000 — (Cont.) 


N 

0 

i 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

277 

44- 

2480 

2637 

2793 

2950 

31t)6 

3263 

3419 

3576 

3732 

3889 

157 

278 

44- 

4045 

4201 

4357 

4513 

4669 

4825 

4981 

5137 

5293 

5449 

156 

279 

44- 

5604 

5760 

5915 

6071 

6226 

6382 

6537 

6692 

6848 

7003 

155 

280 

44- 

7158 

7313 

7468 

7623 

7778 

7933 

8088 

8242 

8397 

8552 

155 

281 

44- 

8706 

8861 

9015 

9170 

9324 

9478 

9633 

9787 

9941 

.  .  .  . 

154 

281 

45- 

0095 

154 

282 

45- 

0249 

0403 

0557 

0711 

0865 

1018 

1172 

1326 

1479 

1633 

154 

283 

45- 

1786 

1940 

2093 

2247 

2400 

2553 

2706 

2859 

3012 

3165 

153 

284 

45- 

3318 

3471 

3624 

3777 

3930 

4082 

4235 

4387 

4540 

4692 

153 

285 

45- 

4845 

4997 

5150 

5302 

5454 

5606 

5758 

5910 

6062 

6214 

152 

286 

45- 

6366 

6518 

6670 

6821 

6973 

7125 

7276 

7428 

7579 

7731 

152 

287 

45- 

7882 

8033 

8184 

8336 

8487 

8638 

8789 

8940 

9091 

9242 

151 

288 

45- 

9392 

9543 

9694 

9845 

9995 

151 

288 

46- 

0146 

0296 

0447 

0597 

0748 

151 

289 

46- 

0898 

1048 

1198 

1348 

1499 

1649 

1799 

1948 

2098 

2248 

150 

290 

46- 

2398 

2548 

2697 

2847 

2997 

3146 

3296 

3445 

3594 

3744 

150 

291 

46- 

3893 

4042 

4191 

4340 

4490 

4639 

4788 

4936 

5085 

5234 

149 

292 

46- 

5383 

5532 

5680 

5829 

5977 

6126 

6274 

6423 

6571 

6719 

149 

293 

46- 

6868 

7016 

7164 

7312 

7460 

7608 

7756 

7904 

8052 

8200 

148 

294 

46- 

8347 

8495 

8643 

8790 

8938 

9085 

9233 

9380 

9527 

9675 

148 

295 

46- 

9822 

9969 

147 

295 

47- 

0116 

0263 

0410 

0557 

0704 

0851 

0998 

1145 

147 

296 

47- 

1292 

1438 

1585 

1732 

1878 

2025 

2171 

2318 

2464 

2610 

146 

297 

47- 

2756 

2903 

3049 

3195 

3341 

3487 

3633 

3779 

3925 

4071 

146 

298 

47- 

4216 

4362 

4508 

4653 

4799 

4944 

5090 

5235 

5381 

5526 

146 

299 

47- 

5671 

5816 

5962 

6107 

6252 

6397 

6542 

6687 

6832 

6976 

145 

300 

47- 

7121 

7266 

7411 

7555 

7700 

7844 

7989 

8133 

8278 

8422 

145 

301 

47- 

8566 

8711 

8855 

8999 

9143 

9287 

9431 

9575 

9719 

9863 

144 

302 

48- 

0007 

0151 

0294 

0438 

0582 

0725 

0869 

1012 

1156 

1299 

144 

303 

48- 

1443 

1586 

1729 

1872 

2016 

2159 

2302 

2445 

2588 

2731 

143 

304 

48- 

2874 

3016 

3159 

3302 

3445 

3587 

3730 

3872 

4015 

4157 

143 

305 

48- 

4300 

4442 

4585 

4727 

4869 

5011 

5153 

5295 

5437 

5579 

142 

306 

48- 

5721 

5863 

6005 

6147 

6289 

6430 

6572 

6714 

6855 

6997 

142 

307 

48- 

7138 

7280 

7421 

7563 

7704 

7845 

7986 

8127 

8269 

8410 

141 

308 

48- 

8551 

8692 

8833 

8974 

9114 

9255 

9396 

9537 

9677 

9818 

141 

309 

48- 

9958 

140 

309 

4£- 

0099 

0239 

0380 

0520 

0661 

0801 

0941 

1081 

1222 

140 

310 

49- 

1362 

1502 

1642 

1782 

1922 

2062 

2201 

2341 

2481 

2621 

140 

311 

49- 

2760 

2900 

3040 

3179 

3319 

3458 

3597 

3737 

3876 

4015 

139 

312 

49- 

4155 

4294 

4433 

4572 

4711 

4850 

4989 

5128 

5267 

5406 

139 

313 

49- 

5544 

5683 

5822 

5960 

6099 

6238 

6376 

6515 

6653 

6791 

139 

314 

49- 

6930 

7068 

7206 

7344 

7483 

7621 

7759 

7897 

8035 

8173 

138 

315 

49- 

8311 

8448 

8586 

8724 

8862 

8999 

9137 

9275 

9412 

9550 

138 

N 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

[173] 


LOGARITHMS   OF   NUMBERS 
LOGARITHMS  OP  NUMBERS  FROM  1  TO  1000 — (Cont.) 


N 

0 

i 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

316 

49- 

9687 

9824 

9962 

. 

137 

316 

50- 

0099 

0236 

0374 

0511 

0648 

0785 

0922 

137 

317 

50- 

1059 

1196 

1333 

1470 

1607 

1744 

1880 

2017 

2154 

2291 

137 

318 

50- 

2427 

2564 

2700 

2837 

2973 

3109 

3246 

3382 

3518 

3655 

136 

319 

50- 

3791 

3927 

4063 

4199 

4335 

4471 

4607 

4743 

4878 

5014 

136 

320 

50- 

5150 

5286 

5421 

5557 

5693 

5828 

5964 

6099 

6234 

6370 

136 

321 

50- 

6505 

6640 

6776 

6911 

7046 

7181 

7316 

7451 

7586 

7721 

135 

322 

5O- 

7856 

7991 

8126 

8260 

8395 

8530 

8664 

8799 

8934 

9068 

135 

323 

50- 

9203 

9337 

9471 

9606 

9740 

9874 

134 

323 

51- 

0009 

0143 

0277 

0411 

134 

324 

51- 

0545 

0679 

0813 

0947 

1081 

1215 

1349 

1482 

1616 

1750 

134 

325 

51- 

1883 

2017 

2151 

2284 

2418 

2551 

2684 

2818 

2951 

3084 

133 

326 

51- 

3218 

3351 

3484 

3617 

3750 

3883 

4016 

4149 

4282 

4415 

133 

327 

51- 

4548 

4681 

4813 

4946 

5079 

5211 

5344 

5476 

5609 

5741 

133 

328 

51- 

5874 

6006 

6139 

6271 

6403 

6535 

6668 

6800 

6932 

7064 

132 

329 

51- 

7196 

7328 

7460 

7592 

7724 

7855 

7987 

8119 

8251 

8382 

132 

330 

51- 

8514 

8646 

8777 

8909 

9040 

9171 

9303 

9434 

9566 

9697 

131 

331 

51- 

9828 

9959 

131 

331 

52- 

0090 

0221 

0353 

0484 

0615 

0745 

0876 

1007 

131 

332 

52- 

1138 

1269 

1400 

1530 

1661 

1792 

1922 

2053 

2183 

2314 

131 

333 

52- 

2444 

2575 

2705 

2835 

2966 

3096 

3226 

3356 

3486 

3616 

130 

334 

52- 

3746 

3876 

4006 

4136 

4266 

4396 

4526 

4656 

4785 

4915 

130 

335 

52- 

5045 

5174 

5304 

5434 

5563 

5693 

5822 

5951 

6081 

6210 

129 

336 

52- 

6339 

6469 

6598 

6727 

6856 

6985 

7114 

7243 

7372 

7501 

129 

337 

52- 

7630 

7759 

7888 

8016 

8145 

8274 

8402 

8531 

8660 

8788 

129 

338 

52- 

8917 

9045, 

9174 

9302 

9430 

9559 

9687 

9815 

9943 

.... 

128 

338 

53- 

0072 

128 

339 

53- 

0200 

0328 

0456 

0584 

0712 

0840 

0968 

1096 

1223 

1351 

128 

340 

53- 

1479 

1607 

1734 

1862 

1990 

2117 

2245 

2372 

2500 

2627 

128 

341 

53- 

2754 

2882 

3009 

3136 

3264 

3391 

3518 

3645 

3772 

3899 

127 

342 

53- 

4026 

4153 

4280 

4407 

4534 

4661 

4787 

4914 

5041 

5167 

127 

343 

53- 

5294 

5421 

5547 

5674 

5800 

5927 

6053 

6180 

6306 

6432 

126 

344 

53- 

6558 

6685 

6811 

6937 

7063 

7189 

7315 

7441 

7567 

7693 

126 

345 

53- 

7819 

7945 

8071 

8197 

8322 

8448 

8574 

8699 

8825 

8951 

126 

346 

53- 

9076 

9202 

9327 

9452 

9578 

9703 

9829 

9954 

126 

346 

54- 

0079 

0204 

125 

347 

54- 

0329 

0455 

0580 

0705 

0830 

0955 

1080 

1205 

1330 

14&4 

125 

348 

54- 

1579 

1704 

1829 

1953 

2078 

2203 

2327 

2452 

2576 

2701 

125 

349 

54- 

2825 

2950 

3074 

3199 

3323 

3447 

3571 

3696 

3820 

3944 

124 

350 

54- 

4068 

4192 

4316 

4440 

4564 

4688 

4812 

4936 

5060 

5183 

124 

351 

54- 

5307 

5431 

5555 

5678 

5802 

5925 

6049 

6172 

6296 

6419 

124 

352 

54- 

6543 

6666 

6789 

6913 

7036 

7159 

7282 

7405 

7529 

7652 

123 

353 

54- 

7775 

7898 

8021 

8144 

8267 

8389 

8512 

8635 

8758 

8881 

123 

N 

0 

l 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

[174] 


LOGARITHMS   OF   NUMBERS 
LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS  FROM  1  TO  1000 — (Cord.) 


N 

0 

l 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

354 

54- 

9003 

9126 

9249 

9371 

9494 

9616 

9739 

9861 

9984 

123 

354 

55- 

0106 

123 

M 

355 

55- 

0228 

0351 

0473 

0595 

0717 

0840 

0962 

1084 

1206 

1328 

122 

356 

55- 

1450 

1572 

1694 

1816 

1938 

2060 

2181 

2303 

2425 

2547 

122 

357 

55- 

2668 

2790 

2911 

3033 

3155 

3276 

3398 

3519 

3640 

3762 

121 

358 

55- 

3883 

4004 

4126 

4247 

4368 

4489 

4610 

4731 

4852 

4973 

121 

359 

55- 

5094 

5215 

5336 

5457 

5578 

5699 

5820 

5940 

6061 

6182 

121 

360 

55- 

6303 

6423 

6544 

6664 

6785 

6905 

7026 

7146 

7267 

7387 

120 

361 

55- 

7507 

7627 

7748 

7868 

7988 

8108 

8228 

8349 

8469 

8589 

120 

362 

55- 

8709 

8829 

8948 

9068 

9188 

9308 

9428 

9548 

9667 

9787 

120 

363 

55- 

9907 

120 

363 

56- 

0026 

0146 

0265 

0385 

0504 

0624 

0743 

0863 

0982 

119 

364 

56- 

iioi 

1221 

1340 

1459 

1578 

1698 

1817 

1936 

2055 

2174 

119 

365 

56- 

2293 

2412 

2531 

2650 

2769 

2887 

3006 

3125 

3244 

3362 

119 

366 

56- 

3481 

3600 

3*718 

3837 

3955 

4074 

4192 

4311 

4429 

4548 

119 

367 

56- 

4666 

4784 

4903 

5021 

5139 

5257 

5376 

5494 

5612 

5730 

118 

368 

56- 

5848 

5966 

6084 

6202 

6320 

6437 

6555 

6673 

6791 

6909 

118 

369 

56- 

7026 

7144 

7262 

7379 

7497 

7614 

7732 

7849 

7967 

8084 

118 

370 

56- 

8202 

8319 

8436 

8554 

8671 

8788 

8905 

9023 

9140 

9257 

117 

371 

56- 

9374 

9491 

9608 

9725 

9842 

9959 

117 

371 

57- 

0076 

0193 

0309 

0426 

117 

372 

57- 

0543 

0660 

0776 

0893 

1010 

1126 

1243 

1359 

1476 

1592 

117 

373 

57- 

1709 

1825 

1942 

2058 

2174 

2291 

2407 

2523 

2639 

2755 

116 

374 

57- 

2872 

2988 

3104 

3220 

3336 

3452 

3568 

3684 

3800 

3915 

116 

375 

57- 

4031 

4147 

4263 

4379 

4494 

4610 

4726 

4841 

4957 

5072 

116 

376 

57- 

5188 

5303 

5419 

5534 

5650 

5765 

•5880 

5996 

6111 

6226 

115 

377 

57- 

6341 

6457 

6572 

6687 

6802 

6917 

7032 

7147 

7262 

7377 

115 

378 

57- 

7492 

7607 

7722 

7836 

7951 

8066 

8181 

8295 

8410 

8525 

115 

379 

57- 

8639 

8754 

8868 

8983 

9097 

9212 

9326 

9441 

9555 

9669 

114 

380 

57- 

9784 

9898 

114 

380 

58- 

0012 

0126 

0241 

0355 

0469 

0583 

0697 

0811 

114 

381 

58- 

0925 

1039 

1153 

1267 

1381 

1495 

1608 

1722 

1836 

1950 

114 

382 

58- 

2063 

2177 

2291 

2404 

2518 

2631 

2745 

2858 

2972 

3085 

114 

383 

58- 

3199 

3312 

3426 

3539 

3652 

3765 

3879 

3992 

4105 

4218 

113 

384 

58- 

4331 

4444 

4557 

4670 

4783 

4896 

5009 

5122 

5235 

5348 

113 

385 

58- 

5461 

5574 

5686 

5799 

5912 

6024 

6137 

6250 

6362 

6475 

113 

386 

58- 

6587 

6700 

6812 

6925 

7037 

7149 

7262 

7374 

7486 

7599 

112 

387 

58- 

7711 

7823 

7935 

8047 

8160 

8272 

8384 

8496 

8608 

8720 

112 

388 

58- 

8832 

8944 

9056 

9167 

9279 

9391 

9503 

9615 

9726 

9838 

112 

389 

58- 

9950 

112 

389 

59- 

0061 

0173 

0284 

0396 

0507 

0619 

0730 

0842 

0953 

112 

390 

59- 

1065 

1176 

1287 

1399 

1510 

1621 

1732 

1843 

1955 

2066 

111 

N 

0 

l 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

[175J 


LOGARITHMS    OF   NUMBERS 
LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS  FROM  1  TO  1000 — (Cont.) 


N 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

391 

59- 

2177 

2288 

2399 

2510 

2621 

2732 

2843 

2954 

3064 

3175 

111 

392 

59- 

3286 

3397 

3508 

3618 

3729 

3840 

3950 

4061 

4171 

4282 

111 

393 

59- 

4393 

4503 

4614 

4724 

4834 

4945 

5055 

5165 

5276 

5386 

110 

394 

59- 

5496 

5606 

5717 

5827 

5937 

6047 

6157 

6267 

6377 

6487 

110 

395 

59- 

6597 

6707 

6817 

6927 

7037 

7146 

7256 

7366 

7476 

7586 

110 

396 

59- 

7695 

7805 

7914 

8024 

8134 

8243 

8353 

8462 

8572 

8681 

110 

397 

59- 

8791 

8900 

9009 

9119 

9228 

9337 

9446 

9556 

9665 

9774 

109 

398 

59- 

9883 

9992 

109 

398 

60- 

0101 

0210 

0319 

0428 

0537 

0646 

0755 

0864 

109 

399 

60- 

0973 

1082 

1191 

1299 

1408 

1517 

1625 

1734 

1843 

1951 

109 

400 

60- 

2060 

2169 

2277 

2386 

2494 

2603 

2711 

2819 

2928 

3036 

108 

401 

60- 

3144 

3253 

3361 

3469 

3577 

3686 

3794 

3902 

4010 

4118 

108 

402 

60- 

4226 

4334 

4442 

4550 

4658 

4766 

4874 

4982 

5089 

5197 

108 

403 

60- 

5305 

5413 

5521 

5628 

5736 

5844 

5951 

6059 

6166 

6274 

108 

404 

60- 

6381 

6489 

6596 

6704 

6811 

6919 

7026 

7133 

7241 

7348 

107 

405 

60- 

7455 

7562 

7669 

7777 

7884 

7991 

8098 

8205 

8312 

8419 

107 

406 

60- 

8526 

8633 

8740 

8847 

8954 

9061 

9167 

9274 

9381 

9488 

107 

407 

60- 

9594 

9701 

9808 

9914 

107 

407 

61- 

0021 

0128 

0234 

0341 

0447 

0554 

107 

408 

61- 

0660 

0767 

0873 

0979 

1086 

1192 

1298 

1405 

1511 

1617 

106 

409 

61- 

1723 

1829 

1936 

2042 

2148 

2254 

2360 

2466 

2572 

2678 

106 

410 

61- 

2784 

2890 

2996 

3102 

3207 

3313 

3419 

3525 

3630 

3736 

106 

411 

61- 

3842 

3947 

4053 

4159 

4264 

4370 

4475 

4581 

4686 

4792 

106 

412 

61- 

4897 

5003 

5108 

5213 

5319 

5424 

5529 

5634 

5740 

5845 

105 

413 

61- 

5950 

6055 

6160 

6265 

6370 

6476 

6581 

6686 

6790 

6895 

105 

414 

61- 

7000 

7105 

7210 

7315 

7420 

7525 

7629 

7734 

7839 

7943 

105 

415 

61- 

8048 

8153 

8257 

8362 

8466 

8571 

8676 

8780 

8884 

8989 

105 

416 

61- 

9093 

9198 

9302 

9406 

9511 

9615 

9719 

9824 

9928 

.... 

105 

416 

62- 

0032 

104 

417 

62- 

0136 

0240 

0344 

0448 

0552 

0656 

0760 

0864 

0968 

1072 

104 

418 

62- 

1176 

1280 

1384 

1488 

1592 

1695 

1799 

1903 

2007 

2110 

104 

419 

62- 

2214 

2318 

2421 

2525 

2628 

2732 

2835 

2939 

3042 

3146 

104 

420 

62- 

3249 

3353 

3456 

3559 

3663 

3766 

3869 

3973 

4076 

4179 

103 

421 

62- 

4282 

4385 

4488 

4591 

4695 

4798 

4901 

5004 

5107 

5210 

103 

422 

62- 

5312 

5415 

5518 

5621 

5724 

5827 

5929 

6032 

6135 

6238 

103 

423 

62- 

6340 

6443 

6546 

6648 

6751 

6853 

6956 

7058 

7161 

7263 

103 

424 

62- 

7366 

7468 

7571 

7673 

7775 

7878 

7980 

8082 

8185 

8287 

102 

425 

62- 

8389 

8491 

8593 

8695 

8797 

8900 

9002 

9104 

9206 

9308 

102 

426 

62- 

9410 

9512 

9613 

9715 

9817 

9919 

102 

426 

63- 

0021 

0123 

0224 

0326 

102 

427 

63- 

0428 

0530 

0631 

0733 

0835 

0936 

1038 

1139 

1241 

1342 

102 

428 

63- 

1444 

1545 

1647 

1748 

1849 

1951 

2052 

2153 

2255 

2356 

101 

429 

63- 

2457 

2559 

2660 

2761 

2862 

2963 

3064 

3165 

3266 

3367 

101 

N 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

6 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

U761 


LOGARITHMS    OF   NUMBERS 
LOGARITHMS  OP  NUMBERS  PROM  1  TO  1000 — (Cord.) 


N 

0 

i 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

430 

63- 

3468 

3569 

3670 

3771 

3872 

3973 

4074 

4175 

4276 

4376 

101 

431 

63- 

4477 

4578 

4679 

4779 

4880 

4981 

5081 

5182 

5283 

5383 

101 

432 

63- 

5484 

5584 

5685 

5785 

5886 

5986 

6087 

6187 

6287 

6388 

100 

433 

63- 

6488 

6588 

6688 

6789 

6889 

6989 

7089 

7189 

7290 

7390 

100 

434 

63- 

7490 

7590 

7690 

7790 

7890 

7990 

8090 

8190 

8290 

8389 

100 

435 

63- 

8489 

8589 

8689 

8789 

8888 

8988 

9088 

9188 

9287 

9387 

100 

436 

63- 

9486 

9586 

9686 

9785 

9885 

9984 

100 

436 

64- 

0084 

0183 

0283 

0382 

99 

437 

64- 

0481 

0581 

0680 

0779 

0879 

0978 

1077 

1177 

1276 

1375 

99 

438 

64- 

1474 

1573 

1672 

1771 

1871 

1970 

2069 

2168 

2267 

2366 

99 

439 

64- 

2465 

2563 

2662 

2761 

2860 

2959 

3058 

3156 

3255 

3354 

99 

440 

64- 

3453 

3551 

3650 

3749 

3847 

3946 

4044 

4143 

4242 

4340 

99 

441 

64- 

4439 

4537 

4636 

4734 

4832 

4931 

5029 

5127 

5226 

5324 

98 

442 

64- 

5422 

5521 

5619 

5717 

5815 

5913 

6011 

6110 

6208 

6306 

98 

443 

64- 

6404 

6502 

6600 

6698 

6796 

6894 

6992 

7089 

7187 

7285 

98 

444 

64- 

7383 

7481 

7579 

7676 

7774 

7872 

7969 

8067 

8165 

8262 

98 

445 

64- 

8360 

8458 

8555 

8653 

8750 

8848 

8945 

9043 

9140 

9237 

97 

446 

64- 

9335 

9432 

9530 

9627 

9724 

9821 

9919 

97 

4461 

65- 

0016 

0113 

0210 

97 

447 

65- 

0308 

0405 

0502 

0599 

0696 

0793 

0890 

0987 

1084 

1181 

97 

448 

65- 

1278 

1375 

1472 

1569 

1666 

1762 

1859 

1956 

2053 

2150 

97 

449 

65- 

2246 

2343 

2440 

2536 

2633 

2730 

2S26 

2923 

3019 

3116 

97 

450 

65- 

3213 

3309 

3405 

3502 

3598 

3695 

3791 

3888 

3984 

4080 

96 

451 

65- 

4177 

4273 

4369 

4465 

4562 

4658 

4754 

4850 

4946 

5042 

96 

452 

65- 

5138 

5235 

5331 

5427 

5523 

5619 

5715 

5810 

5906 

6002 

96 

453 

65- 

6098 

6194 

6290 

6386 

6482 

6577 

6673 

6769 

6864 

6960 

96 

454 

65- 

7056 

7152 

7247 

7343 

7438 

7534 

7629 

7725 

7820 

7916 

96 

455 

65- 

8011 

8107 

8202 

8298 

8393 

8488 

8584 

8679 

8774 

8870 

95 

456 

65- 

8965 

9060 

9155 

9250 

9346 

9441 

9536 

9631 

9726 

9821 

95 

457 

65- 

9916 

95 

457 

66- 

0011 

0106 

0201 

0296 

0391 

0486 

0581 

0676 

0771 

95 

458 

66- 

0865 

0960 

1055 

1150 

1245 

1339 

1434 

1529 

1623 

1718 

95 

459 

66- 

1813 

1907 

2002 

2096 

2191 

2286 

2380 

2475 

2569 

2663 

95 

460 

66- 

2758 

2852 

2947 

3041 

3135 

3230 

3324 

3418 

3512 

3607 

94 

461 

66- 

3701 

3795 

3889 

3983 

407$ 

4172 

4266 

4360 

4454 

4548 

94 

462 

66- 

4642 

4736 

4830 

4924 

5018 

5112 

5206 

5299 

5393 

5487 

94 

463 

66- 

5581 

5675 

5769 

5862 

5956 

6050 

6143 

6237 

6331 

6424 

94 

464 

66- 

6518 

6612 

6705 

6799 

6892 

6986 

7079 

7173 

7266 

7360 

94 

465 

66- 

7453 

7546 

7640 

7733 

7826 

7920 

8013 

8106 

8199 

8293 

93 

466 

66- 

8386 

8479 

8572 

8665 

8759 

8852 

8945 

9038 

,9131 

9224 

93 

^67 

66- 

9317 

9410 

9503 

9596 

9689 

9782 

9875 

9967 

93 

467 

67- 

0060 

0153 

93 

468 

67- 

0246 

0339 

0431 

0524 

0617 

0710 

0802 

0895 

0988 

1080 

-93 

N 

0 

l 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

•[•177!] 


LOGARITHMS   OF   NUMBERS 
LOGARITHMS  OP  NUMBERS  FROM  1  TO  1000 — (ConJ.) 


N 

o 

i 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

2 

469 

67- 

1173 

1265 

1358 

1451 

1543 

1636 

1728 

1821 

1913 

2005 

93 

470 

67- 

2098 

2190 

2283 

2375 

2467 

2560 

2652 

2744 

2836 

2929 

92 

471 

67- 

3021 

3113 

3205 

3297 

3390 

3482 

3574 

3666 

3758 

3850 

92 

472 

67- 

3942 

4034 

4126 

4218 

4310 

4402 

4494 

4586 

4677 

4769 

92 

473 

67- 

4861 

4953 

5045 

5137 

5228 

5320 

5412 

5503 

5595 

5687 

92 

474 

67- 

5778 

5870 

5962 

6053 

6145 

6236 

6328 

6419 

6511 

6602 

92 

475 

67- 

6694 

6785 

6876 

6968 

7059 

7151 

7242 

7333 

7424 

7516 

91 

476 

67- 

7607 

7698 

7789 

7881 

7972 

8063 

8154 

8245 

8336 

8427 

91 

477 

67- 

8518 

8609 

8700 

8791 

8882 

8973 

9064 

9155 

9246 

9337 

91 

478 

67- 

9428 

9519 

9610 

9700 

9791 

9882 

9973 

91 

478 

68- 

0063 

0154 

0245 

91 

479 

68- 

0336 

0426 

0517 

0607 

0698 

0789 

0879 

0970 

1060 

1151 

91 

480 

68- 

1241 

1332 

1422 

1513 

1603 

1693 

1784 

1874 

1964 

2055 

90 

481 

68- 

2145 

2235 

2326 

2416 

2506 

2596 

2686 

2777 

2867 

2957 

90 

482 

68- 

3047 

3137 

3227 

3317 

3407 

3497 

3587 

3677 

3767 

3857 

90 

483 

68- 

3947 

4037 

4127 

4217 

4307 

4396 

4486 

4576 

4666 

4756 

90 

484 

68- 

4845 

4935 

5025 

5114 

5204 

5294 

5383 

5473 

5563 

5652 

90 

485 

68- 

5742 

5831 

5921 

6010 

6100 

6189 

6279 

6368 

6458 

6547 

89 

486 

68- 

6636 

6726 

6815 

6904 

6994 

7083 

7172 

7261 

7351 

7440 

89 

487 

6&- 

7529 

7618 

7707 

7796 

7886 

7975 

8064 

8153 

8242 

8331 

89 

488 

68- 

8420 

8509 

8598 

8687 

8776 

8865 

8953 

9042 

9131 

9220 

89 

489 

68- 

9309 

9398 

9486 

9575 

9664 

9753 

9841 

9930 

89 

489 

69- 

0019 

0107 

89 

490 

69- 

0196 

0285 

0373 

0462 

0550 

0639 

0728 

0816 

0905 

0993 

89 

491 

69- 

1081 

1170 

1258 

1347 

1435 

1524 

1612 

1700 

1789 

1877 

88 

492 

69- 

1965 

2053 

2142 

2230 

2318 

2406 

2494 

2583 

2671 

2759 

88 

493 

69- 

2847 

2935 

3023 

3111 

3199 

3287 

3375 

3463 

3551 

3639 

88 

494 

69- 

3727 

3815 

3903 

3991 

4078 

4166 

4254 

4342 

4430 

4517 

88 

495 

69- 

4605 

4693 

4781 

4868 

4956 

5044 

5131 

5219 

5307 

5394 

88 

496 

69- 

5482 

5569 

5657 

5744 

5832 

5919 

6007 

6094 

6182 

6269 

87 

497 

69- 

6356 

6444 

6531 

6618 

6706 

6793 

6880 

6968 

7055 

7142 

87 

498 

69- 

7229 

7317 

7404 

7491 

7578 

7665 

7752 

7839 

7926 

8014 

87 

499 

69- 

8101 

8188 

8275 

8362 

8449 

8535 

8622 

8709 

8796 

8883 

87 

500 

60- 

8970 

9057 

9144 

9231 

9317 

9404 

9491 

9578 

9664 

9751 

87 

501 

69- 

9838 

9924 

87 

501 

70- 

0011 

0098 

0184 

0271 

0358 

0444 

0531 

0617 

87 

502 

70- 

0704 

0790 

0877 

0963 

1050 

1136 

1222 

1309 

1395 

1482 

86 

503 

70- 

1568 

1654 

1741 

1827 

1913 

1999 

2086 

2172 

2258 

2344 

86 

504 

70- 

2431 

2517 

2603 

2689 

2775 

2861 

2947 

3033 

3119 

3205 

86 

505 

70- 

3291 

3377 

3463 

3549 

3635 

3721 

3807 

3893 

3979 

4065 

86 

506 

70- 

4151 

4236 

4322 

4408 

4494 

4579 

4665 

4751 

4837 

4922 

86 

507 

70- 

5008 

5094 

5179 

5265 

5350 

5436 

5522 

5607 

5693 

5778 

86 

N 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

1178] 


LOGARITHMS   OF   NUMBERS 
LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS  FROM  1  TO  1000 — (Cont.) 


N 

0 

i 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

508 

70- 

5864 

5949 

6035 

6120 

6206 

6291 

6376 

6462 

6547 

6632 

85 

509 

70- 

6718 

6803 

6888 

6974 

7059 

7144 

7229 

7315 

7400 

7485 

85 

510 

70- 

7570 

7655 

7740 

7826 

7911 

7996 

8081 

8166 

8251 

8336 

85 

511 

70- 

8421 

8506 

8591 

8676 

8761 

8846 

8931 

9015 

9100 

9185 

85 

512 

70- 

9270 

9355 

9440 

9524 

9609 

9694 

9779 

9863 

9948 

.... 

85 

512 

71- 

0033 

85 

513 

71- 

0117 

0202 

0287 

0371 

0456 

0540 

0625 

0710 

0794 

0879 

85 

514 

71- 

0963 

1048 

1132 

1217 

1301 

1385 

1470 

1554 

1639 

1723 

84 

515 

71- 

1807 

1892 

1976 

2060 

2144 

2229 

2313 

2397 

2481 

2566 

84 

516 

71- 

2650 

2734 

2818 

2902 

2986 

3070 

3154 

3238 

3323 

3407 

84 

517 

71- 

3491 

3575 

3659 

3742 

3826 

3910 

3994 

4078 

4162 

4246 

84 

518 

71- 

4330 

4414 

4497 

4581 

4665 

4749 

4833 

4916 

5000 

5084 

84 

519 

71- 

5167 

5251 

5335 

5418 

5502 

5586 

5669 

5753 

5836 

5920 

84 

520 

71- 

6003 

6087 

6170 

6254 

6337 

6421 

6504 

6588 

6671 

6754 

83 

521 

71- 

6838 

6921 

7004 

7088 

7171 

7254 

7338 

7421 

7504 

7587 

83 

522 

71- 

7671 

7754 

7837 

7920 

8003 

8086 

8169 

8253 

8336 

8419 

83 

523 

71- 

8502 

8585 

8668 

8751 

8834 

8917 

9000 

9083 

9165 

9248 

83 

524 

71- 

9331 

9414 

9497 

9580 

9663 

9745 

9828 

9911 

9994 

•  •  •  • 

83 

524 

72- 

0077 

83 

525 

72- 

0159 

0242 

0325 

0407 

0490 

0573 

0655 

0738 

0821 

0903 

83 

526 

72- 

0986 

1068 

1151 

1233 

1316 

1398 

1481 

1563 

1646 

1728 

82 

527 

72- 

1811 

1893 

1975 

2058 

2140 

2222 

2305 

2387 

2469 

2552 

82 

528 

72- 

2634 

2716 

2798 

2881 

2963 

3045 

3127 

3209 

3291 

3374 

82 

529 

72- 

3456 

3538 

3620 

3702 

3784 

3866 

3948 

4030 

4112 

4194 

82 

530 

72- 

4276 

4358 

4440 

4522 

4604 

4685 

4767 

4849 

4931 

5013 

82 

531 

72- 

5095 

5176 

5258 

5340 

5422 

5503 

5585 

5667 

5748 

5830 

82 

532 

72- 

5912 

5993 

6075 

6165 

6238 

6320 

6401 

6483 

6564 

6646 

82 

533! 

72- 

6727 

6809 

6890 

6972 

7053 

7134 

7216 

7297 

7379 

7460 

81 

534 

72- 

7541 

7623 

7704 

7785 

7866 

7948 

8029 

8110 

8191 

8273 

81 

535 

72- 

8354 

,8435 

8516 

8597 

8678 

8759 

8841 

8922 

9003 

9084 

81 

536 

72- 

9165 

9246 

9327 

9408 

9489 

9570 

9651 

9732 

9813 

9893 

81 

537 

72- 

9974 

81 

537 

73- 

0055 

0136 

0217 

0298 

0378 

0459 

0540 

0621 

0702 

81 

538 

73- 

0782 

0863 

0944 

1024 

1105 

1186 

1266 

1347 

1428 

1508 

81 

539 

73- 

1589 

1669 

1750 

1830 

1911 

1991 

2072 

2152 

2233 

2313 

81 

80 

540 

73- 

2394 

2474 

2555 

2635 

2715 

2796 

2876 

2956 

3037 

3117 

80 

541 

73- 

3197 

3278 

3358 

3438 

3518 

3598 

3679 

3759 

3839 

3919 

80 

542 

73- 

3999 

4079 

4160 

4240 

4320 

4400 

4480 

4560 

4640 

4720 

80 

543 

73- 

4800 

4880 

4960 

5040 

5120 

5200 

5279 

5359 

5439 

5519 

80 

544 

73- 

5599 

5679 

5759 

5838 

5918 

5998 

6078 

6157 

6237 

6317 

80 

545 

73- 

6397 

6476 

6556 

6635 

6715 

6795 

6874 

6954 

7034 

7113 

80 

546 

73- 

7193 

7272 

7352 

7431 

7511 

7590 

7670 

7749 

7829 

7908 

79 

N 

0 

l 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

[179 


LOGARITHMS   OF   NUMBERS 
LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS  FROM  1  TO  1000 — (Cont.) 


-N 

ft 

0 

i 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

547 

73- 

7987 

8067 

8146 

8225 

8305 

8384 

8463 

8543 

8622 

8701 

79 

:548 

73- 

8781 

8860 

8939 

9018 

9097 

9177 

9256 

9335 

9414 

9493 

79 

549 

73- 

9572 

9651 

9731 

9810 

9889 

9968 

79 

0047 

0126 

0205 

0284 

79 

r.S 

&K 

! 

550 

74- 

036& 

0442 

0521 

0600 

0678 

0757 

0836 

0915 

0994 

1073 

79 

551 

74- 

1152 

1230 

1309 

1388 

1467 

1546 

1624 

1703 

1782 

1860 

79 

552 

74-. 

1939 

2018 

2096 

2175 

2254 

2332 

2411 

2489 

2568 

2647 

79 

953 

74- 

2725 

2804 

2882 

2961 

3039 

3118 

3196 

3275 

3353 

3431 

78 

554 

74- 

3510 

3588 

3667 

3745 

3823 

3902 

3980 

4058 

4136 

4215 

78 

555 

74- 

4295 

437t 

4449 

4528 

4606 

4684 

4762 

4840 

4919 

4997 

78 

556 

74?* 

5075 

5153- 

5231 

5309 

5387 

5465 

5543 

5621 

5699 

5777 

78 

557 

74- 

5855 

593$ 

6011 

6089 

6167 

6245 

6323 

6401 

6479 

6556 

78 

558 

1&~ 

6634 

6712 

6790 

6868 

6945 

7023 

7101 

7179 

7256 

7334 

78 

559 

74- 

7412 

7489 

7567 

7645 

7722 

7800 

7878 

7955 

8033 

8110 

78 

560 

74- 

8188 

8266 

8343 

8421 

8498 

8576 

8653 

8731 

8808 

8885 

77 

561 

74r- 

8963 

9040 

9118 

9195 

9272 

9350 

9427 

9504 

9582 

9659 

77 

562 

74- 

9736 

9814 

9891 

9968 

77 

562 

75- 

0045 

0123 

0200 

0277 

0354 

0431 

77 

563 

75- 

0508 

0586 

0663 

0740 

0817 

0894 

0971 

1048 

1125 

1202 

77 

564 

75- 

1279 

1356 

1433 

1510 

1587 

1664 

1741 

1818 

1895 

1972 

77 

565 

75- 

2048 

2125 

2202 

2279 

2356 

2433 

2509 

2586 

2663 

2740 

77 

566 

75- 

2816 

2893 

2970 

3047 

3123 

3200 

3277 

3353 

3430 

3506 

77 

567 

75- 

3583 

3660 

3736 

3813 

3889 

3966 

4042 

4119 

4195 

4272 

77 

568 

75- 

4348; 

4425 

4501 

4578 

4654 

4730 

4807 

4883 

4960 

5036 

76 

569 

75- 

5112 

5189 

5265 

5341 

5417 

5494 

5570 

5646 

5722 

5799 

76 

£8 

570 

75- 

5875 

5951 

6027 

6103 

6180 

6256 

6332 

6408 

6484 

6560 

76 

571 

75- 

6636 

6712 

6788 

6864 

6940 

7016 

7092 

7168 

7244 

7320 

76 

572 

7&- 

7396 

7472 

7548 

7624 

7700 

7775 

7851 

7927 

8003 

8079 

76 

573 

75tr 

8155; 

8230 

8306 

8382 

8458 

8533 

8609 

8685 

8761 

8836 

76 

574 

75- 

8912 

8988 

9063 

9139 

9214 

9290 

9366 

9441 

9517 

9592 

76 

?3  ' 

i 

1575: 

i75~- 

9668; 

9743* 

9819 

9894 

9970 

76 

575 

76- 

0045 

0121 

0196 

0272 

0347 

75 

55761 

76-, 

0422 

0498 

0573 

0649 

0724 

0799 

0875 

0950 

1025 

1101 

75 

577; 

76- 

1176 

1251 

1326 

1402 

1477 

1552 

1627 

1702 

1778 

1853 

75 

578! 

76- 

1928 

2003 

2078 

2153 

2228 

2303 

2378 

2453 

2529 

2604 

75 

579 

76- 

2679 

2754 

2829 

2904 

2978 

3053 

3128 

3203 

3278 

3353 

75 

580 

76- 

3428 

3503 

3578 

365'3 

3727 

3802 

3877 

3952 

4027 

4101 

75 

;581 

7J>-* 

4176 

4251 

4326 

4400 

4475 

4550 

4624 

4699 

4774 

4848 

75 

;S82 

76H 

4923 

4998 

5072 

5147 

5221 

5296 

5370 

5445 

5520 

5594 

75 

583 

76- 

5669 

5743 

5818 

5892 

5966 

6041 

6115 

6190 

6264 

6338 

74 

584; 

76- 

6413 

S6487 

6562 

6636 

6710 

6785 

6859 

6933 

7007 

7082 

74 

<K3  • 

•(•  *  f  • 

•  ' 

585 

76- 

715$ 

7230 

7304 

7379 

7453 

7527 

7601 

7675 

7749 

7823 

74 

B 

z 

0 

1- 

2 

3' 

4 

5: 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

11801 


LOGARITHMS    OF    NUMBERS 
LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS  FROM  1  TO  1000 — (Cont.] 


N 

o 

i 

1 

3 

4 

5, 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

586 

76- 

7898 

7972 

8046 

8120 

8194 

1  8268 

8342 

8416 

8490 

8564 

74 

587 

7B- 

8638 

8712 

8786 

8860 

8934 

9008 

9082 

9156 

9230 

9303 

74 

588 

76- 

9377 

9451 

9525 

9599 

9673 

9746 

9820 

9894 

9968 

.... 

74 

588 

77- 

0042 

74 

589 

77- 

0115 

0189 

0263 

0336 

0410 

0484 

0557 

0631 

0705 

0778 

74 

590 

77- 

0852 

0926 

0999 

1073 

1146 

1220 

1293 

1367 

1440 

1514 

74 

591 

77- 

1587 

1661 

1734 

1808 

1881 

1955 

2028 

2102 

2175 

2248 

73 

592 

77- 

2322 

2395 

2468 

2542 

2615 

2688 

2762 

2835 

2908 

2981 

73 

593 

77- 

3055 

3128 

3201 

3274 

3348 

3421 

3494 

3567 

3640 

3713 

73 

594 

77- 

3786 

3860 

3933 

4006 

4079 

4152 

4225 

4298 

4371 

4444 

73 

595 

77- 

4517 

4590 

4663 

4736 

4809 

4882 

4955 

5028 

5100 

5173 

73 

596 

77- 

5246 

5319 

5392 

5465 

5538 

5610 

5683 

5756 

5829 

5902 

73 

597 

77- 

5974 

6047 

6120 

6193 

6265 

6338 

6411 

6483 

6556 

6629 

73 

598 

77- 

6701 

6774 

6846 

6919 

6992 

7064 

7137 

7209 

7282 

7354 

73 

599 

77- 

7427 

7499 

7572 

7644 

7717 

7789 

7862 

7934 

8006 

:8079 

72 

600 

77- 

8151 

8224 

8296 

8368 

8441 

8513 

8585': 

8658; 

8730" 

'8802 

!'72 

601 

77- 

8874 

8947 

9019 

9091 

9163 

9236 

9308 

9380 

9452 

9524 

'& 

602 

77- 

9596 

9669 

9741 

9813 

9885 

9957 

602 

78- 

0029 

0101 

0173 

0245 

72 

603 

78- 

0317 

0389 

0461 

0533 

0605 

0677 

0749 

0821 

0893 

0965 

72 

604 

78- 

1037 

1109 

1181 

1253 

1324 

1396 

1468 

1540 

1612 

1684 

72 

605 

78- 

1755 

1827 

1899 

1971 

2042 

2114 

2186 

2258 

2329 

2401 

72 

606 

78- 

2473 

2544 

2616 

2688 

2759 

2831 

2902 

2974 

3046 

3117 

-3% 

607 

78- 

3189 

3260 

3332 

3403 

3475 

3546 

3618 

3689 

3761 

3832 

^*fi 

608 

78- 

3904 

3975 

4046 

4118 

4189 

4261 

4332 

4403 

4475 

454S 

.'.  tp^ 

609 

78- 

4617 

4689 

4760 

4831 

4902 

4974 

5045 

5116 

5187 

5259 

:n 

610 

78- 

5330 

5401 

5472 

5543 

5615 

5686 

5757 

5828 

5899 

5970 

°fl 

611 

78- 

6041 

6112 

6183 

6254 

6325 

6396 

6467 

6538 

6609 

6680 

iff 

612 

78- 

6751 

6822 

6893 

6964 

7035 

7106 

7177 

7248 

7319 

7390 

% 

613 

78- 

7460 

7531 

7602 

7673 

7744 

7815 

7885 

7956 

8027 

8098 

71 

614 

78- 

8168 

8239 

8310 

8381 

8451 

8522 

8593 

8663 

8734 

8804 

m 

615 

78- 

8875 

8946 

9016 

9087 

9157 

9228 

9299 

9369 

9440 

9510 

71 

616 

78- 

9581 

9651 

9722 

9792 

9863 

9933 

70 

616 

79- 

0004 

0074 

0144 

0215 

70 

617 

79- 

0285 

0356 

0426 

0496 

0567 

0637 

0707 

0778 

0'848 

0918 

70 

618 

79- 

0988 

1059 

1129 

1199 

1269 

1340 

1410 

1480 

1550 

1620 

70 

619 

79- 

1691 

1761 

1831 

1901 

1971 

2041 

2111 

2181 

2252 

2322 

70 

620 

79- 

2392 

2462 

2532 

2602 

2672 

2742 

2812 

2882 

2952 

3022 

70 

621 

79- 

3092 

3162 

3231 

3301 

3371 

3441 

3511 

3581 

3651 

3721 

70 

622 

79- 

3790 

3860 

3930 

4000 

4070 

4139 

4209 

4279 

4349 

4418 

70 

623 

79- 

4488 

4558 

4627 

4697 

4767 

4836 

4906 

4976 

5045 

5115 

70 

624 

79- 

5185 

5254 

5324 

5393 

5463 

5532 

560'2 

5672 

5741 

5811 

70 

625 

79- 

5880 

5949 

6019 

6088 

6158 

6227 

6297 

6366 

6436 

6505 

69 

N 

o 

l 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7  .. 

8 

9 

D 

[181 


LOGARITHMS    OF   NUMBERS 
LOGARITHMS  OP  NUMBERS  FROM  1  TO  1000 — (Cont.) 


N 

0 

i 

2 

3 

4. 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

626 

79- 

6574 

6644 

6713 

6782 

6852 

6921 

6990 

7060 

7129 

7198 

69 

627 

7&- 

7268 

7337 

7406 

7475 

7545 

7614 

7683 

7752 

7821 

7890 

69 

628 

79- 

7960 

8029 

8098 

8167 

8236 

8305 

8374 

8443 

8513 

8582 

69 

629 

79- 

8651 

8720 

8789 

8858 

8927 

8996 

9065 

9134 

9203 

9272' 

69 

630 

79- 

9341 

9409 

9478 

9547 

9616 

9685 

9754 

9823 

9892 

9961 

69 

631 

80- 

0029 

0098 

0167 

0236 

0305 

0373 

0442 

0511 

0580 

0648 

69 

632 

80- 

0717 

0786 

0854 

0923 

0992 

1061 

1129 

1198 

1266 

1335 

69 

633 

80- 

1404 

1472 

1541 

1609 

1678 

1747 

1815 

1884 

1952 

2021 

69 

634 

80- 

2089 

2158 

2226 

2295 

2363 

2432 

2500 

2568 

2637 

2705 

69 

635 

80- 

2774 

2842 

2910 

2979 

3047 

3116 

3184 

3252 

3321 

3389 

68 

636 

80- 

3457 

3525 

3594 

3662 

3730 

3798 

3867 

3935 

4003 

4071 

68 

637 

80- 

4139 

4208 

4276 

4344 

4412 

4480 

4548 

4616 

4685 

4753 

68 

638 

80- 

4821 

4889 

4957 

5025 

5093 

5161 

5229 

5297 

5365 

5433 

68 

639 

80- 

5501 

5569 

5637 

5705 

5773 

5841 

5908 

5976 

6044 

6112 

68 

640 

80- 

6180 

6248 

6316 

6384 

6451 

6519 

6587 

6655 

6723 

6790 

68 

641 

80- 

6858 

6926 

6994 

7061 

7129 

7197 

7264 

7332 

7400 

7467 

68 

642 

80- 

7535 

7603 

7670 

7738 

7806 

7873 

7941 

8008 

8076 

8143 

68 

643 

80- 

8211 

8279 

8346 

8414 

8481 

8549 

8616 

8684 

8751 

8818 

67 

644 

80- 

8886 

8953 

9021 

9088 

9156 

9223 

9290 

9358 

9425 

9492 

67 

645 

80- 

9560 

9627 

9694 

9762 

9829 

9896 

9964 

67 

645 

81- 

0031 

0098 

0165 

67 

646 

81- 

0233 

0300 

0367 

0434 

0501 

0569 

0636 

0703 

0770 

0837 

67 

647 

81- 

0904 

0971 

1039 

1106 

1173 

1240 

1307 

1374 

1441 

1508 

67 

648 

81- 

1575 

1642 

1709 

1776 

1843 

1910 

1977 

2044 

2111 

2178 

67 

649 

81- 

2245 

2312 

2379 

2445 

2512 

2579 

2646 

2713 

2780 

2847 

67 

650 

81- 

2913 

2980 

3047 

3114 

3181 

3247 

3314 

3381 

3448 

3514 

67 

651 

81- 

3581 

3648 

3714 

3781 

3848 

3914 

3981 

4048 

4114 

4181 

67 

652 

81- 

4248 

4314 

4381 

4447 

4514 

4581 

4647 

4714 

4780 

4847 

67 

653 

81- 

4913 

4980 

5046 

5113 

5179 

5246 

5312 

5378 

5445 

5511 

66 

654 

81- 

5578 

5644 

5711 

5777 

5843 

5910 

5976 

6042 

6109 

6175 

66 

655 

81- 

6241 

6308 

6374 

6440 

6506 

6573 

6639 

6705 

6771 

6838 

66 

656 

81- 

6904 

6970 

7036 

7102 

7169 

7235 

7301 

7367 

7433 

7499 

66 

657 

81- 

7565 

7631 

7698 

7764 

7830 

7896 

7962 

8028 

8094 

8160 

66 

658 

81- 

8226 

8292 

8358 

8424 

8490 

8556 

8622 

8638 

8754 

8820 

66 

659 

81- 

8885 

8951 

9017 

9083 

9149 

9215 

9281 

9346 

9412 

9478 

66 

660 

81- 

9544 

9610 

9676 

9741 

9807 

9873 

9939 

66 

660 

82- 

0004 

0070 

0136 

66 

661 

82- 

0201 

0267 

0333 

0399 

0464 

0530 

0595 

0661 

0727 

0792 

66 

662 

82- 

0858 

0924 

0989 

1055 

1120 

1186 

1251 

1317 

1382 

1448 

66 

663 

82- 

1514 

1579 

1645 

1710 

1775 

1841 

1906 

1972 

2037 

2103 

65 

664 

82- 

2168 

2233 

2299 

2364 

2430 

2495 

2560 

2626 

2691 

2756 

65 

665 

82- 

2822 

2887 

2952 

3018 

3083 

3148 

i 
3213 

3279 

3344 

3409- 

65 

N 

0 

i 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

182] 


LOGARITHMS   OF   NUMBERS 
LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS  FROM  1  TO  1000 — (Cont.) 


N 

0 

i 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

666 

82- 

3474 

3539 

3605 

3670 

3735 

3800 

3865 

3930 

3996 

4061 

65 

667 

82- 

4126 

4191 

4256 

4321 

4386 

4451 

4516 

4581 

4646 

4711 

65 

668 

82- 

4776 

4841 

4906 

4971 

5036 

5101 

5166 

5231 

5296 

5361 

65 

669 

82- 

5426 

5491 

5556 

5621 

5686 

5751 

5815 

5880 

5945 

6010 

65 

670 

82- 

6075 

6140 

6204 

6269 

6334 

6399 

6464 

6528 

6593 

6658 

65 

671 

82- 

6723 

6787 

6852 

6917 

6981 

7046 

7111 

7175 

7240 

7305 

65 

672 

82- 

7369 

7434 

7499 

7563 

7628 

7692 

7757 

7821 

7886 

7951 

65 

673 

82- 

8015 

8080 

8144 

8209 

8273 

8338 

8402 

8467 

8531 

8595 

64 

674 

82- 

8660 

8724 

8789 

8853 

8918 

8982 

9046 

9111 

9175 

9239 

64 

675 

82- 

9304 

9368 

9432 

9497 

9561 

9625 

9690 

9754 

9818 

9882 

64 

676 

82- 

9947 

64 

676 

83- 

0011 

0075 

0139 

0204 

0268 

0332 

0396 

0460 

0525 

64 

677 

83- 

0589 

0653 

0717 

0781 

0845 

0909 

0973 

1037 

1102 

1166 

64 

678 

83- 

1230 

1294 

1358 

1422 

1486 

1550 

1614 

1678 

1742 

1806 

64 

679 

83- 

1870 

1934 

1998 

2062 

2126 

2189 

2253 

2317 

2381 

2445 

64 

680 

83- 

2509 

2573 

2637 

2700 

2764 

2828 

2892 

2956 

3020 

3083 

64 

681 

83- 

3147 

3211 

3275 

3338 

3402 

3466 

3530 

3593 

3657 

3721 

64 

682 

83- 

3784 

3848 

3912 

3975 

4039 

4103 

4166 

4230 

4294 

4357 

64 

683 

83- 

4421 

4484 

4548 

4611 

4675 

4739 

4802 

4866 

4929 

4993 

64 

684 

83- 

5056 

5120 

5183 

5247 

5310 

5373 

5437 

5500 

5564 

5627 

63 

685 

83- 

5691 

5754 

5817 

5881 

5944 

6007 

6071 

6134 

6197 

6261 

63 

686 

83- 

6324 

6387 

6451 

6514 

6577 

6641 

6704 

6767 

6830 

6894 

63 

687 

83- 

6957 

7020 

7083 

7146 

7210 

7273 

7336 

7399 

7462 

7525 

63 

688 

83- 

7588 

7652 

7715 

7778 

7841 

7904 

7967 

8030 

8093 

8156 

63 

689 

83- 

8219 

8282 

8345 

8408 

8471 

8534 

8597 

8660 

8723 

8786 

63 

690 

83- 

8849 

8912 

8975 

9038 

9101 

9164 

9227 

9289 

9352 

9415 

63 

691 

83- 

9478 

9541 

9604 

9667 

9729 

9792 

9855 

9918 

9981 

.... 

63 

691 

84- 

0043 

63 

692 

84- 

0106 

0169 

0232 

0294 

0357 

0420 

0482 

0545 

0608 

0671 

63 

693 

84- 

0733 

0796 

0859 

0921 

0984 

1046 

1109 

1172 

1234 

1297 

63 

694 

84- 

1359 

1422 

1485 

1547 

1610 

1672 

1735 

1797 

1860 

1922 

63 

695 

84- 

1985 

2047 

2110 

2172 

2235 

2297 

2360 

2422 

2484 

2547 

62 

696 

84- 

2609 

2672 

2734 

2796 

2859 

2921 

2983 

3046 

3108 

3170 

62 

697 

84- 

3233 

3295 

3357 

3420 

3482 

3544 

3606 

3669 

3731 

3793 

62 

698 

84- 

3855 

3918 

3980 

4042 

4104 

4166 

4229 

4291 

4353 

4415 

62 

699 

84- 

4477 

4539 

4601 

4664 

4726 

4788 

4850 

4912 

4974 

5036 

62 

700 

84- 

5098 

5160 

5222 

5284 

5346 

5408 

5470 

5532 

5594 

5656 

62 

701 

84- 

5718 

5780 

5842 

5904 

5966 

6028 

6090 

6151 

6213 

6275 

62 

702 

84- 

6337 

6399 

6461 

6523 

6585 

6646 

6708 

6770 

6832 

6894 

62 

703 

84- 

6955 

7017 

7079 

7141 

7202 

7264 

7326 

7388 

7449 

7511 

62 

704 

84- 

7573 

7634 

7696 

7758 

7819 

7881 

7943 

8004 

8066 

8128 

62 

705 

84- 

8189 

8251 

8312 

8374 

8435 

8497 

8559 

8620 

8682 

8743 

62 

N 

0 

i 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

[183] 


LOGARITHMS    OF   NUMBERS 
LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS  FROM  1  TO  1000 — (Cont.) 


N 

0 

l 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6- 

7 

8 

9 

D 

706 

84- 

8805 

8866 

8928 

8989 

9051 

9112 

9174 

9235 

9297 

9358 

61 

707 

84- 

9419 

9481 

9542 

9604 

9665 

9726 

9788 

9849 

9911 

9972 

61 

708 

85- 

0033 

0095 

0156 

0217 

0279 

0340 

0401 

0462 

0524 

0585 

61 

709 

85- 

0646 

0707 

0769 

0830 

0891 

0952 

1014 

1075 

1136 

1197 

61 

710 

85- 

1258 

1320 

1381 

1442 

1503 

1564 

1625 

1686 

1747 

1809 

61 

711 

85- 

1870 

1931 

1992 

2053 

2114 

2175 

2236 

2297 

2358 

2419 

61 

712 

85- 

2480 

2541 

2602 

2663 

2724 

2785 

2846 

2907 

2968 

3029 

61 

713 

85- 

3090 

3150 

3211 

3272 

3333 

3394 

3455 

3516 

3577 

3637 

61 

714 

85- 

3698 

3759 

3820 

3881 

3941 

4002 

4063 

4124 

4185 

4245 

61 

715 

85- 

4306 

4367 

4428 

4488 

4549 

4610 

4670 

4731 

4792 

4852 

61 

716 

85- 

4913 

4974 

5034 

5095 

5156 

5216 

5277 

5337 

5398 

5459 

61 

717 

85- 

5519 

5580 

5640 

5701 

5761 

5822 

5882 

5943 

6003 

6064 

61 

718 

85- 

6124 

6185 

6245 

6306 

6366 

6427 

6487 

6548 

6608 

6668 

60 

719 

85- 

6729 

6789 

6850 

6910 

6970 

7031 

7091 

7152 

7212 

7272 

60 

720 

85- 

7332 

7393 

7453 

7513 

7574 

7634 

7694 

7755 

7815 

7875 

60 

721 

85- 

7935 

7995 

8056 

8116 

8176 

8236 

8297 

8357 

8417 

8477 

60 

722 

85- 

8537 

8597 

8657 

8718 

8778 

8838 

8898 

8958 

9018 

9078 

60 

723 

85- 

9138 

9198 

9258 

9318 

9379 

9439 

9499 

9559 

9619 

9679 

60 

724 

S5-5 

9739 

9799 

9859 

9918 

9978 

60 

724 

86- 

0038 

0098 

0158 

0218 

0278 

60 

725 

86- 

0338 

0398 

0458 

0518 

0578 

0637 

0697 

0757 

0817 

0877 

60 

726 

86- 

0937 

0996 

1056 

1116 

1176 

1236 

1295 

1355 

1415 

1475 

60 

727 

86- 

1534 

1594 

1654 

1714 

1773 

1833 

1893 

1952 

2012 

2072 

60 

728 

86- 

2131 

2191 

2251 

2310 

2370 

2430 

2489 

2549 

2608 

2668 

60 

729 

86- 

2728 

2787 

2847 

2906 

2966 

3025 

3085 

3144 

3204 

3263 

60 

730 

86- 

3323 

3382 

3442 

3501 

3561 

3620 

3680 

3739 

3799 

3858 

59 

731 

86- 

3917 

3977 

4036 

4096 

4155 

4214 

4274 

4333 

4392 

4452 

59 

732 

86- 

4511 

4570 

4630 

4689 

4748 

4808 

4867 

4926 

4985 

5045 

59 

733 

86- 

5104 

5163 

5222 

5282 

5341 

5400 

5459 

5519 

5578 

5637 

59 

734 

86- 

5696 

5755 

5814 

5874 

5933 

5992 

6051 

6110 

6169 

6228 

59 

735 

86- 

6287 

6346 

6405 

6465 

6524 

6583 

6642 

6701 

6760 

6819 

59 

736 

86- 

6878 

6937 

6996 

7055 

7114 

7173 

7232 

7291 

7350 

7409 

59 

737 

86- 

7467 

7526 

7585 

7644 

7703 

7762 

7821 

7880 

7939 

7998 

59 

738 

86- 

8056 

8115 

8174 

8233 

8292 

8350 

8409 

8468 

8527 

8586 

59 

739 

86- 

8644 

8703 

8762 

8821 

8870 

8938 

8997 

9056 

9114 

9173 

59 

740 

86- 

9232 

9290 

9349 

9408 

9466 

9525 

9584 

9642 

9701 

9760 

59 

741 

8&- 

9818 

9877 

9935 

9994 

59 

741 

87- 

0053 

0111 

0170 

0228 

0287 

0345 

59 

742 

87- 

0404 

0462 

0^1 

0579 

0638 

0696 

0755 

0813 

0872 

0930 

58 

743 

87- 

0989 

1047 

1106 

1164 

1223 

1281 

1339 

1398 

1456 

1515 

58 

744 

87- 

1573 

1631 

1690 

1748 

1806 

1865 

1923 

1981 

2040 

2098 

58 

745 

87- 

2156 

2215 

2273 

2331 

2389 

2448 

2506 

2564 

2622 

2681 

58 

N 

S 

0 

i 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

[184] 


LOGARITHMS    OF   NUMBERS 
LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS  FROM  1  TO  1000— (Cont.) 


N 

0 

i 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

746 

87- 

2739 

2797 

2855 

2913 

2972 

3030 

3088 

3146 

3204 

3262 

58 

747 

87- 

3321 

3379 

3437 

3495 

3553 

3611 

3669 

3727 

3785 

3844 

58 

748 

87- 

3902 

3960 

4018 

4076 

4134 

4192 

4250 

4308 

4366 

4424 

58 

749 

87- 

4482 

4540 

4598 

4656 

4714 

4772 

4830 

4888 

4945 

5003 

58 

750 

87- 

5061 

5119 

5177 

5235 

5293 

5351 

5409 

5466 

5524 

5582 

58 

751 

87- 

5640 

5698 

5756 

5813 

5871 

5929 

5987 

6045 

6102 

6160 

58 

752 

87- 

6218 

6276 

6333 

6391 

6449 

6507 

6564 

6622 

6680 

£737 

58 

753 

87- 

6795 

6853 

6910 

6968 

7026 

7083 

7141 

7199 

7256 

7314 

58 

754 

87- 

7371 

7429 

7487 

7544 

7602 

7659 

7717 

7774 

7832 

7889 

58 

755 

87- 

7947 

8004 

8062 

8119 

8177 

8234 

8292 

8349 

8407 

8464 

57 

756 

87- 

8522 

8579 

8637 

8694 

8752 

8809 

8866 

8924 

8981 

9039 

57 

757 

87- 

9096 

9153 

9211 

9268 

9325 

9383 

9440 

9497 

9555 

9612 

57 

758 

87- 

9669 

9726 

9784 

9841 

9898 

9956 

57 

758 

88- 

0013 

0070 

0127 

0185 

57 

759 

88- 

0242 

0299 

0356 

0413 

0471 

0528 

0585 

0642 

0699 

0756 

57 

760 

88- 

0814 

0871 

0928 

0985 

1042 

1099 

1156 

1213 

1271 

1328 

57 

761 

88- 

1385 

1442 

1499 

1556 

1613 

1670 

1727 

1784 

1841 

1898 

57 

762 

88- 

1955 

2012 

2069 

2126 

2183 

2240 

2297 

2354 

2411 

2468 

57 

763 

88- 

2525 

2581 

2638 

2695 

2752 

2809 

2866 

2923 

2980 

3037 

57 

764 

88- 

3093 

3150 

3207 

3264 

3321 

3377 

3434 

3491 

3548 

3605 

57 

765 

88- 

3661 

3718 

3775 

3832 

3888 

3945 

4002 

4059 

4115 

4172 

57 

1766 

88- 

4229 

4285 

4342 

4399 

4455 

4512 

4569 

4625 

4682 

4739 

57 

767 

88- 

4795 

4852 

4909 

4965 

5022 

5078 

5135 

5192 

5248 

5305 

57 

768 

88- 

5361 

5418 

5474 

5531 

5587 

5644 

5700 

5757 

5813 

5870 

57 

769 

88- 

5926 

5983 

6039 

6096 

6152 

6209 

6265 

6321 

6378 

6434 

56 

770 

88- 

6491 

6547 

6604 

6660 

6716 

6773 

6829 

6885 

6942 

6998 

56 

771 

88- 

7054 

7111 

7167 

7223 

7280 

7336 

7392 

7449 

7505 

7561 

56 

772 

88- 

7617 

7674 

7730 

7786 

7842 

7898 

7955 

8011 

8067 

8123 

56 

773 

88- 

8179 

8236 

8292 

8348 

8404 

8460 

8516 

8573 

8629 

8685 

56 

774 

88- 

8741 

8797 

8853 

8909 

8965 

9021 

9077 

9134 

9190 

9246 

56 

775 

88- 

9302 

9358 

9414 

9470 

€526 

9582 

9638 

9694 

9750 

9806 

56 

776 

88- 

9862 

9918 

9974 

56 

776 

89- 

0030 

0086 

0141 

0197 

02^3 

OQnq 

rjofic 

Cfi 

777 

89- 

0421 

0477 

0533 

0589 

0645 

0700 

0756 

v**vO 

0812 

\JC)\J\J 

0868 

uooo 
0924 

Ovl 

56 

778 

89- 

0980 

1035 

1091 

1147 

1203 

1259 

1314 

1370 

1426 

1482 

56 

779 

89- 

1537 

1593 

1649 

1705 

1760 

1816 

1872 

1928 

1983 

2039 

56 

780 

89- 

2095 

2150 

2206 

2262 

2317 

2373 

2429 

2484 

2540 

2595 

56 

781 

89- 

2651 

2707 

2762 

2818 

2873 

2929 

2985 

3040 

3096 

3151 

56 

782 

89- 

3207 

3262 

3318 

3373 

3429 

3484 

3540 

3595 

3651 

3706 

56 

783 

89- 

3762 

3817 

3873 

3928 

3984 

4039 

4094 

4150 

4205 

4261 

55 

784 

89- 

4316 

4371 

4427 

4482 

4538 

4593 

4648 

4704 

4759 

4814 

55 

785 

89- 

4870 

4925 

4980 

5036 

5091 

5146 

5201 

5257 

5312 

5367 

55 

N 

0 

i 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

[185 


LOGARITHMS   OF  NUMBERS 
LOGARITHMS  OP  NUMBERS  FROM  1  TO  1000 — (Con/.) 


N 

0 

l 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

786 

89- 

5423 

5478 

5533 

5588 

5644 

5699 

5754 

5809 

5864 

5920 

55 

787 

89- 

5975 

6030 

6085 

6140 

6195 

6251 

6306 

6361 

6416 

6471 

55 

788 

89- 

6526 

6581 

6636 

6692 

6747 

6802 

6857 

6912 

6967 

7022 

55 

789 

89- 

7077 

7132 

7187 

7242 

7297 

7352 

7407 

7462 

7517 

7572 

55 

790 

89- 

7627 

7682 

7737 

7792 

7847 

7902 

7957 

8012 

8067 

8122 

55 

791 

89- 

8176 

8231 

8286 

8341 

8396 

8451 

8506 

8561 

8615 

8670 

55 

792 

89- 

8725 

8780 

8835 

8890 

8944 

8999 

9054 

9109 

9164 

9218 

55 

793 

89- 

9273 

9328 

9383 

9437 

9492 

9547 

9602 

9656 

9711 

9766 

55 

794 

89- 

9821 

9875 

9930 

9985 

55 

794 

90- 

0039 

0094 

0149 

0203 

0258 

0312 

55 

795 

90- 

0367 

0422 

0476 

0531 

0586 

0640 

0695 

0749 

0804 

0859 

55 

796 

90- 

0913 

0968 

1022 

1077 

1131 

1186 

1240 

1295 

1349 

1404 

55 

797 

90- 

1458 

1513 

1567 

1622 

1676 

1731 

1785 

1840 

1894 

1948 

54 

798 

•90- 

2003 

2057 

2112 

2166 

2221 

2275 

2329 

2384 

2438 

2492 

54 

799 

90- 

2547 

2601 

2655 

2710 

2764 

2818 

2873 

2927 

2981 

3036 

54 

800 

90- 

3090 

3144 

3199 

3253 

3307 

3361 

3416 

3470 

3524 

3578 

54 

801 

90- 

3633 

3687 

3741 

3795 

3849 

3904 

3958 

4012 

4066 

4120 

54 

802 

90- 

4174 

4229 

4283 

4337 

4391 

4445 

4499 

4553 

4607 

4661 

54 

803 

90- 

4716 

4770 

4824 

4878 

4932 

4986 

5040 

5094 

5148 

5202 

54 

804 

90- 

5256 

5310 

5364 

5418 

5472 

5526 

5580 

5634 

5688 

5742 

54 

805 

90- 

5796 

5850 

5904 

5958 

6012 

6066 

6119 

6173 

6227 

6281 

54 

806 

90- 

6335 

6389 

6443 

6497 

6551 

6604 

6658 

6712 

6766 

6820 

54 

807 

90- 

6874 

6927 

6981 

7035 

7089 

7143 

7196 

7250 

7304 

7358 

54 

808 

90- 

7411 

7465 

7519 

7573 

7626 

7680 

7734 

7787 

7841 

7895 

54 

809 

90- 

7949 

8002 

8056 

8110 

8163 

8217 

8270 

8324 

8378 

8431 

54 

810 

90- 

8485 

8539 

8592 

8646 

8699 

8753 

8807 

8860 

8914 

8967 

54 

811 

90- 

9021 

9074 

9128 

9181 

9235 

9289 

9342 

9396 

9449 

9503 

54 

812 

90- 

9556 

9610 

9663 

9716 

9770 

9823 

9877 

9930 

9984 

.... 

54 

812 

91- 

0037 

53 

813 

91- 

0091 

0144 

0197 

0251 

0304 

0358 

0411 

0464 

0518 

0571 

53 

814 

91- 

0624 

0678 

0731 

0784 

0838 

0891 

0944 

0998 

1051 

1104 

53 

815 

91- 

1158 

1211 

1264 

1317 

1371 

1424 

1477 

1530 

1584 

1637 

53 

816 

91- 

1690 

1743 

1797 

1850 

1903 

1956 

2009 

2063 

2116 

2169 

53 

817 

91- 

2222 

2275 

2328 

2381 

2435 

2488 

2541 

2594 

2647 

2700 

53 

818 

91- 

2753 

2806 

2859 

2913 

2966 

3019 

3072 

3125 

3178 

3231 

53 

819 

91- 

3284 

3337 

3390 

3443 

3496 

3549 

3602 

3655 

3708 

3761 

53 

820 

91- 

3814 

3867 

3920 

3973 

4026 

4079 

4132 

4184 

4237 

4290 

53 

821 

91- 

4343 

4396 

4449 

4502 

4555 

4608 

4660 

4713 

4766 

4819 

53 

822 

91- 

4872 

4925 

4977 

5030 

5083 

5136 

5189 

5241 

5294 

5347 

53 

823 

91- 

5400 

5453 

5505 

5558 

5611 

5664 

5716 

5769 

5822 

5875 

53 

824 

91- 

5927 

5980 

6033 

6085 

6138 

6191 

6243 

6296 

6349 

6401 

53 

825 

91- 

6454 

6507 

6559 

6612 

6664 

6717 

6770 

6822 

6875 

6927 

53 

N 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

[186] 


LOGARITHMS   OF   NUMBERS 
LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS  FROM  1  TO  1000 — (Cont.) 


N 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

826 

91- 

6980 

7033 

7085 

7138 

7190 

7243 

7295 

7348 

7400 

7453 

53 

827 

91- 

7506 

7558 

7611 

7663 

7716 

7768 

7820 

7873 

7925 

7978 

52 

828 

91- 

8030 

8083 

8135 

8188 

8240 

8293 

8345 

8397 

8450 

8502 

52 

829 

91- 

8555 

8607 

8659 

8712 

8764 

8816 

8869 

8921 

8973 

9026 

52 

830 

91- 

9078 

9130 

9183 

9235 

9287 

9340 

9392 

9444 

9496 

9549 

52 

CQ1 

Q1_ 

Q601 

QAPJQ 

Q706 

9758 

9810 

9862 

9914 

9967 

52 

oOJL 

831 

t/J. 

92- 

*7VMJ1. 

t/VIUO 

*74  \J\J 

0019 

0071 

52 

832 

92- 

0123 

0176 

0228 

0280 

0332 

0384 

0436 

0489 

0541 

0593 

52 

833 

92- 

0645 

0697 

0749 

0801 

0853 

0906 

0958 

1010 

1062 

1114 

52 

834 

92- 

1166 

1218 

1270 

1322 

1374 

1426 

1478 

1530 

1582 

1634 

52 

835 

92- 

1686 

1738 

1790 

1842 

1894 

1946 

1998 

2050 

2102 

2154 

52 

836 

92- 

2206 

2258 

2310 

2362 

2414 

2466 

2518 

2570 

2622 

2674 

52 

837 

92- 

2725 

2777 

2829 

2881 

2933 

2985 

3037 

3089 

3140 

3192 

52 

838 

92- 

3244 

3296 

3348 

3399 

3451 

3503 

3555 

3607 

3658 

3710 

52 

839 

92- 

3762 

3814 

3865 

3917 

3969 

4021 

4072 

4124 

4176 

4228 

52 

840 

92- 

4279 

4331 

4383 

4434 

4486 

4538 

4589 

4641 

4693 

4744 

52 

841 

92- 

4796 

4848 

4899 

4951 

5003 

5054 

5106 

5157 

5209 

5261 

52 

842 

92- 

5312 

5364 

5415 

5467 

5518 

5570 

5621 

5673 

5725 

5776 

52 

843 

92- 

5828 

5879 

5931 

5982 

6034 

6085 

6137 

6188 

6240 

6291 

51 

844 

92- 

6342 

6394 

6445 

6497 

6548 

6600 

6651 

6702 

6754 

6805 

51 

845 

92- 

6857 

6908 

6959 

7011 

7062 

7114 

7165 

7216 

7268 

7319 

51 

846 

92- 

7370 

7422 

7473 

7524 

7576 

7627 

7678 

7730 

7781 

7832 

51 

847 

92- 

7883 

7935 

7986 

8037 

8088 

8140 

8191 

8242 

8293 

8345 

51 

848 

92- 

8396 

8447 

8498 

8549 

8601 

8652 

8703 

8754 

8805 

8857 

51 

849 

92- 

8908 

8959 

9010 

9061 

9112 

9163 

9215 

9266 

9317 

9368 

51 

850 

92- 

9419 

9470 

9521 

9572 

9623 

9674 

9725 

9776 

9827 

9879 

51 

851 

92- 

9930 

9981 

51 

851 

93- 

0032 

0083 

0134 

0185 

0236 

0287 

0338 

0389 

51 

852 

93- 

0440 

0491 

0542 

0592 

0643 

0694 

0745 

0796 

0847 

0898 

51 

853 

93- 

0949 

1000 

1051 

1102 

1153 

1203 

1254 

1305 

1356 

1407 

51 

854 

93- 

1458 

1509 

1560 

1610 

1661 

1712 

1763 

1814 

1865 

1915 

51 

855 

93- 

1966 

2017 

2068 

2118 

2169 

2220 

2271 

2322 

2372 

2423 

51 

856 

93- 

2474 

2524 

2575 

2626 

2677 

2727 

2778 

2829 

2879 

2930 

51 

857 

93- 

2981 

3031 

3082 

3133 

3183 

3234 

3285 

3335 

3386 

3437 

51 

858 

93- 

3487 

3538 

3589 

3639 

3690 

3740 

3791 

3841 

3892 

3943 

51 

859 

93- 

3993 

4044 

4094 

4145 

4195 

4246 

4296 

4347 

4397 

4448 

51 

860 

93- 

4498 

4549 

4599 

4650 

4700 

4751 

4801 

4852 

4902 

4953 

50 

861 

93- 

5003 

5054 

5104 

5154 

5205 

5255 

5306 

5356 

5406 

5457 

50 

862 

93- 

5507 

5558 

5608 

5658 

5709 

5759 

5809 

5860 

5910 

5960 

50 

863 

93- 

6011 

6061 

6111 

6162 

6212 

6262 

6313 

6363 

6413 

6463 

50 

864 

93- 

6514 

6564 

6614 

6665 

6715 

6765 

6815 

6865 

6916 

6966 

50 

865 

93- 

7016 

7066 

7117 

7167 

7217 

7267 

7317 

7367 

7418 

7468 

50 

N 

0 

l 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

[187] 


LOGARITHMS   OF   NUMBERS 
LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS  FROM  1  TO  1000 — (Cont.) 


N 

0 

i 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

866 

93- 

7518 

7568 

7618 

7668 

7718 

7769 

7819 

7869 

7919 

7969 

50 

86V 

93- 

8019 

8069 

8119 

8169 

8219 

8269 

8319 

8370 

8420 

8470 

50 

868 

93- 

8520 

8570 

8620 

8670 

8720 

8770 

8820 

8870 

8920 

8970 

50 

869 

93- 

9020 

9070 

9120 

9170 

9220 

9270 

9320 

9369 

9419 

9469 

50 

870 

93- 

9519 

9569 

9619 

9669 

9719 

9769 

0819 

9869 

9918 

9968 

50 

871 

94- 

00'18 

0068 

0118 

0168 

0218 

0267 

0317 

0367 

0417 

0467 

50 

872 

94- 

0516 

0566 

0616 

0666 

0716 

0765 

0815 

0865 

0915 

0964 

50 

873 

94- 

1014 

1064 

1114 

1163 

1213 

1263 

1313 

1362 

1412 

1462 

50 

874 

94- 

1511 

1561 

1611 

1660 

1710 

1760 

1809 

1859 

1909 

1958 

50 

875 

94- 

2008 

2058 

2107 

2157 

2207 

2256 

2306 

2355 

2405 

2455 

50 

876 

94- 

2504 

2554 

2603 

2653 

2702 

2752 

2801 

2851 

2901 

2950 

50 

877 

94- 

3000 

3049 

3099 

3148 

3198 

3247 

3297 

3346 

33% 

3445 

49 

878 

94- 

3495 

3544 

3593 

3643 

3692 

3742 

3791 

3841 

3890 

3939 

49 

879 

94- 

3989 

4038 

4088 

4137 

4186 

4236 

4285 

4335 

4384 

4433 

49 

880 

94- 

4483 

4532 

4581 

4631 

4680 

4729 

4779 

4828 

4877 

4927 

49 

881 

94- 

4976 

5025 

5074 

5124 

5173 

5222 

5272 

5321 

5370 

5419 

49 

882 

94- 

5469 

5518 

5567 

5616 

5665 

5715 

5764 

5813 

5862 

5912 

49 

883 

94- 

5961 

6010 

6059 

6108 

6157 

6207 

6256 

6305 

6354 

6403 

49 

884 

94- 

6452 

6501 

6551 

6600 

6649 

6698 

6747 

6796 

6845 

6894 

49 

885 

94- 

6943 

6992 

7041 

7090 

7140 

7189 

7238 

7287 

7336 

7385 

49 

886 

94- 

7434 

7483 

7532 

7581 

7630 

7679 

7728 

7777 

7826 

7875 

49 

887 

94- 

7924 

7973 

8022 

8070 

8119 

8168 

8217 

8266 

8315 

8364 

49 

888 

94- 

8413 

8462 

8511 

8560 

8609 

8657 

8706 

8755 

8804 

8853 

49 

8891 

94- 

8902 

8951 

8999 

9048 

9097 

9146 

9195 

9244 

9292 

9341 

49 

89Q 

94- 

9390 

9439 

9488 

9536 

9585 

9634 

9683 

9731 

9780 

9829 

49 

891 

94- 

9878 

9926 

9975 

49 

891 

95- 

0024 

0073 

0121 

0170 

0219 

0267 

0316 

49 

892 

95- 

0365 

0414 

0462 

0511 

0560 

0608 

0657 

0706 

0754 

0803 

49 

893 

95- 

0851 

0900 

0949 

0997 

1046 

1095 

1143 

1192 

1240 

1289 

49 

894 

95- 

1338 

1386 

1435 

1483 

1532 

1580 

1629 

1677 

1726 

1775 

49 

895 

95- 

1823 

1872 

1920 

1969 

2017 

2066 

2114 

2163 

2211 

2260 

48 

896 

95- 

2308 

2356 

2405 

2453 

2502 

2550 

2599 

2647 

2696 

2744 

48 

897 

95- 

2792 

2841 

2889 

2938 

2986 

3034 

3083 

3131 

3180 

3228 

48 

898 

95- 

3276 

3325 

3373 

3421 

3470 

3518 

3566 

3615 

3663 

3711 

48 

899 

95- 

3760 

3808 

3856 

3905 

3953 

4001 

4049 

4098 

4146 

4194 

48 

900 

95- 

4243 

4291 

4339 

4387 

4435 

4484 

4532 

4580 

4628 

4677 

48 

901 

95- 

4725 

4773 

4821 

4869 

4918 

4966 

5014 

5062 

5110 

5158 

48 

902 

95- 

5207 

5255 

5303 

5351 

5399 

5447 

5495 

5543 

5592 

5640 

48 

903 

95- 

5688 

5736 

5784 

5832 

5880 

5928 

5976 

6024 

6072 

6120 

48 

904 

95- 

6168 

6216 

6265 

6313 

6361 

6409 

6457 

6505 

6553 

6601 

48 

905 

95- 

6649 

6697 

6745 

6793 

6840 

6888 

6936 

6984 

7032 

7080 

48 

906 

95- 

7128 

7176 

7224 

7272 

7320 

7368 

7416 

7464 

7512 

7559 

48 

N 

0 

l  - 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

188] 


LOGARITHMS    OF    NUMBERS 
LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS  FROM  1  TO  1000 — -(Cant.) 


N 

0 

i 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

907 

95- 

7607 

7655 

7703 

7751 

7799 

7847 

7894 

7942 

7990 

8038 

48 

908 

95- 

8086 

8134 

8181 

8229 

8277 

8325 

8373 

8421 

8468 

8516 

48. 

909 

95- 

8564 

8612 

8659 

8707 

8755 

8803 

8850 

8898 

8946 

8994 

48 

910 

95- 

9041 

9089 

9137 

9185 

9232 

9280 

9328 

9375 

0423 

9471 

48 

911 

95- 

9518 

9566 

9614 

9661 

9709 

9757 

9804 

0852 

9900 

9947 

48" 

912 

95- 

9995 

48  -i 

912 

96- 

0042 

0090 

0138 

0185 

0233 

0280 

0328 

0376 

0423 

48 

913 

96- 

0471 

0518 

0566 

0613 

0661 

0709 

0756 

0804 

0851 

0899 

48. 

914 

96- 

0946 

0994 

1041 

1089 

1136 

1184 

1231 

1279 

1326 

1374 

47 

915 

96- 

1421 

1469 

1516 

1563 

1611 

1658 

1706 

1753 

1801 

1848 

47 

916 

96- 

1895 

1943 

1990 

2038 

2085 

2132 

2180 

2227 

2275 

2322 

47 

917 

96- 

2369 

2417 

2464 

2511 

2559 

2606 

2653 

2701 

2748 

2795 

47 

918 

96- 

2843 

2890 

2937 

2985 

3032 

8079 

3126 

3174 

3221 

32Q8 

47 

919 

96- 

3316 

3363 

3410 

8457 

i  , 

3504 

3552 

3599 

i 

3646 

3693 

3741 

47 

920 

96- 

3788 

3835 

3882 

3929 

3977 

4024 

4071 

4118 

4165 

42^2 

47 

-921 

96- 

4260 

4307 

4354 

4401 

4448 

4495 

4542 

4590 

4637 

4684 

47 

922 

96- 

4731 

4778 

4825 

4872 

4919 

4966 

5013 

5061 

5*08 

5155 

47 

923 

96- 

5202 

5249 

5296 

5343 

5390 

5437 

5484 

5531 

5578 

5625 

47 

924 

96- 

5672 

5719 

5766 

5813 

5860 

5907 

5954 

6001 

6048 

6095 

47 

925 

96- 

6142 

6189 

6236 

6283 

6329 

6376 

6423 

6470 

6517 

6564 

i  4% 

926 

96- 

6611 

6658 

6705 

6752 

6799 

6845 

6892 

6939 

6986 

7033 

47; 

927 

96- 

7080 

7127 

7173 

7220 

7267 

7314 

7361 

7408 

7454 

7501 

47 

928 

96- 

7548 

7595 

7642 

7688 

7735 

7782 

7829 

7875 

7922 

7969 

.';» 

929 

96- 

8016 

8062 

8109 

8156 

8203 

8249 

8296 

8343 

8390 

8436 

47 

930 

96- 

8483 

8530 

8576 

8623 

8670 

8716 

8763 

8810 

8856 

8903 

47 

931 

96- 

8950 

8996 

9043 

9090 

9136 

9183 

9229 

9276 

9323 

9369 

47 

932 

96- 

9416 

9463 

9509 

9556 

9602 

9649 

9695 

9742 

9789 

9835 

47 

933 

96- 

9882 

9928 

9975 

47 

933 

97- 

0021 

0068 

0114 

0161 

0207 

0254 

0300 

47 

934 

97- 

0347 

0393 

0440 

0486 

0533 

0579 

0626 

0672 

0719 

0765 

46 

935 

97- 

0812 

0858 

0904 

0951 

0997 

1044 

1090 

1137 

1183 

1229 

46 

936 

97- 

1276 

1322 

1369 

1415 

1461 

1508 

1554 

1601 

1647 

1693 

46 

937 

97- 

1740 

1786 

1832 

1879 

1925 

1971 

2018 

2064 

2110 

2157 

46 

938 

97- 

2203 

2249 

2295 

2342 

2388 

2434 

;2481 

2527 

2573 

2619 

46 

939 

97- 

2666 

2712. 

2758 

2804 

2851 

;2897 

2943 

2989 

3035 

3082 

46 

940 

97- 

3128 

3174 

3220 

3266 

3313 

3359 

3405 

3451 

3497 

3543 

,46 

941 

97- 

3590 

3636 

3682 

3728 

3774 

3820 

3866 

3913 

3959 

4005 

46 

942 

97- 

4051 

4097 

4143 

4189 

4235 

4281 

4327 

4374 

4420 

4466 

46 

943 

97- 

4512 

4558 

4604 

4650 

4696 

4742 

:4788 

4834 

4880 

4926 

,46 

944 

97- 

4972 

5018 

5064 

5110 

5156 

;5202 

5248 

5294 

5340 

5386 

46 

945 

97- 

5432 

5478 

5524 

5570 

5616 

5662 

5707 

5753 

5799 

584,5 

-46 

946 

97- 

5891 

5937 

5983 

6029 

6075 

6121 

6167 

6212 

6258 

6304 

<46 

N 

0 

l 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

[189] 


LOGARITHMS   OF   NUMBERS 
LOGARITHMS  OP  NUMBERS  FROM  1  TO  1000 — (Cont.) 


N 

0 

i 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

947 

97- 

6350 

6396 

6442 

6488 

6533 

6579 

6625 

6671 

6717 

6763 

46 

948 

97- 

6808 

6854 

6900 

6946 

6992 

7037 

7083 

7129 

7175 

7220 

46 

949 

97- 

7266 

7312 

7358 

7403 

7449 

7495 

7541 

7586 

7632 

7678 

46 

950 

97- 

7724 

7769 

7815 

7861 

7906 

7952 

7998 

8043 

8089 

8135 

46 

951 

97- 

8181 

8226 

8272 

8317 

8363 

8409 

8454 

8500 

8546 

8591 

46 

952 

97- 

8637 

8683 

8728 

8774 

8819 

8865 

8911 

8956 

9002 

9047 

46 

953 

97- 

9093 

9138 

9184 

9230 

9275 

9321 

9366 

9412 

9457 

9503 

46 

954 

97- 

9548 

9594 

9639 

9685 

9730 

9776 

9821 

9867 

9912 

9958 

46 

955 

98- 

0003 

0049 

0094 

0140 

0185 

0231 

0276 

0322 

0367 

0412 

45 

956 

98- 

0458 

0503 

0549 

0594 

0640 

0685 

0730 

0776 

0821 

0867 

45 

957 

98- 

0912 

0957 

1003 

1048 

1093 

1139 

1184 

1229 

1275 

1320 

45 

958 

98- 

1366 

1411 

1456 

1501 

1547 

1592 

1637 

1683 

1728 

1773 

45 

959 

98- 

1819 

1864 

1909 

1954 

2000 

2045 

2090 

2135 

2181 

2226 

45 

960 

98- 

2271 

2316 

2362 

2407 

2452 

2497 

2543 

2588 

2633 

2678 

45 

961 

98- 

2723 

2769 

2814 

2859 

2904 

2949 

2994 

3040 

3085 

3130 

45 

962 

98- 

3175 

3220 

3265 

3310 

3356 

3401 

3446 

3491 

3536 

3581 

45 

963 

98- 

3626 

3671 

3716 

3762 

3807 

3852 

3897 

3942 

3987 

4032 

45 

964 

98- 

4077 

4122 

4167 

4212 

4257 

4302 

4347 

4392 

4437 

4482 

45 

965 

98- 

4527 

4572 

4617 

4662 

4707 

4752 

4797 

4842 

4887 

4932 

45 

966 

98- 

4977 

5022 

5067 

5112 

5157 

5202 

5247 

5292 

5337 

5382 

45 

967 

98- 

5426 

5471 

5516 

5561 

5606 

5651 

5696 

5741 

5786 

5830 

45 

968 

9&- 

5875 

5920 

5965 

6010 

6055 

6100 

6144 

6189 

6234 

6279 

45 

969 

98- 

6324 

6369 

6413 

6458 

6503 

6548 

6593 

6637 

6682 

6727 

45 

970 

98- 

6772 

6817 

6861 

6906 

6951 

6996 

7040 

7085 

7130 

7175 

45 

971 

98- 

7219 

7264 

7309 

7353 

7398 

7443 

7488 

7532 

7577 

7622 

45 

972 

98- 

7666 

7711 

7756 

7800 

7845 

7890 

7934 

7979 

8024 

8068 

45 

973 

98- 

8113 

8157 

8202 

8247 

8291 

8336 

8381 

8425 

8470 

8514 

45 

974 

98- 

8559 

8604 

8648 

8693 

8737 

8782 

8826 

8871 

8916 

8960 

45 

975 

98- 

9005 

9049 

9094 

9138 

9183 

9227 

9272 

9316 

9361 

9405 

45 

976 

98- 

9450 

9494 

9539 

9583 

9628 

9672 

9717 

9761 

9806 

9850 

44 

977 

98- 

9895 

9939 

9983 

44 

977 

99- 

0028 

0072 

0117 

0161 

0206 

0250 

0294 

44 

978 

99- 

0339 

0383 

0428 

0472 

0516 

0561 

0605 

0650 

0694 

0738 

44 

979 

99- 

0783 

0827 

0871 

0916 

0960 

1004 

1049 

1093 

1137 

1182 

44 

980 

99- 

1226 

1270 

1315 

1359 

1403 

1448 

1492 

1536 

1580 

1625 

44 

981 

99- 

1669 

1713 

1758 

1802 

1846 

1890 

1935 

1979 

2023 

2067 

44 

982 

99- 

2111 

2156 

2200 

2244 

2288 

2333 

2377 

2421 

2465 

2509 

44 

983 

99- 

2554 

2598 

2642 

2686 

2730 

2774 

2819 

2863 

2907 

2951 

44 

984 

99- 

2995 

3039 

3083 

3127 

3172 

3216 

3260 

3304 

3348 

3392 

44 

985 

99- 

3436 

3480 

3524 

3568 

3613 

3657 

3701 

3745 

3789 

3833 

44 

986 

99- 

3877 

3921 

3965 

4009 

4053 

4097 

4141 

4185 

4229 

4273 

44 

987 

99- 

4317 

4361 

4405 

4449 

4493 

4537 

4581 

4625 

4669 

4713 

44 

N 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

[190] 


LOGARITHMS   OF^  NUMBERS 
LOGARITHMS  OP  NUMBERS  FROM  1  TO  1000 — (Cont.) 


N 

o 

i 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

988 

99- 

4757 

4801 

4845 

4889 

4933 

4977 

5021 

5065 

5108 

5152 

44 

989 

99- 

5196 

5240 

5284 

5328 

5372 

5416 

5460 

5504 

5547 

5591 

44 

990 

99- 

5635 

5679 

5723 

5767 

5811 

5854 

5898 

5942 

5986 

6030 

44 

991 

99- 

6074 

6117 

6161 

6205 

6249 

6293 

6337 

6380 

6424 

6468 

44 

992 

99- 

6512 

6555 

6599 

6643 

6687 

6731 

6774 

6818 

6862 

6906 

44 

993 

99- 

6949 

6993 

7037 

7080 

7124 

7168 

7212 

7255 

7299 

7343 

44 

994 

99- 

7386 

7430 

7474 

7517 

7561 

7605 

7648 

7692 

7736 

7779 

44 

995 

99- 

7823 

7867 

7910 

7954 

7998 

8041 

8085 

8129 

8172 

8216 

44 

996 

99- 

8259 

8303 

8347 

8390 

8434 

8477 

8521 

8564 

8608 

8652 

44 

997 

99- 

8695 

8739 

8782 

8826 

8869 

8913 

8956 

9000 

9043 

9087 

44 

998 

99- 

9131 

9174 

9218 

9261 

9305 

9348 

9392 

9435 

9479 

9522 

44 

999 

99- 

9565 

9609 

9652 

9696 

9739 

9783 

9826 

9870 

9913 

9957 

43 

N 

0 

l 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

D 

HYPERBOLIC  LOGARITHMS 

In  the  Naperian  or  hyperbolic  system  of  logarithms,  the  base  is  2.718281828. 

The  Naperian  base  is  commonly  denoted  by  e,  as  in  the  equation  ey  =  x,  in  which 
y  is  the  Naperian  logarithm  of  x.  The  abbreviation  log*  is  commonly  used  to  denote 
the  Naperian  logarithm. 

In  any  system  of  logarithms,  the  logarithm  of  1  is  0;  the  logarithm  of  the  base 
taken  in  that  system  is  1.  In  any  system  the  base  of  which  is  greater  than  1,  the 
logarithms  of  all  numbers  greater  than  1  are  positive,  and  the  logarithms  of  all  numbers 
less  than  1  are  negative. 

The  modulus  of  any  system  is  equal  to  the  reciprocal  of  the  Naperian  logarithm 
of  the  base  of  that  system.  The  modulus  of  the  Naperian  system  is  1,  that  of  the 
common  system,  0.4342945. 

The  logarithm  of  a  number  in  any  system  equals  the  modulus  of  that  system  X  the 
Naperian  logarithm  of  the  number. 

The  hyperbolic  or  Naperian  logarithm  of  any  number  equals  the  common  logarithm 
X  2.3025851. 

Base  of  Naperian  system  e  =  constant    0.718281828 

logarithm  0.4342945. 

Reciprocal  of  modulus      k  =  constant    2.302585093. 

logarithm  0.3622216. 

TABLE  OF  HYPERBOLIC  LOGARITHMS 

The  hyperbolic  logarithms  of  numbers,  or  Naperian  logarithms,  as  they  are  some- 
times called,  are  calculated  by  multiplying  the  common  logarithm  of  the  given  numbers 
in  the  table  of  common  logarithms  by  the  constant  multiplier,  2.302585. 

The  hyperbolic  logarithms  of  numbers  intermediate  between  those  which  are  given 
in  the  table  may  be  readily  obtained  by  interpolating  proportional  differences. 


[191] 


HYPERBOLIC  LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS 
HYPERBOLIC  LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS  FROM  1  TO  30 


Number 

Logarithm 

Number 

Logarithm 

Number 

Logarithm 

Number 

Logarithm 

1.01 

.0099 

1.46 

.3784 

1.91 

.6471 

2.36 

.8587 

1.02 

.0198 

1;47 

.   .3853 

1.92 

.6523 

2.37 

.8629 

1.03 

.0296 

1.48 

.3920 

1.93 

.6575 

2.38 

.8671 

1.04 

.0392 

1.49 

.3988 

1.94 

.6627 

2.39 

.8713 

1.05, 

.0488 

1.50 

.4055 

1.95 

.6678 

2.40 

.8755 

1.06 

.0583 

1.51 

.4121 

1.96 

.6729 

2.41 

.8796 

1.07 

.0677 

1.52 

.4187 

1.97 

.6780 

2.42 

.8838 

1.08 

.0770 

1.53 

.4253 

1.98 

.6831 

2.43 

.8879 

1.09 

.0862 

1.54 

.4318 

1.99 

.6881 

2.44 

.8920 

1.10 

.0953 

1.55 

.4383 

2.00 

.6931 

2.45 

.8961 

1.11 

.1044 

1.56 

.4447 

2.01 

.6981 

2,46 

.9002 

1.12 

.1133 

1.57 

.4511 

2.02 

.7031 

2.47 

.9042 

1.13 

.1222 

1.58 

.4574 

2.03 

.7080 

2.48 

.9083 

1.14 

i   .1310 

1.59 

.4637 

2.04 

.7129 

2.49 

.9123 

1.15 

.1398 

1.60 

.4700 

2.05 

;     \7178 

2.50 

.9163 

1.16 

.1484 

1.61 

.4762 

2.06 

.7227 

2.51 

.9203 

1.17 

.1570 

1,62 

.4824 

2.07 

.7275 

2.52 

.9243 

1.18 

.1655 

1.63 

.4886 

2.08 

.7324 

2.53 

.9282 

1.19 

.1740 

1.64 

.4947 

2.09 

.7372 

2.54 

.9322 

1.20 

.1823 

1.65 

.5008 

2.10 

.7419 

2.55 

.9361 

1.21 

.1906 

1.66 

.5068 

2.11 

.7467 

2.56 

.9400 

1.22 

.1988 

1.67 

.5128 

2.12 

.7514 

2.57 

.9439 

1.23 

'  .2070 

1.68 

.5188 

2.13 

.7561 

2.58 

.9478 

1.24 

,  .2151 

1.69 

.5247 

2.14 

.7608 

2.59 

.9517 

1.25 

.2231 

1.70 

.5306 

2.15 

.7655 

2.60 

.9555 

1.26 

.2311 

1.71 

.5365 

2.16 

.7701 

2.61 

.9594 

1.27 

.2390 

1.72 

.5423 

2.17 

.7747 

2.62 

.9632 

1.28 

.2469 

1,73 

.5481 

2.18 

.7793 

2.63 

.9670 

1.29 

.  .2546 

1.74 

.5539 

2.19 

.7839 

2.64 

.9708 

1.30 

•  2624 

1.75 

,5596 

2.20 

.7885 

2.65 

.9746 

1.31 

.2700 

1.76 

.5653 

2.21 

.7930 

2.66 

.9783 

1.32 

.2776 

1.77 

.5710 

2.22 

.7975 

2.67 

.9821 

1.33 

.2852 

1.78 

.5766 

2.23 

.8020 

2.68 

.9858 

1.34 

.2927 

1.79 

.5822 

2.24 

.8065 

2.69 

.9895 

1.35 

.3001 

1.80 

.5878 

2.25 

.8109 

2.70 

.9933 

1.36 

.3075. 

1.81 

.5933 

2.26 

.8154 

2.71 

.9969 

1.37 

.3148 

1.82 

.5988 

2.27 

.8198 

2.72 

1.0006 

1.38 

.3221 

1.83 

.6043 

2.28 

.8242 

2.73 

1.0043 

1.39 

.3293 

1.84 

.6098 

2.29 

.8286 

2.74 

1.0080 

1.40 

.3365 

1.85  , 

.6152 

2.30 

.8329, 

2.75 

1.0116 

i.4! 

.3436 

1.86 

,6206 

2.31 

.8372 

2.76 

1.0152 

1.42 

3507 

1.87 

.6259 

2.32 

.8416 

2.77 

1.0188 

1.43 

•3577 

1.88 

.6313 

2.33 

.8458 

2.78 

1.0225 

1.44 

.3646 

1.89 

.6366 

2.34 

.8502 

2.79 

1.0260 

1.45 

.3716 

1.90 

.6419 

2.35 

.8544 

2.80 

1.0296 

[192] 


HYPERBOLIC  LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS 
HYPERBOLIC  LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS  FROM  1  TO  30 — (Cont.) 


Number 

Logarithm 

Number 

Logarithm 

Number 

Logarithm 

Number 

Logarithm 

2.81 

.0332 

3.26 

1.1817 

3.71 

.3110 

4.16 

1.4255 

2.82 

.0367 

3.27 

1.1848 

3.72 

.3137 

4.17 

1.4279 

2.83 

.0403 

3.28 

1.1878 

3.73 

.3164 

4.18 

1.4303 

2.84 

.0438 

3.29 

1  .  1909 

3.74 

.3191 

4.19 

1.4327 

2.85 

.0473 

3.30 

1.1939 

3.75 

.3218 

4.20 

1.4351 

2.86 

.0508 

3.31 

1.1969 

3.76 

.3244 

4.21 

1.4375 

2.87 

.0543 

3.32 

il.  1999 

3.77 

.3271 

4.22 

1.4398 

2.88 

.0578 

3.33 

1.2030 

3.78 

.3297 

4.23 

1.4422 

2.89 

.0613 

3.34 

1.2060 

3.79 

.3324 

4.24 

1.4446 

2.90 

.0647 

3.35 

1.2090 

3.80 

.3350 

4.25 

1.4469 

2.91 

.0682 

3.36 

1.2119 

3.81 

.3376 

4.26 

1.4493 

2.92 

.0716 

3.37 

1.2149 

3.82 

.3403 

4.27 

1.4516 

2.93 

.0750 

3.38 

1.2179 

3.83 

.3429 

4.28 

1.4540 

2.94 

I  .Q784 

3.39 

1.2208 

3.84 

.3455 

4.29 

1.4563 

2.95 

1.0818 

3.40 

1.2238 

3.85 

.3481 

4.30 

1.4586 

2.96 

1.0852 

3.41 

1.2267 

3.86 

.3507 

4.31 

1.4609 

2.97 

1.0886 

3.42 

1.2296 

3.87 

.3533 

4.32 

1.4633 

2.98 

1.0919 

3.43 

1.2326 

3.88 

.3558 

4.33 

1.4656 

2.99 

1.0953 

3.44 

1.2355 

3.89 

.3584 

4.34 

1.4679 

3.00 

1.0986 

3.45 

1.2384 

3.90 

.3610 

4.35 

1.4702 

3.01 

1.1019 

3.46 

1.2413 

3.91 

.3635 

4.36 

1.4725 

3.02 

1.1053 

3.47 

1.2442 

3.92 

.3661 

4.37 

1.4748 

3.03 

1.1086 

3.48 

1.2470 

3.93 

.3686 

4.38 

1.4770 

3.04 

1.1119 

3.49 

1.2499 

3.94 

.3712 

4.39 

1.4793 

3.05 

1.1151 

3.50 

1.2528 

3.95 

.3737 

4.40 

1.4816 

3.06 

1.1184 

3.51 

1.2556 

3.96 

1.3762 

4.41 

1.4839 

3.07 

1.1217 

3.52 

1.2585 

3.97 

1.3788 

4.42 

1.4861 

3.08 

1.1249 

3.53 

1.2613 

3.98 

1.3813 

4.43 

1.4884 

3.09 

1  .  1282 

3.54 

1.2641 

3.99 

1.3838 

4.44 

1.4907 

3.10 

1.1314 

3.55 

1.2669 

4.00 

1.3863 

4.45 

1.4929 

3.11 

1.1346 

3.56 

1.2698 

4.01 

1.3888 

4.46 

1.4951 

3.12 

1.1378 

3.57 

1.2726 

4.02 

1.3913 

4.47 

1.4974 

3.13 

1.1410 

3.58 

1.2754 

4.03 

1.3938 

4.48 

1.4996 

3.14 

1  .  1442 

3.59 

1.2782 

4.04 

.3962 

4.49 

1.5019 

3.15 

1.1474 

3.60 

1.2809 

4.05 

.3987 

4.50 

1.5041 

'3.16 

.1506 

3.61 

1.2837 

4.06 

.4012 

4.51 

1.5063 

3.17 

.1537 

3.62 

1.2865 

4.07 

.4036 

4.52 

1.5085 

3.18 

.1569 

3.63 

1.2892 

4.08 

.4061 

4.53 

1.5107 

3.19 

.1600 

3.64 

1.2920 

4.09 

.4085 

4.54 

1.5129 

3.20 

:  .1632 

3.65 

1.2947 

4.10 

.4110 

4.55 

1.5151 

3.21 

i  1.1663 

3.66 

1.2975 

4.11 

1.4i34 

4.56 

1.5173 

3.22 

i  1.1694 

3.67 

1.3002 

4.12 

!  1.4159 

4.57 

1.5195 

3.23 

i  1.1725 

3.68 

1.3029 

4.13 

1.4183 

4.58 

1.5217 

3.24 

1  .  1756 

3.69 

1.3056 

4.14 

1.4207 

4.59 

1.5239 

3.25 

1.1787 

3.70 

1.3083 

4.15 

1.4231 

4.60 

1.5261 

[193] 


HYPERBOLIC  LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS 
HYPERBOLIC  LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS  FROM  1  TO  30 — (Cont.) 


Number 

Logarithm 

Number 

Logarithm 

Number 

Logarithm 

Number 

Logarithm 

4.61 

1.5282 

5.06 

.6214 

5.51 

.7066 

5.96 

1.7851 

4.62 

1.5304 

5.07 

.6233 

5.52 

.7084 

5.97 

1.7867 

4.63 

1.5326 

5.08 

.6253 

5.53 

.7102 

5.98 

1.7884 

4.64 

1.5347 

5.09 

.6273 

5.54 

.7120 

5.99 

1.7901 

4.65 

1.5369 

5.10 

.6292 

5.55 

.7138 

6.00 

1.7918 

4.66 

1.5390 

5.11 

.6312 

5.56 

.7156 

6.01 

1.7934 

4.67 

1.5412 

5.12 

.6332 

5.57 

.7174 

6.02 

1.7951 

4.68 

1.5433 

5.13 

.6351 

5.58 

.7192 

6.03 

1.7967 

4.69 

1.5454 

5.14 

.6371 

5.59 

.7210 

6.04 

.7984 

4.70 

1.5476 

5.15 

.6390 

5.60 

.7228 

6.05 

.8001 

4.71 

1.5497 

5.16 

1.6409 

5.61 

.7246 

6.06 

.8017 

4.72 

.5518 

5.17 

1.6429 

5.62 

.7263 

6.07 

.8034 

4.73 

.5539 

5.18 

1.6448 

5.63 

.7281 

6.08 

.8050 

4.74 

.5560 

5.19 

1.6467 

5.64 

.7299 

6.09 

.8066 

4.75 

.5581 

5.20 

1.6487 

5.65 

.7317 

6.10 

.8083 

4.76 

.5602 

5.21 

1.6506 

5.66 

.7334 

6.11 

.8099 

4.77 

.5623 

5.22 

1.6525 

5.67 

.7352 

6.12 

.8116 

4.78 

.5644 

5.23 

1.6544 

5.68 

1.7370 

6.13 

.8132 

4.79 

.5665 

5.24 

1.6563 

5.69 

1.7387 

6.14 

.8148 

4.80 

.5686 

5.25 

1.6582 

5.70 

1.7405 

6.15 

.8165 

4.81 

.5707 

5.26 

1.6601 

5.71 

1.7422 

6.16 

.8181 

4.82 

.5728 

5.27 

1.6620 

5.72 

1.7440 

6.17 

.8197 

4.83 

.5748 

5.28 

1.6639 

5.73 

1.7457 

6.18 

.8213 

4.84 

.5769 

5.29 

1.6658 

5.74 

1.7475 

6.19 

.8229 

4.85 

1.5790 

5.30 

1.6677 

5.75 

1.7492 

6.20 

.8245 

4.86 

1.5810 

5.31 

1.6696 

5.76 

1.7509 

6.21 

.8262 

4.87 

1.5831 

5.32 

1.6715 

5.77 

1.7527 

6.22 

.8278 

4.88 

1.5851 

5.33 

.6734 

5.78 

1.7544 

6.23 

.8294 

4.89 

1.5872 

5.34 

.6752 

5.79 

1.7561 

6.24 

.8310 

4.90 

1.5892 

5.35 

.6771 

5.80 

1.7579 

6.25 

.8326 

4.91 

1.5913 

5.36 

.6790 

5.81 

1.7596 

6.26 

.8342 

4.92 

1.5933 

5.37 

.6808 

5.82 

1.7613 

6.27 

.8358 

4.93 

1.5953 

5.38 

.6827 

5.83 

1.7630 

6.28 

.8374 

4.94 

1.5974 

5.39 

.6845 

5.84 

1.7647 

6.29 

.8390 

4.95 

1.5994 

5.40 

1.6864 

5.85 

1.7664 

6.30 

.8405 

4.96 

.6014 

5.41 

1.6882 

5.86 

.7681 

6.31 

.8421 

4.97 

.6034 

5.42 

1.6901 

5.87 

.7699 

6.32 

.8437 

4.98 

.6054 

5.43 

1.6919 

5.88 

.7716 

6.33 

.8453 

4.99 

.6074 

5.44 

1.6938 

5.89 

.7733 

6.34 

.8469 

5.00 

.6094 

5.45 

1.6956 

5.90 

.7750 

6.35 

1.8485 

5.01 

1.6114 

5.46 

1.6974 

5.91 

1.7766 

6.36 

1.8500 

5.02 

1.6134 

5.47 

1.6993 

5.92 

1.7783 

6.37 

1.8516 

5.03 

1.6154 

5.48 

1.7011 

5.93 

1.7800 

6.38 

1.8532 

5.04 

1.6174 

5.49 

1.7029 

5.94 

1.7817 

6.39 

1.8547 

5.05 

1.6194 

5.50 

1.7047 

5.95 

1.7834 

6.40 

1.8563 

[194] 


HYPERBOLIC  LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS 
HYPERBOLIC  LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS  PROM  1  TO  30—  (Cont.) 


Number 

Logarithm 

Number 

Logarithm 

Number 

Logarithm 

Number 

Logarithm 

6.41 

1.8579 

6.86 

1.9257 

7.31 

1.9892 

7.76 

2.0490 

6.42 

1.8594 

6.87 

1.9272 

7.32 

1.9906 

7.77 

2.0503 

6.43 

1.8610 

6.88 

1.9286 

7.33 

1.9920 

7.78 

2.0516 

6.44 

1.8625 

6.89 

1.9301 

7.34 

1.9933 

7.79 

2.0528 

6.45 

1.8641 

6.90 

1.9315 

7.35 

1.9947 

7.80 

2.0541 

6.46 

1.8656 

6.91 

1.9330 

7.36 

1.9961 

7.81 

2.0554 

6.47 

1.8672 

6.92 

1.9344 

7.37 

1.9974 

7.82 

2.0567 

6.48 

1.8687 

6.93 

1.9359 

7.38 

1.9988 

7.83 

2.0580 

6.49 

1.8703 

6.94 

1.9373 

7.39 

2.0001 

7.84 

2.0592 

6.50 

1.8718 

6.95 

1.9387 

7.40 

2.0015 

7.85 

2.0605 

6.51 

1.8733 

6.96 

1.9402 

7.41 

2.0028 

7.86 

2.0618 

6.52 

1.8749 

6.97 

1.9416 

7.42 

2.0042 

7.87 

2.0631 

6.53 

1.8764 

6.98 

1.9430 

7.43 

2.0055 

7.88 

2.0643 

6.54 

1.8779 

6.99 

1.9445 

7.44 

2.0069 

7.89 

2.0656 

6.55 

1.8795 

7.00 

1.9459 

7.45 

2.0082 

•7.90 

2.0669 

6.56 

1.8810 

7.01 

1.9473 

7.46 

2.0096 

7.91 

2.0681 

6.57 

1.8825 

7.02 

1.9488 

7.47 

2.0109 

7.92 

2.0694 

6.58 

1.8840 

7.03 

1.9502 

7.48 

2.0122 

7.93 

2.0707 

6.59 

1.8856 

7.04 

1.9516 

7.49 

2.0136 

7.94 

2.0719 

6.60 

1.8871 

7.05 

1.9530 

7.50 

2.0149 

7.95 

2.0732 

6.61 

1.8886 

7.06 

1.9544 

7.51 

2.0162 

7.96 

2.0744 

6.62 

1.8901 

7.07 

1.9559 

7.52 

2.0176 

7.97 

2.0757 

6.63 

1.8916 

7.08 

1.9573 

7.53 

2.0189 

7.98 

2.0769 

6.64 

1.8931 

7.09 

1.9587 

7.54 

2.0202 

7.99 

2.0782 

6.65 

1.8946 

7.10 

1.9601 

7.55 

2.0215 

8.00 

2.0794 

6.66 

1.8961 

7.11 

1.9615 

7.56 

2.0229 

8.01 

2.0807 

6.67 

1.8976 

7.12 

1.9629 

7.57 

2.0242 

8.02 

2.0819 

6.68 

1.8991 

7.13 

1.9643 

7.58 

2.0255 

8.03 

2.0832 

6.69 

1.9006 

7.14 

1.9657 

7.59 

2.0268 

8.04 

2.0844 

6.70 

1.9021 

7.15 

1.9671 

7.60 

2.0281 

8.05 

2.0857 

6.71 

1.9036 

7.16 

1.9685 

7.61 

2.0295 

8.06 

2.0869 

6.72 

1.9051 

7.17 

1.9699 

7.62 

2.0308 

8.07 

2.0882 

6.73 

1.9066 

7.18 

1.9713 

7.63 

2.0321 

8.08 

2.0894 

6.74 

1.9081 

7.19 

1.9727 

7.64 

2.0334 

8.09 

2.0906 

6.75 

1.9095 

7.20 

1.9741 

7.65 

2.0347 

8.10 

2.0919 

6.76 

1.9110 

7.21 

1.9755 

7.66 

2.0360 

8.11 

2.0931 

6.77 

1.9125 

7.22 

.9769 

7.67 

2.0373 

8.12 

2.0943 

6.78 

1.9140 

7.23 

.9782 

7.68 

2.0386 

8.13 

2.0956 

6.79 

1.9155 

7.24 

.9796 

7.69 

2.0399 

8.14 

2.0968 

6.80 

1.9169 

7.25 

.9810 

7.70 

2.0412 

8.15 

2.0980 

6.81 

1.9184 

7.26  . 

.9824 

7.71 

2.0425 

8.16 

2.0992 

6.82 

1.9199 

7.27 

.9838 

7.72 

2.0438 

8.17 

2.1005 

6.83 

1.9213 

7.28 

.9851 

7.73 

2.0451 

8.18 

2.1017 

6.84 

1.9228 

7.29 

1.9865 

7.74 

2.0464 

8.19 

2.1029 

6.85 

1.9242 

7.30 

1.9879 

7.75 

2.0477 

8.20 

2.1041 

[195] 


HYPERBOLIC  LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS 
HYPERBOLIC  LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS  FROM  1  TO  30 — (Cont.} 


Number 

Logarithm 

Number 

Logarithm 

Number 

Logarithm    .     Number 

Logarithm 

8.21 

2.1054 

8.66 

2.1587 

9.11 

2.2094 

9,56 

2.2576 

8.22 

2.1066 

8.67 

2.1599 

9.12 

2.2105 

9.57 

2.2586 

$.23 

2.1078 

8,68 

2.1610 

;    9.13 

2.2116 

9.58 

2.2597 

8.24 

2.1090 

8.  §9 

2.1622 

9.14 

2.2127 

9.59 

2.2607 

8.25 

2.1102 

8.70 

2.1633 

945 

2.2138 

9.60 

2.2618 

8-26 

2.1114 

8.71 

2.1645 

9.16 

2.2148 

9.61 

2.2628 

8.27 

12.1126 

8.72 

2.1656 

947 

2.2159 

9.62 

2.2638 

8.28 

2.1138 

8-73 

2.1668 

948 

2.2170 

9.63 

J2.2649 

8.29 

2.1150 

8.74 

2.1679 

949 

2.2181 

9.64 

2.2659 

8.30 

!2.U63 

3.75 

24691 

9.20 

2.2192 

9-65 

2.2670 

8.31 

24175 

8.76 

2.1702 

9.21 

2.2203 

9.66 

2.2680 

8.32 

2.1187 

8.77  j 

2.1713 

9.22 

2.2214 

9.67 

2.2690 

8.33 

2.1199 

$.78 

2.1725 

9.23 

2.2225 

9.68 

2.2701 

8.34 

2.  1211 

i    8.79 

2.1736 

9.24 

2.2235 

9.69 

2.2711 

8,3$ 

24223 

i    8.80 

24748 

9.25 

2.2246 

9.70 

2.2721 

8.36 

2.1235 

8.81 

2.1759 

9.26 

2.2257 

9.71 

2.2732 

8.37 

2.1247 

8.82 

2.1770 

9,27 

2.2268 

:    9.72 

2.2742 

8.38 

2.1258 

8,83 

2.1782 

9.28 

'2.2279 

9.73 

2.2752 

8.39 

2.1270 

8.84 

'2.1793 

9.29 

2.2289 

9.74 

2.2762 

8.40 

J24282 

8.85 

12.1804 

!    9.  30 

2.2300 

9.75 

2.2773 

8.41 

b.1294 

8.86 

i24815 

9.31 

2.2311 

!    9.76 

2.2783 

8.42 

'2.1306 

8.87 

i'24827 

;      9.32 

2.2322 

i    9.77 

2.2793 

8.43 

12.1318 

8.88 

2.J838 

9.33 

2.2332 

9.78 

2.2803 

8.44 

2.1330 

;    8.89 

2.1849 

j    9.34 

2.2343 

9.79 

2.2814 

8.45 

'2.1342 

;    8.90 

S.1861 

i    9.35 

2.2354 

9.80 

2.2824 

8.46 

2.1353 

8.91 

2.1872 

9.36 

2.2364 

9.81 

2.2834 

8.47 

24365 

8.92 

2.1883 

9.37 

2.2375 

9.82          2.2844 

8.48 

2.1377 

8.93 

2.1894 

9.38 

2.2386 

9.83 

2.2854 

8.49 

2.1389 

8.94 

2.1905 

9.39 

2.2396 

9.84 

2.2865 

8,50 

2.1401 

8.95 

2.1917 

9.40 

2.2407 

9.85 

2.2875 

8.51 

2.1412 

8.96 

2.1928 

9.41 

2.2418 

9.86 

2.2885 

8.52 

2.1424 

8.97 

2.1939 

9.42 

2.2428 

9.87 

2.2895 

8.53 

2.1436 

8.98 

24950 

9.43 

2.2439 

9.88 

2.2905 

8.54 

2.1448 

:    8.99 

24961 

9.44 

2.2450 

9.89 

2.2915 

8.55 

2.1459 

9.00 

12.1972 

;  9.45 

2.2460 

;     9.90 

2.2925 

j 

\ 

8.56 

J2.1471 

9.01 

b.1983 

;    9.46 

2.2471 

9.91 

2.2935 

8.57 

52.1483 

i   9.02 

£4994 

9.47 

2.2481 

9.92 

2.2946 

8.58 

2.1494 

1    9.03 

2.2006 

9.48 

2.2492 

9.93 

2.2956 

8.59 

J2.1506 

;      9.04 

2.2017 

;   9.49 

2.2502 

9.94 

2.2966 

8.60 

£.1518 

:     9.05 

2.2028 

9.50 

2.2513 

9.95 

2.2976 

i 

i 

8.61 

2.1529 

9.06 

2.2039 

9.51 

2.2523 

9.96 

2.2986 

8.62 

2.1541 

9.07 

2.2050 

9.52 

2.2534 

9.97 

2.2996 

8.63 

24552 

9.08 

2.2061 

9.53 

2.2544 

9.98 

2.3006 

8.64 

2.1564 

9.09 

2.2072 

9.54 

2.2555 

9.99 

2.3016 

8.65 

2.1576 

9.10 

2.2083 

9.55 

2.2565 

10.00 

2.3026 

[1961 


HYPERBOLIC  LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS 
HYPERBOLIC  LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS  FROM  1  TO  30 — (Ctmt.) 


Number 

Logarithm 

Number 

Logarithm 

Number 

Logarithm 

Number 

Logarithm 

10.25 

2.3279 

12.75 

2.5455 

15.5 

2.7408 

21.0 

3.0445 

10.50 

2.3513 

13.00 

2.5649 

16.0 

2.7726 

22.0 

3.0911 

10.75 

2.3749 

13.25 

2.5840 

16.5 

2.8034 

23.0 

3.1355 

11.00 

2.3979 

13.50 

2.6027 

17.0 

2.8332 

24.0 

3.1781 

11.25 

2.4201 

13.75 

2.6211 

17.5 

2.8621 

25.0 

3.2189 

11.50 

2.4430 

14.00 

2.6391 

18.0 

2.8904 

26.0 

3.2581 

11.75 

2.4636 

14.25 

2.6567 

18.5 

2.9173 

27.0 

3.2958 

12.00 

2.4849 

14.50 

2.6740 

19.0 

2.9444 

28.0 

3.3322 

12.25 

2.5052 

14.75 

2.6913 

19.5 

2.9703 

29.0 

3.3673 

12.50 

2.5262 

15.00 

2.7081 

20.0 

2.9957 

30.0 

3.4012 

[197] 


SECTION   4 
PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

This  section  does  not  include  all  of  the  materials  used  in  engineering;  the  list  relates 
more  particularly  to  the  common  metals,  and  of  these  iron  and  steel  have  been  given 
the  larger  space  because  of  their  commercial  importance  and  extended  use  in  machine 
construction  and  structural  work.  Brief  consideration  has  been  given  to  the  non- 
ferrous  metals  and  the  non-metallic  substances  which  so  profoundly  influence  the 
chemical  and  physical  properties  of  iron  during  its  conversion  into  steel.  There  are 
commercially  available  many  materials  used  in  engineering  which  are  not  included  in 
this  section :  a  considerable  number  of  these  are  given  in  the  United  States  Navy  Specifi- 
cations included  in  this  volume;  these  specifications  are  so  complete  in  themselves  that 
repetition  in  this  section  would  serve  no  useful  purpose.  The  subjects  have  been  arranged 
in  alphabetical  order,  to  which  have  been  added  certain  artificial  products,  as  well  as 
definitions  of  some  of  the  terms  used  in  metallurgy. 

Acetylene,  C2H2.  Specific  gravity  0.92.  At  0°  C.,  32°  F.,  acetylene  weighs  0.0807 
pound  per  cubic  foot,  or  1  pound  =  12.392  cubic  feet.  At  62°  F.  it  weighs  0.070  pound 
per  cubic  foot,  or  1  pound  =  14.286  cubic  feet.  Acetylene  is  a  hydrocarbon  gas,  which 
may  be  formed  by  passing  an  electric  current  between  carbon  poles  in  an  atmosphere 
of  hydrogen,  the  carbon  and  the  hydrogen  combining  directly.  The  resultant  gas 
is  colorless,  has  a  peculiar  pungent  odor,  and  burns  with  a  luminous,  smoky  flame. 

Commercial  acetylene  is  not  thus  produced,  but  by  bringing  water  into  contact  with 
calcium  carbide.  The  gas  thus  given  off  while  not  strictly  pure  is  nearly  so;  the  pun- 
gent odor  of  crude  acetylene  made  from  calcium  carbide  is  greatly  modified  by  puri- 
fication, its  pungency  disappears  and  the  purified  gas  has  a  not  unpleasant  ethereal 
odor.  An  analysis  of  acetylene  from  calcium  carbide  by  Vivian  B.  Lewes  was  found 
to  consist  of  92.3%  carbon  and  7.7%  hydrogen. 

Weight  of  acetylene  from  calcium  carbide.  Under  standard  British  conditions 
(60°  F.  and  760  mm.  barometric  pressure)  1,000  cubic  feet  of  acetylene  weigh  69.18 
pounds  dry  and  68.83  pounds  saturated.  Unless  the  gas  has  been  passed  through 
a  chemical  drier,  it  is  always  saturated  with  aqueous  vapor,  the  amount  of  water  present 
being  governed  by  the  temperature  and  pressure.  Under  average  conditions  1,000 
cubic  feet  of  acetylene  weigh  69  pounds,  or  one  cubic  foot  weighs  0.069  pounds,  or 
1  pound  =  14.493  cubic  feet. 

Acetylene  has  the  highest  candle-power  and  heat  unit  content  of  any  gas  yet  pro- 
duced. A  few  of  the  hydrocarbons  in  the  acetylene  series  have  been  grouped  by  J.  M. 
Morehead,  progressively  from  methane  to  acetylene,  thus: 

1.  Methane  CH4     5.2  candle  power  4.  Ethylene  C2H4    70.0  candle  power 

2.  Ethane     C2H6  37.7  candle  power  5.  Butylene  C6H8 123.0  candle  power 

3.  Propane  C3H8  56.7  candle  power  6.  Acetylene  C2H2  240.0  candle  power 

It  is  impossible  to  go  further  than  acetylene  in  this  direction,  as  the  two  elements  in 
the  combination  do  not  unite. 

Acid. — A  salt  of  hydrogen  in  which  the  hydrogen  can  be  replaced  by  a  metal,  or 
can,  with  a  basic  metallic  oxide,  form  a  salt  of  that  metal  and  water: — Differently 
expressed  by  Hiorns,  an  acid  is  a  salt  whose  base  is  water,  a  definition  which  becomes 
apparent  when  separating  the  acid  from  a  salt  in  which  the  acid  appears  to  be  left 
without  having  any  substitute  for  the  removed  alkali;  such  is  not  the  case,  however, 
because  water  is  found  to  enter  into  union  instead  of  the  base.  Every  true  acid  con- 
tains hydrogen,  and  if  the  hydrogen  is  displaced  by  a  metal,  salts  are  formed  directly; 
therefore,  an  acid  is  a  salt  whose  metal  is  hydrogen. 

All  acids  have  one  essential  property,  viz.,  that  of  combining  chemically  with  an 
alkali  or  base,  forming  a  new  compound  that  has  neither  acid  nor  alkaline  character. 
The  new  bodies  formed  in  this  way  are  salts.  Every  acid  is  therefore  capable  of  pro- 

[199] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

ducing  as  many  salts  as  there  are  basic  substances  to  be  neutralized;  and  this  salt- 
forming  power  is  the  best  definition  of  an  acid  substance.  The  secondary  properties 
common  to  most  acids  are:  solubility  in  water;  a  sour  taste;  the  power  of  turning 
vegetable  blues,  litmus,  for  example,  to  red;  the  power  of  destroying  more  or  less  com- 
pletely the  characteristic  properties  of  alkalies,  at  the  same  time  losing  their  own  dis- 
tinguishing characters,  forming  salts.  All  these  secondary  properties  are  variable; 
and  if  we  attempted  to  base  a  definition  on  any  one  of  them,  many  important  acids 
would  be  excluded.  Take  the  case  of  a  "body  like  silica,  so  widely  diffused  in  nature: — 
Siliceous  sand  or  flint  is  insoluble  in  water;  devoid  of  taste;  and  does  not  act  on  vege- 
table coloring  matters;  yet  this  substance  is  a  true  acid,  because,  when  heated  along 
with  soda  or  lime,  it  forms  a  new  body  commonly  called  glass,  which  is  chemically  a 
salt  of  silicic  acid.  Other  acids  having  properties  similar  to  silica  might  easily  be 
mistaken  for  neutral  bodies  if  the  salt-forming  power  was  overlooked. 

Acidic. — This  term  is  applied  to  the  acid  element,  as  silicon,  in  certain  salts;  it  is 
opposed  to  basic.  The  term  is  also  used  to  denote  a  large  amount  of  the  acid  elements: 
as,  for  example,  the  acidic  feldspars,  which  contain  60%  or  more  of  silica. 

Acidific. — That  which  produces  acidity  or  an  acid: — said  of  the  elements  (oxygen, 
sulphur,  etc.)  which  in  a  ternary  compound  are  considered  as  uniting  the  basic  and 
acidic  elements.  Thus  in  calcium  silicate,  calcium  is  called  the  basic,  silicon  the  acidic, 
and  oxygen  the  acidific  element. 

The  oxides  of  metals  are  usually  basic  in  character,  but  this  property  is  only  rela- 
tive, as  an  oxide  which  is  basic  in  one  compound  may  become  acid  when  allied  with 
a  stronger  base.  Oxides,  as  the  compounds  of  oxygen  with  other  elements  are  termed, 
may  be  roughly  divided  into  two  groups: 

1.  Those  which  have  an  acid  character,  chiefly  oxides  of  the  non-metals  and  are 
often  termed  acids,  such  as  carbonic  acid  CO2  and  silica  SiO2. 

2.  Those  of  a  basic  character,  chiefly  oxides  of  the  metals,  which  are  termed  bases. 
These  two  classes  are  opposite  in  character,  and,  when  united  in  equivalent  proportions, 
generally  neutralize  each  other,  forming  what  are  termed  neutral  bodies,  which  do  not 
possess  the  characteristic  properties  of  either  kind.     Thus  silica  SiO2  will  neutralize 
oxide  of  iron  FeO,  forming  a  silicate,  which  is  neither  acid  nor  basic.     If  any  com- 
pound contain  an  excess  of  acid  or  base,  it  is  classified  either  as  an  acid  or  as  a  basic 
substance  according   to    the  kind  which  predominates,  thus,  3FeO.SiO2  is  a  basic 
silicate,  and  FeO.SiO2  an  acid  silicate,  because  in  the  former  there  is  more  FeO  than 
is  required  to  neutralize  the  acid  SiO2,  and  hi  the  latter  less  than  is  necessary  for  the 
purpose. 

Iron  forms  three  oxides:  ferric  oxide,  Fe2O3,  ferroso-ferric  oxide,  FesO,i,  and  ferrous 
oxide,  FeO.  The  lower  oxides  are  converted  into  the  higher  by  oxidation  and  the 
higher  into  the  lower  by  reduction.  The  higher  oxides  of  several  of  the  metals  are 
acidic.  This  is  markedly  so  in  the  case  of  chromium  and  manganese. 

Acid  oxides  of  the  same  element  are  distinguished  by  the  termination  of  -ous  and 
•4c  as  sulphurous  and  sulphuric — the  latter  containing  the  most  oxygen;  they  are 
also  called  anhydrides.  They  unite  with  water  and  form  acids  having  the  same  termi- 
nations. By  replacement  of  the  hydrogen  by  a  metal  they  form  salts  distinguished  by 
the  terminations  -die  and  -ate  respectively.  These  acids  are  called  oxygen  acids ;  formerly 
it  was  thought  that  all  acids  contained  oxygen,  this  element  being  regarded  as  the 
acidifying  principle.  But  many  acids  are  formed  by  direct  union  of  hydrogen  with 
an  element,  as  hydrochloric  acid  (HC1),  hydrosulphuric  acid  (H2S),  or  with  an  organic 
radical,  as  hydrocyanic  acid,  H(CN). 

Acids  are  said  to  be  monobasic,  dibasic,  tribasic,  etc.,  according  as  one,  two,  or 
three  atoms  of  hydrogen  can  be  replaced  by  a  metal. 

Air  consists  essentially  of  the  two  elements  nitrogen  and  oxygen  in  the  proportion 
of  79  volumes  of  nitrogen  to  21  volumes  of  oxygen,  or,  by  weight,  of  77%  of  nitrogen 
and  23%  of  oxygen.  Besides  nitrogen  and  oxygen,  the  air  contains  a  little  ozone,  car- 
bon dioxide,  a  trace  of  ammonia,  and  a  variable  proportion  of  aqueous  vapor  depending 
on  the  temperature,  direction  of  the  wind,  etc.  The  oxygen  and  nitrogen  are  in  a 
state  of  mechanical  mixture,  and  not  in  chemical  combination,  their  ratio  is  always 
uniform.  The  ozone  occurs  in  country  air  only;  the  carbon  dioxide  is  much  influenced 

[200] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

by  local  causes,  therefore  varies  considerably.  The  ammonia  in  the  atmosphere  is  in 
too  small  a  quantity  for  direct  estimation. 

The  atmospheric  pressure  at  the  level  of  the  sea  is  14.7  pounds  per  square  inch; 
one  pound  of  dry  ah-  occupies  a  space  12.387  cubic  feet  at  32°  F.,  equivalent  to  0.0807 
pound  per  cubic  foot.  At  62°  F.  there  are  13.141  cubic  feet  per  pound,  equivalent  to 
0.0761  pound  per  cubic  foot.  *At  the  surface  of  the  sea  the  mean  pressure  of  the  atmos- 
phere is  sufficient  to  balance  a  column  of  mercury  29.92  inches  (760  millimeters),  or 
one  of  water  33.90  feet  hi  height.  Air  at  62°  F.  =  30  inches  of  mercury. 

The  density  of  air  at  62°  F.  fixed  as  1.000  is  made  the  standard  with  which  the 
specific  gravity  of  other  gases  is  compared.  If  water  be  made  unity,  then  the  specific 
gravity  of  dry  air  is  0.001293.  At  62°  F.  air  is  819.4  times  lighter  than  water. 

The  specific  heat  of  air  at  constant  pressure  is  0.2375,  water  =  1.0000.  The  specific 
heat  of  air  at  constant  volume  =  0.1689.  The  ratio  of  the  specific  heat  of  air,  or  con- 
stant pressure  divided  by  constant  volume  =  1 .406. 

Air  being  an  elastic  gas  may  be  compressed  and  when  compressed  heat  is  evolved; 
when  compressed  air  is  used  as  power  it  is  expanded  and  cold  is  produced.  In  a  per- 
fect machine  the  heat  of  compression  and  the  cold  of  expansion  would  equal  each 
other,  but  there  are  no  perfect  machines  and  losses  inevitably  occur.  The  compression 
of  air  may  be  carried  out  in  two  ways:  isothermally,  with  constant  temperature  through 
some  refrigerating  device;  adiabatically,  in  which  the  temperature  is  allowed  to  increase 
according  to  the  pressure,  the  containing  vessel  being  protected  to  keep  in  the  accumu- 
lated heat.  In  engineering  practice  the  production  of  compressed  air  is  by  machines, 
which  combine  both  isothermic  and  adiabatic  compression. 

Alcohol. — Ethyl  alcohol,  C2H6O3,  when  pure  is  a  colorless,  limpid  liquid  of  pungent 
and  agreeable  taste  and  odor;  its  specific  gravity,  at  15.5°  C.  (60°  F.)  is  0.7938,  and 
that  of  its  vapor  referred  to  air  1.613.  Specific  heat  at  0°  C.,  0.5475.  It  is  very  in- 
flammable, burning  with  a  pale  bluish  flame,  free  from  smoke.  It  boils  at  78.4°  C. 
(173°  F.)  when  in  the  anhydrous  state;  in  a  diluted  state,  the  boiling  point  is  higher, 
being  progressively  raised  by  each  addition  of  water.  It  mixes  with  water  in  all  pro- 
portions with  evolution  of  heat  and  contraction  of  volume;  it  readily  absorbs  moisture 
from  the  air,  and  from  substances  immersed  in  it.  The  solvent  powers  of  alcohol 
are  very  extensive.  It  dissolves  many  organic  'substances,  as  the  vegeto-alkalies, 
resins,  essential  oils,  and  various  other  bodies,  hence  its  extended  use  in  the  arts. 

Alcohol  is  obtained  by  the  fermentation  of  sugars,  when  a  solution  of  them  is  mixed 
with  yeast.  It  is  extracted  from  spirituous  liquors  by  distillation,  but  in  commerce 
the  strongest  is  known  as  spirit  of  wine,  and  contains  about  90%  alcohol.  The  remain- 
ing 10%  of  water  must  be  removed  by  some  chemical  agent  that  will  combine  with 
water  and  retain  it  at  the  boiling  point  of  the  spirit,  and  be  without  any  specific  action 
on  the  alcohol.  The  most  efficient  dehydrating  agent  is  caustic  lime  or  caustic  baryta. 
Lime  is  generally  used  in  making  the  absolute  alcohol  of  commerce. 

Industrial  alcohol  is  the  name  given  to  an  alcohol  denatured  in  order  that  it  may 
not  be  used  for  other  than  technical  purposes.  The  formula  for  completely  denaturing 
alcohol  given  by  the  regulations  of  the  U.  S.  Internal  Revenue  is  as  follows:  To  100 
parts  of  ethyl  alcohol  add  10  parts  of  approved  methyl  alcohol  and  one-half  of  1  part 
of  approved  benzine. 

When  used  for  lighting,  it  must  be  burned  in  a  state  of  gas  and  the  heat  produced 
by  the  combustion  utilized  to  produce  incandescence  in  the  ordinary  mantle  which 
surrounds  the  common  gas  flame  for  the  same  purpose.  Alcohol  motors,  especially 
in  the  smaller  sizes,  will  become  quite  common  as  soon  as  the  technique  of  construc- 
tion is  practically  complete  and  the  price  of  alcohol  is  sufficiently  low.  As  compared 
with  gasolene,  which  becomes  volatile  at  98.5°  F.,  alcohol  requires  from  158°  to  176°  F. 
to  volatilize  rapidly  enough  for  motor  purposes. 

Tests,  made  by  R.  M.  Strong  and  Lanson  Stone,  on  the  comparative  values  of 
gasolene  and  denatured  alcohol  in  internal-combustion  engines,  for  the  Bureau  of 
Mines,  showed  that  for  tests  on  the  gasolene  engine:  Specific  gravity  of  the  gasolene 
at  60°  F.  was  0.7122.  Heating  value:  High,  20,581;  low,  19,292  B.t.u.  per  pound. 
Per  cent  alcohol  by  weight  94.3.  The  engine  used  was  rated  at  10  HP.  In  round 
numbers  the  compression  of  gasolene  in  the  cy Under  was  72  pounds  per  square  inch; 

12011 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

the  brake  horsepower  11.41;  gasolene  consumed  per  brake  horsepower-hour  was  1 
pound;  B.t.u.  per  brake  horsepower-hour  was  12.540;  compression  in  alcohol  cylinder 
126  pounds  per  square  inch,  the  brake  horsepower  12.98;  alcohol  consumed  per  brake 
horsepower-hour  was  1.005  pounds;  B.t.u.  per  brake  horsepower-hour  was  10620. 
As  a  net  result  of  this  series  of  tests  no  definite  conclusions  were  reached,  but  the  alcohol 
engine  was  throughout  found  to  be  relatively  less  efficient  than  the  gasolene  engine. 

Alkali. — This  term  is  used  to  denote  a  strong  base,  which  is  capable  of  neutralizing 
acids,  so  that  the  salts  formed  are  either  completely  neutral,  or,  if  the  acid  is  weak,  give 
alkaline  reactions.  Alkalies  turn  reddened  litmus  blue,  they  have  a  soapy  taste,  act 
on  the  skin  and  form  soaps  with  fats.  The  volatile  alkalies  are  ammonia  and  the 
amines  of  organic  chemistry,  which  have  a  strong  alkaline  reaction  like  ammonia  and 
unite  with  acids  to  form  salts. 

The  alkaline  metals  are  potassium,  sodium,  caesium,  rubidium,  and  lithium.  They 
are  soft,  easily  fusible,  volatile  at  high  temperatures,  combine  very  energetically  with 
oxygen;  decompose  water  at  all  temperatures;  and  form  strongly  basic  oxides,  which 
are  very  soluble  in  water,  yielding  powerfully  caustic  and  alkaline  hydrates,  from 
which  the  water  can  not  be  expelled  by  heat. 

Alkaline  earths  are  oxides  of  the  metals  barium,  strontium,  and  calcium.  They 
are  less  soluble  in  water  than  the  true  alkalies,  but  exhibiting  similar  taste,  causticity, 
and  action  on  vegetable  colors. 

Allotropy. — The  capacity  of  an  element  to  exhibit  different  properties,  although 
its  conditions  are  identical  as  regards  chemical  composition,  physical  state,  and  ex- 
ternal influences,  such  as  pressure,  temperature,  etc.,  Roberts- Austen  describes  as  a 
change  of  internal  energy  occurring  in  an  element  at  a  critical  temperature,  unaccom- 
panied by  change  of  state.  The  allotropic  theory  as  related  to  iron  assumes  three 
critical  points,  or  evolutions  of  heat,  as  shown  in  cooling  a  piece  of  very  mild  steel 
from  a  temperature  of  1000°  C. 

1.  A  slight  evolution  of  heat  at  about  890°  C.,  termed  Arz. 

2.  A  disengagement  of  heat  at  about  765°  C.,  termed  Ar2. 

3.  Another  point  at  about  690°  C.,  small  in  very  mild  steel  and  highly  accentuated 
in  steels  high  in  carbon,  termed  An. 

The  presence  of  dissolved  cementite  lowers  the  temperature  at  which  these  changes 
occur,  in  precisely  the  same  manner  as  the  presence  of  dissolved  carbon  in  cast  iron 
lowers  the  temperature  of  its  freezing  point.  Iron  in  the  gamma  form  will  dissolve 
about  1%  of  carbon  as  cementite,  at  about  890°  C.,  but  beta  iron  will  scarcely  dissolve 
any  carbon,  so  that  the  beta  iron,  being  practically  free  from  combined  iron,  undergoes 
the  change  to  alpha  iron  at  the  normal  temperature  of  765°  C.  Meanwhile  as  the 
iron  falls  out,  the  residual  solution  becomes  richer  in  cementite  until  at  690°  C. 
it  is  saturated,  forming  an  eutectic  solid  solution,  and  the  cementite  and  iron  (in  the 
alpha  form)  separate  out,  side  by  side,  to  form  the  well-known  pearlite.  The  evolu- 
tion of  heat  at  690°  C.  marks  the  point  known  as  An. 

Alloy. — A  mixture  of  two  or  more  metals  united  by  melting  the  more  refractory 
metal  and  dissolving  the  less  refractory  metal  in  it;  forming  a  new  composite  metal 
with  characteristics  of  its  own  differing  from  either  of  its  constituents.  Gun  metal 
composed  of  copper,  tin,  and  zinc  may  be  used  as  an  illustration;  copper  is  a  red  metal 
with  chemical  and  physical  properties  all  its  own,  it  melts  at  1083°  C.;  tin  is  a  white 
metal  of  less  specific  gravity  and  a  much  lower  melting  point,  viz.,  232°  C.;  zinc  is 
wholly  different  from  either,  its  melting  point  is  419°  C.;  when  these  are  fused  into 
an  alloy:  88%  Cu,  10%  Sn,  2%  Zn,  the  melting  point  is  995°  C.  The  tensile  strength 
of  copper  is  about  27,800  pounds  per  square  inch;  that  of  tin  12,760  pounds;  that  of 
zinc  5,400  pounds.  The  tensile  strength  of  the  alloy  is  about  32,000  pounds  per  square 
inch.  By  changing  the  above  proportions  of  tin  and  zinc  to  copper,  a  bronze  is  ob- 
tained of  different  qualities,  differing  in  color,  hardness,  and  tensile  strength,  thus: 
60%  Cu,  15%  Sn,  25%  Zn,  has  a  tensile  strength  of  about  18,000  pounds  per  square 
inch.  A  few  per  cent  of  tin  causes  copper  to  be  hard  and  more  tenacious.  A  brass 
casting  of  60%  Cu,  40%  Zn,  will  have  a  tensile  strength  of  about  46,000  pounds  per 
square  inch.  The  addition  of  2.5%  lead  will  improve  the  working  qualities,  while 
a  large  addition,  say  10%  lead,  will  make  it  brittle. 

[202] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

Metallic  elements  do  not  at  first  sight  appear  to  combine  in  certain  ratios  and 
form  definite  compounds;  it  is  probable,  however,  that  some  metals  do  unite  in  definite 
proportions;  by  the  general  law  of  affinity,  all  metals  ought  to  combine  chemically. 
As  a  general  rule  metals  which  form  alkalies  have  a  particular  tendency  to  unite  with 
those  which  form  acids.  Potassium,  which  is  one  of  the  alkali  metals,  combines  readily 
with  antimony,  which  is  both  an  acid-forming  and  a  base-fopming  element;  it  also 
combines  with  arsenic,  especially  when  present  as  arsenic  oxide  or  arsenic  acid,  the 
latter  being  a  very  powerful  acid. 

When  two  metals  are  near  in  the  series  of  affinities  for  oxygen,  they  do  not  com- 
bine very  readily;  and  they  may  often  be  separated,  by  crystallization  only,  when 
their  degree  of  fusibility  is  sufficiently  distinct.  This  happens  when  both  metals 
absorb  the  same,  or  nearly  the  same,  quantity  of  oxygen  in  forming  oxide.  All  chem- 
ical combinations  liberate  heat;  silver  and  platinum,  when  melted  together,  produce 
a  high  temperature,  so  do  zinc  and  copper.  In  most  cases,  we  obtain  a  mere  mechanical 
mixture  of  metals  in  an  alloy;  this  is  always  characterized  by  forming  distinct  crystals 
with  one  metal,  between  which  the  other  metal  is  visible.  When  an  alloy  is  formed 
which  contains  equivalents,  no  such  disconnected  crystals  are  observed.  The  number 
of  definite  compounds  is  very  large,  and  in  all  cases  a  metal  is  never  obtained  pure 
whenever  another  is  present.  In  cooling  a  melted  alloy,  that  composition  which  is 
most  refractory  crystallizes  first;  and  that  which  is  most  fluid  is  compelled  to  occupy 
the  spaces  between  the  crystals  of  the  most  refractory.  Thus,  copper  and  tin  are 
very  fusible;  but  in  cooling,  copper-tin  crystallizes  first  and  the  tin-copper  last;  which 
latter  occupies  the  spaces  between  the  first. 

Alloys  are  more  fusible  than  the  mean  temperature  at  which  the  metals  melt  singly. 
This  is  an  important  law  and  affords,  when  properly  applied,  the  most  valuable  results. 
When  an  alloy  of  two  metals  is  fusible  at  a  lower  heat  than  the  mean  of  the  two,  a 
composition  of  three  metals  is  still  more  fusible  than  their  various  degrees  of  melting 
indicate.  If  an  alloy  is  more  fusible  than  a  single  metal,  it  follows  that,  when  one 
or  the  other  constituent  is  removed,  the  fusibility  of  the  alloy  is  impaired. 

When  metals  are  melted  together  and  form  an  alloy  there  is  produced  a  remarkable 
change  in  their  specific  gravity;  which  is  sometimes  greater  and  at  other  times  less 
than  the  mean.  A  condensation  of  volume  occurs  and  the  specific  gravity  of  the 
compound  is  greater  than  the  mean  of  the  constituents  in  the  case  of  copper  with  tin, 
zinc,  or  antimony;  lead  with  zinc,  bismuth,  or  antimony.  An  expansion  takes  place 
when  iron  is  combined  with  antimony,  bismuth,  or  tin;  also  copper  and  lead,  tin  and 
zinc,  lead  or  antimony,  zinc  and  antimony. 

The  hardness  of  alloys  is  generally  greater  than  may  be  inferred  from  the  nature 
of  the  constituents;  still  there,  are  exceptions  to  this  rule.  Copper  and  tin,  two  very 
soft  metals,  may  be  made  extremely  hard  by  melting  them  together  in  certain  pro- 
portions. Hard  zinc  and  copper  make  soft  brass.  Antimony  causes  all  metals  to 
become  hard. 

The  ductility  of  alloys  is  in  some  cases  greater  than  the  elements  indicate,  that 
of  lead  and  zinc  being  very  tenacious.  On  the  contrary,  some  alloys  are  more  brittle 
than  the  original  metals;  thus  lead  and  antimony  are  very  brittle.  Two  or  more  brittle 
metals  melted  together  are  always  brittle.  Any  alloy,  when  slowly  heated  and  gradu- 
ally cooled,  annealed,  is  softer  than  an  alloy  which  is  suddenly  chilled.  Heat  here,  as 
everywhere,  weakens  affinity. 

In  the  case  of  iron  when  combined  with  carbon  to  form  steel,  we  have  a  metal  com- 
bined with  a  non-metal;  this  also  is  called  an  alloy.  Metals  dissolved  in  mercury 
are  called  amalgams. 

Aluminium,  Al. — Atomic  weight,  27.  Specific  gravity:  Molten  metal,  2.54;  cast 
metal,  2.66.  This  latter  may  be  increased  by  hammering  or  rolling.  Weight  per  cubic 
foot,  165  pounds  =  0.096  pound  per  cubic  inch.  Melting  point,  659°  C.,  1,218°  F., 
depending  on  its  purity.  Small  amounts  of  silicon  and  iron,  which  are  always  present, 
have  a  considerable  effect  on  its  behavior,  both  physically  and  in  contact  with  reagents. 
Volatilization  of  aluminium  does  not  take  place  at  temperatures  commonly  had  in 
carbon  fired  furnaces,  but  it  should  not  on  this  account  be  long  subjected  to  temperatures 
much  above  its  melting  point,  as  the  molten  metal  readily  absorbs  gases  which  affect 

[203] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

unfavorably  the  quality  of  the  castings.  Specific  heat  at  0°  C.  =  0.2098,  at  100°  = 
0.2236,  at  300°  C.  =  0.2434,  at  500°  C.  =  0.2739,  at  650°  C.  =  0.3200.  Latent  heat 
of  fusion,  51.30  B.t.u.  per  pound.  Coefficient  of  linear  expansion,  0.00002312  at  40°  C., 
104°  F.  At  600°  C.,  1,112°  F.,  the  coefficient  is  0.00003150.  Heat  conductivity,  35, 
silver  =  100.  In  Smithsonian  Physical  Tables  the  conductivity  is  given  as  0.3435  at 
0°  C.  and  0.3619  at  100°  C.  The  electrical  conductivity  is  57,  silver  =  100.  Taking 
copper  as  100,  aluminium  with  purity  98.5%  =  55;  at  99%  purity  =  59;  at  99.5% 
purity  =  61;  at  100%  purity  =  66.  Its  elastic  modulus  (i.e.,  load  in  kilograms  pet- 
square  millimeter,  divided  by  its  alteration  in  length)  is  7,462  as  compared  with  11,350 
for  copper,  and  the  torsion  moduli  of  these  metals  are  3,350  and  4,450  respectively. 

Color:  Pure  aluminium  is  nearly  as  white  as  silver,  but  the  commercial  metal 
has  a  bluish  white  cast  intermediate  between  the  colors  of  tin  and  zinc. 

The  hardness  of  aluminium  varies  with  its  purity,  the  purest  metal  being  the  softest. 
In  relative  hardness,  the  diamond  =  1,000.0;  aluminium  is  272.8,  that  is,  softer  than 
gold  and  harder  than  tin.  The  ordinary  commercial  aluminium  is  about  as  hard  as 
copper,  which,  on  the  same  scale,  is  451.8.  This  increase  in  hardness  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  aluminium  commonly  contains  small  amounts  of  some  other  metals.  Alu- 
minium hardens  considerably  when  it  is  worked;  mechanical  processes  such  as  pressing, 
forging,  rolling,  etc.,  will  harden  the  metal;  castings  not  subject  to  mechanical  treat- 
ment, as  above,  should  contain  some  alloying  metal  if  hardness  is  particularly  desired. 

In  malleability,  aluminium  ranks  next  after  gold,  but  its  malleability  is  impaired 
by  the  presence  of  silicon  and  iron.  Aluminium  of  over  99%  purity  is  rolled  into  sheets 
of  only  0.0005  to  0.0007  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  and  such  sheets  are  hammered  into 
leaf  nearly  as  thin  as  gold  leaf.  Aluminium  leaf  is  largely  used  in  decorative  work, 
and  has  almost  entirely  superseded  the  use  of  silver  leaf  because  of  the  softness  of 
tone  and  non-tarnishing  qualities  when  in  contact  with  gases  which  blacken  silver. 
Aluminium  bronze  paint  is  the  leaf  ground  into  powder  and  mixed  with  oil  and  drier. 

The  ductility  of  aluminium  is  next  after  that  of  copper;  it  has  been  drawn  into  a 
very  fine  wire,  but,  as  in  the  case  of  malleability,  the  ductility  is  impaired  by  the  presence 
of  silicon  and  iron.  Aluminium  wire  has  a  tensile  strength  of  30,000  to  45,000  pounds 
per  square  inch.  It  has  been  largely  used  for  overhead  electrical  transmission  and  it 
possesses  many  advantages  for  such  purposes  owing  to  its  lightness;  for  the  same 
diameter,  the  weight  of  aluminium  wire  is  only  about  one-third  that  of  copper,  while 
its  electrical  conductivity  is  60%  that  of  copper. 

The  tensile  strength  of  aluminium  castings  is  from  12,000  to  15,000  pounds  per 
square  inch,  but  this  varies  with  the  "  temper"  of  the  metal.  Sheet  aluminium  varies 
between  22.000  to  38,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  depending  on  the  amount  of  hammer- 
ing or  other  work  done  upon  the  ingot  before  the  final  rolling.  The  elastic  limit  ap- 
proximates one-half  the  tensile  strength.  The  physical  properties  of  bars  are  about 
the  same  as  given  for  sheets.  Wire  has  a  tensile  strength  of  30,000  to  45,000  pounds 
per  square  inch.  The  above  figures  are  for  nearly  pure  metal;  a  higher  tensile  strength 
can  be  had  if  suitably  alloyed.  When  compared  with  equal  weights,  aluminium  bars  are 
as  strong  as  steel  bars  of  80,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

The  compressive  strength  of  aluminium  in  short  columns,  length  equaling  twice 
the  diameter,  xis  not  very  much  different  from  its  tensile  strength  when  the  metal  is 
nearly  pure,  but  in  the  case  of  high  or  hard  alloys  it  may  be  twice  as  much.  The 
elastic  limit  is  somewhat  less  than  half  the  compressive  strength  when  the  metal  is 
nearly  pure,  but  is  gradually  lowered  with  increasing  hardness  of  the  alloy  until  it  is 
barely  more  than  one-quarter  the  compressive  strength  for  the  hardest  alloys. 

Under  transverse  tests  nearly  pure  aluminium  is  not  very  rigid;  the  metal  will 
bend  nearly  double  before  breaking. 

Corrosion:  The  resistance  of  aluminium  to  oxidation  is  one  of  its  most  marked 
qualities.  Pure  aluminium  is  not  acted  upon  by  air,  wet  or  dry,  and  not  at  all  by  sulphur 
fumes;  it  does  not  tarnish  from  the  influence  of  illuminating  gas.  or  of  the  weather. 
If  silicon  is  present  to  any  great  extent,  say  2  to  3%,  aluminium  will  not  so  well  with- 
stand atmospheric  corrosion.  Boiling  water  or  steam  does  not  affect  it.  Organic 
secretions  have  less  effect  upon  it  than  is  the  case  with  silver;  it  is,  therefore,  used  for 
dental  plates,  surgical  instruments,  suture  wires,  and  in  places  subject  to  carbolic  acid 

[2041 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

and  other  antiseptic  solutions,  Salt  water  has  little  effect  upon  it,  and  it  withstands 
the  action  of  sea  water  better  than  iron,  steel,  or  copper.  It  is  not  acted  upon  by  carbonic 
acid,  or  carbonic  oxide,  or  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  at  any  temperature  below  600°  F. 

Solubility:  Hydrochloric  acid,  weak  or  concentrated,  is  the  true  solvent  for  alu- 
minium. Concentrated  sulphuric  acid  dissolves  the  metal  on  heating,  with  evolution  of 
sulphurous  acid  gas;  dilute  sulphuric  acid  acts  only  slowly  on  the  metal.  The  presence 
of  any  chloride  in  the  solution,  however,  allows  the  metal  to  be  rapidly  decomposed. 
Nitric  acid,  either  concentrated  or  dilute,  has  very  little  action  on  the  metal.  Sulphur 
has  no  action  on  it  at  a  temperature  less  than  red  heat.  Solutions  of  caustic  alkalies, 
chlorine,  bromine,  iodine,  and  fluorine  rapidly  corrode  aluminium.  Aqua  ammonia 
acts  slowly  on  aluminium;  ammonia  gas  does  not  appear  to  act  upon  the  metal. 

Hydrogen  is  absorbed  by  aluminium  to  the  extent  of  about  equal  volumes,  and  this 
is  expelled  on  heating. 

Oxygen  does  not  attack  aluminium  in  bulk  at  ordinary  temperatures,  but  if  the 
aluminium  is  finely  divided  it  undergoes  considerable  oxidation  at  400°  C.,  752°  F., 
or  even,  though  less  rapidly,  at  lower  temperatures.  This  affinity  which  finely  divided 
aluminium  possesses  for  oxygen  has  been  made  use  of  by  Goldschmidt  in  the  application 
of  "  thermit  "  as  a  means  of  reducing  oxides,  having  used  it  successfully  in  the  pro- 
duction of  iron,  manganese,  chromium,  nickel,  cobalt,  titanium,  boron,  molybdenum, 
tungsten,  vanadium,  and  other  metals. 

The  sonorous  qualities  of  pure  aluminium  are  very  pronounced,  but  the  tone  seems 
to  be  improved  by  alloying  with  a  few  per  cent  of  silver  or  German  silver. 

The  non-magnetic  quality  of  aluminium  is  useful  in  electrical  work  where  a  magnetic 
material  would  be  useless. 

The  electrical  conductivity  of  pure  aluminium  is  about  62  in  the  Matthiessen 
Standard  Scale.  As  in  the  case  with  other  metals  of  good  electrical  conductivity,  the 
conducting  power  of  aluminium  is  greatly  decreased  by  the  presence  of  alloying  metals. 

Impurities  commonly  found  in  aluminium  are  silicon  and  iron.  Silicon  exists  in 
two  forms,  one  seemingly  combined  with  the  metal,  much  as  combined  carbon  exists 
in  pig  iron,  and  the  other  as  an  allotropic  graphitic  modification.  Pure  aluminium  is 
soft  and  not  so  strong  as  the  alloyed  metal;  it  is  only  where  extreme  malleability,  duc- 
tility, sonorousness,  and  non-corrodibility  are  required  that  the  purest  metal  should 
be  used. 

The  alloying  metals  added  to  produce  hardness,  rigidity,  and  strength,  constituents 
that  will  not  detract  from  the  lightness  of  the  metal  and  also  will  riot  affect  its  non- 
corrosive  qualities  are,  commonly,  copper,  nickel,  and  zinc. 

The  purity  of  commercial  aluminium  varies  from  about  94  to  99.75%,  the  balance 
being  made  up  of  impurities,  such  as  silicon,  iron,  copper,  etc.  The  approximate  com- 
position of  No.  1  grade  of  aluminium  by  the  Aluminium  Company  of  America  is  99.55% 
aluminium,  0.15%  iron,  0.30%  silicon. 

The  fracture  of  pure  aluminium  is  slightly  fibrous,  uneven,  rough  and  very  close. 
Metal  96  to  97%  pure  is  feebly  crystalline,  breaks  short  with  a  tolerably  level  surface. 
When  less  than  95%  pure  the  fracture  is  crystalline.  The  presence  of  a  small  percentage 
of  silicon  will  change  the  fibrous  to  crystalline  structure,  and  thus  unfit  it  for  stamping 
or  working  cold. 

Alloys:  Aluminium  added  to  certain  metals,  such  as  copper  or  iron,  even  in  small 
quantities,  has  a  profound  effect  in  modifying  their  properties;  so  also  the  addition  of 
small  quantities  of  metals,  such  as  iron,  manganese,  or  the  metalloid  silicon,  effects 
considerable  change  in  the  properties  of  aluminium.  The  alloys  of  aluminium  may 
be  classed  as  bronzes,  casting  alloys,  and  rolling  alloys,  according  to  their  properties. 

Amalgams. — Alloys  of  mercury  with  other  metals  are  termed  amalgams,  mercury 
dissolves  the  metals  gold,  silver,  tin,  lead,  etc.,  but  not  iron  or  platinum.  In  some 
cases  the  union  takes  place  with  considerable  evolution  of  heat  and  large  modification 
of  the  mean  properties  of  the  components.  Thus,  for  instance,  sodium  when  rubbed 
up  with  mercury  unites  with  it  with  deflagration  and  formation  of  an  alloy  which, 
if  it  contains  more  than  2%  sodium,  is  hard  and  brittle,  although  sodium  is  as  soft 
as  wax  and  mercury  a  liquid. 

Liquid  amalgams  of  gold  and  silver  are  employed  in  gilding  and  silvering  objects 

[205] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

of  copper,  bronze,  etc.  The  amalgam  is  spread  out  on  the  surface  of  the  object  by 
means  of  a  brush,  and  the  mercury  is  then  driven  off  by  the  application  of  heat,  when 
a  polishable,  firmly  adhering  film  of  the  dissolved  metal  remains.  Gold  forms  with 
mercury  a  compound  AuHgs,  and  the  amalgam  remaining  after  squeezing  the  excess 
of  mercury  through  chamois  leather  contains  33%  gold.  Silver  and  mercury  form 
a  definite  compound  Ag2Hg2;  by  squeezing  the  excess  of  mercury  through  chamois 
leather  an  amalgam  of  fairly  uniform  composition  is  obtained  Ag2Hg2  +  4.6%  mercury. 

Tin  amalgams  are  made  by  adding  mercury  to  molten  tin.  The  amalgam  of  equal 
parts  of  mercury  and  tin  is  a  brittle  solid;  but  with  more  mercury  a  plastic  mass  is 
obtained,  which  becomes  hard  in  the  course  of  a  few  days.  The  amalgams  are  used 
in  a  plastic  condition,  and  harden  with  little  or  no  expansion.  The  amalgam  of  tin 
is  used  in  silvering  looking-glasses. 

Copper  amalgam  containing  25  to  33%  of  the  solid  metal,  when  worked  in  a  mortar 
at  100°  C.,  becomes  highly  plastic,  but  on  standing  hi  the  cold  for  10  or  12  hours  be- 
comes hard  and  crystalline.  It  may  be  softened  again  by  immersing  it  in  boiling 
water  or  by  simply  pounding  it;  and  it  is  capable  of  being  hammered,  rolled,  and 
polished.  It  hardens  without  expanding  or  contracting.  It  is  used  as  a  cement  for 
metals  and  is  also  used  for  cementing  china  and  porcelain. 

The  fluidity  of  an  amalgam  depends  on  there  being  an  excess  of  mercury  above 
that  necessary  to  form  a  definite  compound. 

Ammonia,  NH3. — Specific  gravity  of  ammonia  gas  at  0°  C.,  and  76  centimeters 
(atmospheric)  pressure  relative  to  air  at  0°  C.  and  the  same  pressure,  is  0.597,  equalling 
0.048  pound  per  cubic  foot.  The  mean  specific  heat  of  ammonia  gas  for  temperatures 
23°  to  216°  C.,  the  pressure  constant,  is  0.5228.  The  latent  heat  of  vaporization  of 
ammonia  when  temperature  of  vaporization  is  16°  C.  is  297.4  calories  per  kilogram, 
or  therms  per  gram  (Regnault).  The  critical  temperature  of  ammonia  gas  according 
to  Dewar  is  130°  C.,  under  pressure  of  115.0  atmospheres,  1,691  pounds  per  square 
inch.  Nitrogen  and  hydrogen  have  not  by  any  commerical  process  been  combined 
so  as  to  yield  ammonia  directly;  it  has  been  done  in  small  quantity  in  an  experimental 
way,  but  the  practical  difficulties  are  very  great. 

One  of  the  chief  sources  of  ammonia  at  the  present  tune  is  ammoniacal  liquor  of 
gas  works  obtained  through  the  distillation  of  bituminous  coal.  The  gaseous  mate- 
rials which  pass  over  from  the  retort  are  partly  uncondensable  and  truly  gaseous; 
these  pass  into  the  gas  holder  for  service;  but  there  are  other  gaseous  materials  pass- 
ing over  which  are  condensable,  and  during  the  process  of  washing  the  gas  these  are 
condensed  into  a  mixed  tarry  and  watery  liquid.  After  this  gas  liquor  has  settled, 
the  water  portion  containing  ammonia  is  drawn  off.  By  one  method  hydrochloric 
acid  is  added  to  the  liquor,  forming  a  compound  of  ammonia  and  hydrochloric  acid 
called  chloride  of  ammonium.  Pure  ammonia  can  be  obtained  from  this  impure  chloride 
of  ammonium  by  mixing  it  with  its  own  weight  of  slaked  lime  in  a  retort  and  applying 
a  gentle  heat;  the  ammonia  gas  passes  over  and  is  received  in  a  vessel  containing  water, 
from  which  the  gas  may  be  liberated  by  a  further  application  of  heat. 

Ammonia  gas  is  colorless,  has  a  strong  pungent  odor,  and  possesses  marked  alkaline 
properties,  turning  reddened  litmus  to  blue,  and  combining  readily  with  acids,  neu- 
tralizing them  completely.  It  does  not  support  combustion  or  respiration.  It  does 
not  burn  in  the  ah*,  but  does  burn  in  oxygen  with  a  pale  yellowish  flame. 

Ammonia  as  generally  obtained,  even  in  the  gaseous  condition,  is  in  combination 
with  the  vapor  of  water,  the  gas  containing  1  part  nitrogen,  4  of  hydrogen,  and  1  of 
oxygen  as  NH4O.  Dry  ammonia  gas  can  be  had  by  passing  this  mixed  ammonia 
vapor  over  fused  chloride  of  calcium,  when  the  water  is  abstracted  and  true  gaseous 
ammonia  is  left,  having  the  composition  1  nitrogen  and  3  hydrogen,  NH8. 

Ammonia  gas  can  be  liquefied  under  pressure  and  cold,  yielding  a  colorless,  clear, 
mobile  liquid,  with  the  characteristics  of  ammonia  much  intensified.  When  the  pres- 
sure is  removed  from  the  liquefied  ammonia  it  passes  back  to  the  gaseous  form  and  in 
so  doing  it  absorbs  heat,  and  this  is  the  property  taken  advantage  of  for  the  artificial 
preparation  of  ice. 

The  solubility  of  ammonia  gas  in  water  is  very  great,  1  volume  of  water  at  ordinary 
temperature  dissolving  about  670  volumes  of  ammoniacal  gas,  increasing  in  bulk,  and 

[206] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

forming  a  liquid  which  is  lighter  than  water,  its  density  being  0.875,  water  =  1.000. 
At  0°  C.  (32°  F.)  water  will  take  up  about  1,000  volumes  of  gas.  This  liquid  solution' 
of  ammonia  is  transparent,  colorless,  and  strongly  alkaline;  it  has  the  power  to  neu- 
tralize acids  and  form  salts.  This  solution  is  commonly  known  as  spirits  of  hartshorn. 
If  this  liquid  be  heated  to  the  boiling  point  nearly  all  of  the  gas  may  be  expelled  from  it. 

Antimony,  Sb. — Atomic  weight,  120.  Specific  gravity,  6.71.  Melting  point,  630° 
C.  (1,166°  F.).  Specific  heat,  50.03.  Antimony  is  a  brilliant  silver-gray  metal,  having 
a  foliated  texture  and  a  strong  tendency  to  assume  a  crystalline  structure.  It  is  brittle, 
and  can  be  reduced  to  powder  with  ease.  It  is  not  oxidized  by  the  air  at  common 
temperatures;  when  heated  to  redness  it  takes  fire,  burning  with  a  brilliant  white 
flame.  It  is  dissolved  by  hydrochloric  acid.  Nitric  acid  oxidizes  it  to  antimonic  acid. 
Antimony  is  valuable  for  the  alloys  it  yields  with  other  metals.  Britannia  metal  is  an 
alloy  largely  used,  containing  usually  about  81  parts  of  tin,  16  of  antimony,  2  of  copper, 
and  1  of  zinc.  Babbitt's  anti-friction  metal  for  the  bearings  of  machinery  is  com- 
posed of  83.3  parts  of  tin,  8.3  parts  of  copper,  and  8.3  parts  of  antimony.  Antimony 
combines  with  lead  or  tin,  separately  or  in  combination,  and  such  alloys  are  much 
used  in  place  of  gun  metal  for  lining  bearings  and  for  bushings  of  both  light  and  heavy 
machinery. 

Arsenic,  As. — Atomic  weight,  74.9.  Specific  gravity,  5.73  in  the  solid  state.  Its 
vapor  density,  compared  with  that  of  hydrogen,  is  150,  which  is  twice  its  atomic  weight. 
Melting  point,  850°  C.  (1,562°  F.).  Specific  heat,  0.081.  Arsenic  is  sometimes  found 
native;  it  occurs 'in  considerable  quantity  as  a  constituent  of  many  minerals,  combined 
with  metals,  sulphur,  and  oxygen.  The  largest  proportion  is  derived  from  the  roast- 
ing of  natural  arsenides  of  iron,  nickel,  and  cobalt.  Arsenic  has  a  steel-gray  color 
and  high  metallic  luster;  it  is  crystalline  and  very  brittle;  it  tarnishes  in  the  air,  but 
it  may  be  preserved  unchanged  in  pure  water.  When  heated  it  volatilizes  without 
fusion,  and  if  air  be  present,  oxidiaes  to  arsenious  oxide.  At  red  heat  it  burns  with 
a  bluish  flame,  and  the  vapor  given  off  has  the  odor  of  garlic.  Arsenic  combines  with 
metal  in  the  same  manner  as  sulphur  and  phosphorus;  it  resembles  the  latter  in  many 
respects,  and  it  is  often  regarded  as  a  metalloid.  It  is  used  for  mixing  with  lead  in 
the  manufacture  of  small  shot,  the  alloy  dropping  in  rounder  forms  than  pure  lead. 
An  alloy  of  copper  and  arsenic  produces  a  brittle  gray  metal  of  a  brilliant  silvery  hue. 

Asbestos. — A  variety  of  the  mineral  hornblende.  It  contains  a  considerable  per- 
centage of  magnesia  in  its  composition,  with  an  almost  equal  percentage  of  silica. 

Amianthus  is  one  variety  of  asbestos  characterized  by  long  flexible  fibers  of  flaxen 
aspect;  these  fibers  are  so  easily  separated  and  so  soft  that  they  may  easily  be  spun 
into  yarn  and  woven  into  a  cloth.  The  fibers  of  common  asbestos  are  shorter  and 
much  less  flexible.  It  is  also  heavier  than  the  amianthus  variety.  It  has  a  dull  green 
color,  sometimes  pearly  luster,  and  unctuous  to  the  touch. 

The  composition  of  asbestos  is  practically  the  same  wherever  found,  as  illustrated 
in  the  following  comparative  analyses  of  Italian  and  Canadian  samples,  given  by  J.  T. 
Donald : 


Italian 

Broughton, 
Canada 

Silica  

SiO2 

40.30% 

40  57% 

Magnesia  

MgO 

43  37 

41   50 

Ferrous  oxide  

FeO 

.87 

2  81 

AlaOs 

2  27 

90 

Water  

H2O 

13.72 

13  55 

100.53% 

99.33 

Chemical   analysis    throws   light    upon    an    important   point  in  connection  with 
i.e.,  the  cause  of  the  harshness  of  the  fiber  of  some  varieties.      From  the 

[207] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

analyses  just  given  it  may  'be  seen  that  asbestos  is  principally  a  hydrous  silicate  of 
magnesia,  i.e.,  silicate  of  magnesia  combined  with  water.  When  harsh  fiber  is  analyzed 
it  is  found  to  contain  less  water  than  the  soft  fiber.  In  fiber  of  very  fine  quality  from 
Black  Lake,  analysis  showed  14.38%  of  water,  while  a  harsh-fibered  sample  gave  only 
11.70%.  It  is  well  known  that  if  soft  fiber  be  heated  to  a  temperature  that  will  drive 
off  a  portion  of  the  combined  water,  there  results  a  substance  so  brittle  that  it  may 
be  crumbled  between  thumb  and  finger.  There  is  evidently  some  connection  between 
the  consistency  of  the  fiber  and  the  amount  of  water  in  its  composition.  It  is  probable 
that  the  harsh  fiber  was,  as  originally  deposited,  soft  and  flexible,  and  has  been  ren- 
dered harsh  by  having  a  portion  of  its  water  driven  off  by  heat,  either  produced  by 
movement  of  the  associated  rocks  or  resulting  from  the  injection  of  molten  matter 
through  volcanic  action. 

Austenite. — This  term  is  applied  by  Osmond  to  a  constituent  of  high  carbon  steels 
which  is  developed  by  very  sudden  quenching  from  a  high  temperature.  It  is  softer  and 
less  magnetic  than  martensite,  with  which  it  is  generally  associated.  It  is  found  in  steels 
containing  more  than  1.2%  carbon  which  have  been  quenched  from  a  temperature 
above  1,000°  C.  in  water  cooled  to  0°  C.,  or,  better,  in  a  freezing  mixture.  Owing 
to  the  fact  that  it  is  only  stable  at  high  temperatures,  it  has  been  suggested  that 
it  may  be  a  solution  of  elementary  carbon  in  iron.  It  is  not  of  frequent  occurrence 
in  steel. 

Barium,  Ba. — Atomic  weight,  137.  Specific  gravity,  3.78.  Weight  per  cubic  foot, 
236  pounds  =  0.13  pound  per  cubic  inch,  Melting  point,  850°  C.,  1,560°  F.,  and  com- 
mences to  volatilize  at  950°  C.,  1,742°  F.  Specific  heat,  0.037.  When  pure,  barium 
is  a  silver-white  metal.  It  is  slightly  harder  than  lead.  Barium  is  never  found  native, 
but  occurs  principally  as  the  sulphate  BaSO4,  barytes  or  heavy-spar,  and  is  generally 
found  associated  with  metallic  ores  containing  sulphur.  It  also  occurs  in  nature  as 
witherite,  BaCO3,  and  in  certain  varieties  of  the  ores  of  manganese;  also  in  certain 
silicates.  Guntz  states  that  molten  barium  attacked  all  the  metals  he  tried,  iron 
and  nickel  being  the  most  resistant.  Barium  decomposes  water  and  alcohol  in  the 
cold,  yielding  in  the  latter  case  barium  ethoxide.  Barium  oxidizes  rapidly  in  the  air, 
yielding  principally  the  monoxide  BaO.  Barium  peroxide,  or  dioxide  BaO2,  is  formed 
when  baryta  is  heated  to  a  dull  red  in  a  stream  of  oxygen  or  of  air  freed  from  carbonic 
acid;  the  barium  peroxide  is  a  gray,  impalpable  powder,  slightly  more  fusible  than  the 
monoxide.  Goldschmidt  has  used  the  peroxide  in  his  "  thermit  "  process  to  start  the 
reaction  in  a  mixture  of  finely  granulated  aluminium  with  a  solid  oxide.  A  fuse  of 
aluminium  and  barium  peroxide  is  Used  which  is  ignited  by  burning  a  piece  of  magnesium. 

Base.— A  metallic  oxide  which  is  alkaline,  or  capable  of  forming  with  an  acid  a 
salt,  water  being  also  formed,  the  metal  replacing  the  hydrogen  in  the  acid. 

Basic.— Having  the  base  in  excess;  having  the  base  atomically  greater  than  that 
of  the  acid  or  that  of  the  related  neutral  salt;  a  direct  union  of  a  basic  oxide  with  an 
acid  oxide. 

Bessemer  Process. — A  process  invented  by  Henry  Bessemer  (1856)  by  which  steel 
is  made  directly  from  a  special  pig  iron  low  in  both  sulphur  and  phosphorus,  first  melting 
the  pig  iron  in  a  cupola  and  then  pouring  a  certain  quantity  of  this  molten  metal  into 
a  vessel  called  a  converter;  after  which  atmospheric  air  at  a  pressure  of  20  to  25  pounds 
per  square  inch  is  blown  into  and  through  this  molten  iron  in  numerous  fine  jets  through 
tuyeres  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  converter;  the  tuyere  openings  communicate  with 
an  air  supply  chamber  directly  underneath. 

The  process  is  essentially  a  chemical  one  in  which  the  atmospheric  oxygen  is  the 
active  element,  the  numerous  openings  in  the  tuyeres  combined  with  the  high  air  pres- 
sure break  up  the  air  into  a  mass  of  bubbles  in  the  molten  iron,  thus  offering  a  large 
surface  of  contact  for  chemical  reaction,  the  effect  of  which  is  to  oxidize  the  carbon, 
manganese,  silicon,  and  other  oxidizable  constituents  originally  contained  in  the  pig 
iron,  leaving  only  a  decarburized  iron  with  its  unoxidizable  constituents  in  the  converter; 
this  metal  is  then  recarburized  by  dissolving  in  it  as  much  of  a  special  iron  known  as 
spiegeleisen  or  ferromanganese  as  will  supply  the  needed  carbon  and  manganese  to 
give  the  steel  the  desired  chemical  and  physical  properties.  Two  methods  are  employed 
in  making  Bessemer  steel:  The  acid  process,  in  which  the  converter  is  lined  with 

[208] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

acid  material,  the  product  being  Acid  Bessemer  Steel;  in  the  other  process  the  lining 
of  the  converter  is  of  basic  material,  and  this  product  is  called  Basic  Bessemer  Steel. 

The  lining  in  an  acid  Bessemer  converter  is  made  of  the  most  refractory  acid  mate- 
rials procurable;  in  England,  ganister  is  used;  this  is  a  siliceous  rock  in  which  the  silica 
is  cemented  together  by  a  species  of  clay;  a  typical  composition  is:  92.0%  silica,  3.5% 
alumina,  2.7%  ferric  oxide,  together  with  small  amounts  of  lime  and  magnesia.  Canister 
is  also  used  in  this  country.  Mica-schist  forms  a  good  lining,  this  mineral  is  an  aggre- 
gate of  quartz  and  mica  in  widely  varying  proportions,  the  mica  occurs  in  thin  plates 
or  layers  between  the  quartz  layers.  Sometimes  the  quartz  may  retain  a  granular 
character  like  that  of  quartz-rock.  When  mica-schist  is  placed  in  a  converter  it  should 
be  so  laid  as  to  present  its  laminar  section  to  the  action  of  the  metal,  the  joints  between 
the  blocks  should  be  completely  filled  with  a  refractory  fire  clay.  A  good  refractory 
lining  may  be  made  by  the  use  of  old  silica  fire  bricks  and  remnants,  after  crushing  the 
bricks  to  the  equivalent  of  one-half  inch  cubes;  mixing  these  with  a  finely  crushed 
quartz,  or  with  a  refractory  fire  sand,  cementing  all  by  a  good  quality  of  fire  clay  suffi- 
ciently moistened  to  make  a  stiff  mixture  that  will  stand  driving  into  place. 

Acid  Bessemer  pig  is  a  gray  iron  which  is  specially  made  for  conversion  into  steel 
by  the  acid  process.  The  composition  is  by  no  means  uniform,  the  following  composi- 
tion is  to  be  regarded  as  approximate  only: 

Silicon,  not  over  2.00% 

Carbon,  total  3.50 
Manganese,  not  over  1 . 00 
Phosphorus,  less  than  0 . 10 
Sulphur,  less  than  0 . 10 

In  regard  to  the  phosphorus  and  sulphur  neither  of  these  is  reduced  during  the 
blow  because  the  slag  is  too  acid,  they  therefore  remain  in  solution  in  the  iron  to  be 
corrected  after  the  blow.  Phosphorus  is  not  removed  in  the  acid  Bessemer  process 
because  ferrous  phosphide  is  not  decomposed  during  the  blow  and  the  phosphorus  in 
the  manganese  phosphide  passes  over  to  the  iron.  It  is  for  this  reason  a  special  pig  iron 
is  made  for  the  acid  Bessemer  process. 

Carbon  in  the  molten  iron  is  oxidized  by  the  air  blown  up  through  it  in  the  con- 
verter. The  rate  at  which  carbon  is  eliminated  in  the  converter  depends  mainly  upon 
the  percentage  of  silicon  in  the  pig  iron  and  the  initial  temperature.  Hoffman  states 
that  with  high  silicon  (2  to  3%)  pig  iron,  and  a  low  initial  temperature,  at  first  only 
silicon  will  burn,  and  when  the  iron  is  heated  to  a  certain  point  (assisted  by  the  oxidation 
of  manganese),  carbon  begins  to  burn  to  a  carbonic  oxide;  the  English  method.  With 
low  silicon  (0.6  to  1.3%)  pig  iron,  and  a  low  initial  temperature,  silicon  will  be  almost 
completely  eliminated  before  the  carbon  begins  to  be  much  oxidized.  This  means 
quick  blowing,  and  at  short  intervals;  the  American  method. 

Silicon  is  oxidized  upon  forcing  of  air  into  the  molten  metal,  its  oxidation  is  very 
rapid  in  the  earlier  parts  of  the  blow,  and  unless  the  percentage  of  silicon  be  very  high 
or  the  temperature  of  the  blow  too  high,  the  removal  of  the  silicon  is  practically  com- 
plete. Silicon  is  best  removed  at  a  moderate  temperature.  No  fuel  is  required  during 
this  process  of  conversion  because  the  heat  generated  by  the  oxidation  of  silicon  ac- 
companied by  that  of  the  carbon  is  such  that  the  iron  is  not  only  kept  in  a  molten 
condition,  but  increases  in  temperature  as  well;  a  temperature  of  1,640°  C.  (2,984°  F.) 
has  been  noted  by  Le  Chatelier,  which  is  120°  C.  (248°  F.)  above  the  melting  point  of 
iron. 

Manganese  contained  in  the  Bessemer  pig  oxidizes  readily  in  the  converter  during 
the  blow;  if  it  be  present  in  quantity  such  as  obtains  in  Sweden,  for  example,  where  it 
may  reach  2.0%  or  even  more,  the  manganese  may  oxidize  before  there  is  enough  silica 
formed  to  produce  a  slag  with  the  oxide.  In  such  a  case  the  blow  is  not  continued  until 
all  the  carbon  is  burned  off,  but  the  blast  is  stopped  when  the  metal  contains  the  desired 
amount  of  carbon  as  determined  by  spectrum  analysis  of  the  flame,  as  well  as  by  the 
color  of  the  slag.  A  blow  thus  controlled,  according  to  Hiorns,  results  in  from  0.1  to 
0.3%  manganese  remaining  in  the  iron.  American  Bessemer  pig,  containing  less 

[209] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

manganese  than  the  above,  does  not  require  a  shortening  of  the  blow;  by  its  presence 
it  assists  as  a  heat  producer,  shields  the  iron  from  oxidation,  combines  with  the  silicon 
and  passes  off  with  the  slag. 

The  object  of  the  blow  is  to  supply  ah-  for  the  elimination  of  the  foreign  constituents 
in  the  molten  pig  iron,  but  the  elimination  is  not  wholly  complete;  when  the  flame  drops 
at  the  mouth  of  the  converter,  out  of  a  probable  3.50%  hi  the  pig,  there  yet  remains 
about  0.10%  carbon  in  the  iron;  so  also,  out  of  a  probable  1.00  to  1.50%  silicon  there 
may  be  as  much  as  0.10%  still  present  in  the  metal.  The  temperature  of  the  molten 
pig  iron  in  the  converter  must  be  such  as  to  keep  both  the  metal  and  the  slag  in  a  fluid 
state;  the  heat  generated  by  the  oxidation  of  silicon,  in  the  acid  process,  is  sufficient 
for  this  purpose.  If  the  silicon  be. too  high  the  blow  will  be  too  hot,  and  if  the  metal 
be  too  hot  the  carbon  will  oxidize  more  rapidly  than  the  silicon,  an  excess  of  silicon 
occurs,  and  the  quality  of  the  steel  will  be  low;  to  prevent  this,  it  is  the  common  practice, 
when  the  blow  seems  to  be  too  hot,  to  add  cold  scrap  to  the  metal  in  the  converter, 
or  steam  is  admitted  into  the  air-supply  chamber,  whence  it  passes  with  the  air  into 
the  molten  metal  and  effects  through  its  dissociation  a  reduction  in  temperature; 
when  the  temperature  of  the  metal  has  been  sufficiently  reduced  the  steam  is  shut 
off;  if,  however,  through  low  silicon,  the  temperature  be  too  low,  the  general  effect  is 
unsatisfactory;  Howe  considers  that  as  far  as  convenience  of  blowing  is  concerned, 
1.25%  silicon  is  the  best  proportion. 

The  effect  of  the  blow  is  to  oxidize  every  thing  oxidizable  in  the  converter:  Iron 
is  oxidized  and  becomes  FeO,  this  oxide  will  combine  with  manganese  Mn,  forming  a 
new  compound,  Fe  +  MnO.  Iron,  and  silicon,  Si,  will  combine  thus,  2  FeO  +  Si  = 
2  Fe  +  SiO2.  Iron  and  carbon  will  combine  thus,  FeO  +  C  =  Fe  +  CO.  These 
compounds  react  upon  each  other  during  the  blow  until  chemical  equilibrium  is  estab- 
lished; if  this  occurs  before  the  end  of  the  blow  the  carbon  will  be  practically  eliminated, 
as  will  the  manganese  also;  the  silicon  becomes  silica  associated  with  manganese  oxide 
and  ferrous  oxide;  these  with  alumina  and  other  impurities  constitute  the  slag.  As 
the  sulphur  and  phosphorus  are  not  oxidized  in  the  acid  Bessemer  process  they  remain 
in  the  converter  in  practically  the  same  proportion  as  in  the  pig;  some  of  the  sulphur 
passes  into  the  slag,  but  none  of  the  phosphorus. 

Length  of  blow:  The  Bessemer  process  is  a  very  rapid  one:  in  an  8-ton  converter 
the  time  interval  between  charging  the  converter  with  molten  iron  from  the  cupola 
and  the  blast  turned  on,  until  the  appearance  of  the  carbon  flame  from  the  mouth  of 
the  converter,  is  about  3  minutes,  the  full  carbon  flame  developing  within  a  minute. 
About  5  minutes  thereafter  the  converter  is  turned  down,  the  blast  is  shut  off,  and 
melted  spiegeleisen  is  added,  or,  in  the  case  of  ferro-manganese  being  used,  it  is  shovelled 
into  the  stream  of  metal  pouring  from  the  converter  into  the  ladle.  After  the  pouring, 
it  requires  less  than  a  minute  to  empty  the  converter  of  slag  and  place  it  in  position  to 
receive  another  charge  of  metal  from  the  cupola.  The  total  time  from  start  to  finish 
is  about  20  minutes,  half  of  which  is  taken  up  by  the  blow. 

The  record  of  a  15-ton  converter  at  the  Carnegie  works,  as  summarized,  is  as  follows: 
Charge  33,000  pounds  of  direct  metal  and  2,500  pounds  of  scrap.  Spiegeleisen  added, 
3,000  pounds.  Time  between  heats,  less  than  18  minutes;  time  of  blowing,  about  14  min- 
utes. Slag  formed,  about  12%  on  the  weight  of  pig  iron.  The  loss  of  iron,  about  10%. 

After  the  blow,  when  all  the  oxidizable  constituents  in  the  iron  have  been  removed, 
there  remains  in  the  converter  a  mass  of  molten  iron  low  in  carbon  with  oxide  of  iron 
sufficiently  in  excess  to  give  it  properties  resembling  "  burnt "  iron;  it  is  spongy,  red- 
short,  and  non-malleable.  Manganese  is  now  added  to  the  molten  metal  either  in  the 
form  of  spiegeleisen  in  the  case  of  mild  steel,  or  as  ferro-manganese  when  a  higher 
carbon  and  manganese  content  are  required;  this  addition  corrects  the  objectionable 
properties  enumerated  above,  and  converts  the  molten  iron  into  a  product  both  homo- 
geneous and  malleable,  some  of  the  sulphur  may  be  eliminated  but  the  phosphorus 
remains.  Of  the  manganese  added  in  the  spiegeleisen,  70%  enters  the  steel,  while 
30%  is  oxidized  and  enters  the  slag.  Of  the  carbon  added  by  the  spiegeleisen,  80% 
enters  the  steel.  Carbon  is  added  to  the  molten  metal  in  the  converter  through  that 
contained  in  the  spiegeleisen;  mild  steel  such  as  used  for  structural  purposes  contains 
about  0.25%  carbon,  steel  rails  from  0.40  to  0.60%. 

[210J 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

Ingot  steel  made  by  the  acid  Bessemer  process  varies  somewhat  in  composition, 
partly  through  incomplete  oxidation  during  the  blow,  and  partly  through  lack  of  uni- 
formity in  composition  of  the  spiegeleisen  or  ferro-manganese  added  after  the  blow. 
The  variation  may  not  be  much,  but  it  is  enough  to  require  analysis  or  physical  tests 
before  working.  With  the  exception  of  the  maximum  limitation  of  0.10%  on  phosphorus 
in  acid  Bessemer  steel,  less  attention  is  given  than  formerly  to  the  chemical  properties. 
For  ordinary  structural  steel,  such  as  shapes,  bars,  or  plates,  the  tensile  strength  is 
usually  all  that  is  required,  it  being  understood  that  the  elastic  limit  is  one-half  that 
amount.  There  are  no  sharp  limitations  as  to  tensile  strength  in  this  grade  of  steel; 
it  may  vary  anywhere  between  55,000  and  65,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  subject  also 
to  a  cold  bending  test  through  180°  to  a  diameter  of  one  thickness.  Any  steel  that 
will  pass  such  a  physical  test,  with  maximum  0.10%  phosphorus,  will  be  suitable  for 
structural  work,  or  any  other  service  in  which  ordinary  wrought  iron  would  be  used 
that  does  not  require  welding.  The  chemical  problem  is  to  produce  such  a  steel,  and 
when  this  is  attained,  the  physical  requirements  are  all  that  enter  into  ordinary 
specifications. 

The  loss  of  iron  during  its  conversion  from  pig  iron  into  steel  is  occasioned  by  the 
rapid  oxidation  of  the  molten  iron  by  the  passage  of  the  numerous  finely  divided  jets 
of  air  through  it;  this  oxidation  begins  very  early  in  the  blow  and  continues  to  the 
end.  Silicon  is  a  source  of  heat  and  especially  useful  in  the  early  part  of  the  blow, 
but  silicon  unites  with  iron,  and  leaves  the  converter  as  a  silicate  of  iron  in  the  slag; 
the  greater  the  percentage  of  silicon  thus  converted  the  greater  the  loss  of  iron.  The 
total  loss  of  iron  by  the  acid  Bessemer  process  is  about  10%,  but  this  is  by  no  means 
uniform. 

Slag: — Manganese  combines  with  oxygen  in  four  well-defined  oxides,  of  which  the 
monoxide  MnO  is  the  only  one  to  be  here  considered.  This  oxide  is  isomorphic  with 
magnesia  MgO ;  it  combines  with  both  iron  and  carbon,  forming  a  double  carbide.  In 
the  presence  of  sulphur,  it  decomposes  the  iron  sulphide,  forming  manganese  sulphide, 
liberating  the  iron;  this  sulphide  is  not  as  soluble  in  iron  as  iron  sulphide,  it  therefore 
tends  to  float  to  the  surface,  and  thus  pass  into  the  slag.  In  the  first  stages  of  the 
blow  manganese  oxide  predominates  largely,  but  as  the  blow  goes  on,  the  proportion 
of  iron  oxide  increases  rapidly.  The  proportion  of  manganese  present  in  the  slag  is 
nearly  the  same  in  amount  as  that  present  in  the  molten  iron  from  the  cupola. 

Silicon  is  always  present  in  pig  iron,  chiefly  as  silicide  of  iron  FeSi;  this  silicide 
dissolves  readily  in  molten  iron;  its  effect  upon  the  carbon  also  present  in  the  iron  is 
to  change  it  from  the  combined  to  the  graphitic  form,  in  which  form  it  is  readily  oxidized. 

Average  composition  of  acid  Bessemer  slag  at  the  end  of  the  blow,  before  the  addition 
of  the  spiegeleisen: 

Silicon,  SiO2 48.8% 

Lime,  CaO 1.4 

Alumina,  A12O3 3.1 

Manganese  oxide,  MnO 33 . 8 

Ferrous  oxide,        FeO 12 . 5 

The  amount  of  slag  is  approximately  12%  on  the  weight  of  pig  iron  used. 

Basic  Bessemer  Process. — When  a  Bessemer  converter  is  lined  with  a  basic  material, 
the  slag  produced  will  have  the  characteristics  of  the  lining  and  will  also  be  basic; 
such  a  slag  will  take  up  elements  whose  oxides  are  of  an  acid  character.  When  in 
contact  with  a  basic  lining,  or  with  basic  slag,  the  phosphorus  in  the  molten  metal  is 
oxidized  and  becomes  phosphoric  oxide,  which  readily  unites  with  bases  such  as  lime 
and  magnesia,  passing  into  the  slag,  leaving  a  purer  iron.  This  application  of  a  basic 
lining  such  as  lime  and  magnesian  limestone  in  a  converter  was  patented  by  Snelus 
in  1872.  Thomas  and  Gilchrist  later  reduced  the  principles  of  the  Snelus  patent  to 
practical  operation  in  the  use  of  a  basic  lining  of  crushed  limestone  and  sodium  silicate, 
as  well  as  magnesian  limestone  bricks  to  the  converter,  and  by  the  further  addition 
of  a  small  amount  of  lime,  or  lime  mixed  with  "  blue  billy  "  (burnt  pyrites)  or  some  other 
form  of  iron  oxide  such  as  mill  scale,  to  the  charge,  together  with  the  continuance  of 
the  blow  for  some  short  period  after  the  decarbonization  is  complete,  the  elimination 

[211] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

of  phosphorus  could  be  very  largely  effected,  some  80  or  90%  of  the  total  phosphorus 
present  becoming  oxidized  and  converted  into  phosphates,  this  action  chiefly  taking 
place  during  the  afterblow. 

The  pig  iron  best  suited  to  the  basic  Bessemer  process  is  a  white  iron  which  contains 
less  silicon  than  gray  pig  iron.  White  irons  show  no  trace  of  graphite  in  the  fractured 
pig;  they  are  also  likely  to  be  much  more  phosphoric  than  gray  irons;  the  percentage 
of  sulphur  is  commonly  higher  than  in  gray  irons.  The  presence  of  much  silicon  oper- 
ates against  the  success  of  the  basic  process  because  an  extra  amount  of  lime  will  be 
necessary  to  effect  removal  of  the  phosphorus  from  the  iron;  inasmuch  as  the  oxidation 
of  the  phosphorus  produces  sufficient  heat  to  keep  the  iron  liquid,  no  loss  of  heat  occurs 
during  the  blow. 

The  basic  blow  is  divided  into  two  distinct  periods,  the  foreblow  and  the  after- 
blow.  The  foreblow  is  distinguished  by  the  same  phenomena  which  occur  in  the 
acid  blow,  viz.,  the  pale  flame  and  sparks  during  the  first  combustion  of  the  manganese 
and  silicon,  the  white  flame  increasing  in  length  as  the  carbon  burns  out  and  the  abrupt 
drop  of  the  flame  when  the  carbon  combustion  of  the  flame  is  completed.  A  few  seconds 
after  the  drop  of  the  flame  the  manganese  lines  in  the  green  portion  of  the  flame  spectrum 
disappear,  and  the  afterblow  begins.  In  the  foreblow,  carbon,  silicon,  manganese, 
and  some  phosphorus  are  oxidized;  in  the  afterblow  the  remainder  of  the  phosphorus 
and  sometimes  sulphur  are  oxidized. 

The  fundamental  principle  of  the  basic  blow,  according  to  F.  E.  Thompson,  is  to 
calculate  the  amount  of  air  and  lime  required  to  oxidize  the  silicon,  manganese,  and 
phosphorus  estimated  or  known  to  be  contained  in  the  iron. 

Theoretically  the  molten  iron  comes  to  the  converter  at  a  good  regular  temperature, 
successive  heats  having  a  uniform  chemical  composition  for  certain  periods.  Often 
the  iron  comes  irregular  in  both  temperature  and  composition  from  heat  to  heat.  This 
is  especially  true  as  regards  iron  from  a  melting  cupola  carrying  steel  scrap,  and  applied 
in  some  measure  to  iron  direct  from  the  blast  furnace. 

Some  design  of  mixer,  however,  drawing  molten  iron  from  the  blast  furnace  offers 
the  best  means  of  delivering  regularly  hot  and  uniform  basic  iron  to  the  converter. 


CONVERTER  METAL  AT  CONCLUSION  OF  BLOW  BEFORE  RECARBURIZING — BASIC 

BESSEMER  PROCESS 

(F.  E.  Thompson) 


l 

2 

3 

4 

Carbon 

0  03% 

0  04% 

0  04% 

0  04% 

Silicon                  .      

Trace 

Trace 

Trace 

Trace 

Sulphur                 

0.058 

0.028 

0.053 

0.036 

Phosphorus                                      .... 

0.035 

0.030 

0.020 

0.025 

Manganese.  . 

0.060 

0.050 

0.120 

0.032 

The  only  regular  additions  to  the  afterblow  are  scrap,  lime,  and  recarburizers. 
Scrap  is  added,  as  in  the  acid  process,  to  lower  the  bath  temperature  sufficiently  to 
yield  a  quiet  steel  at  the  casting  pit.  Part  of  the  total  lime  charge  may  be  added 
during  the  afterblow,  but  most  works  now  prefer  to  add  the  lime  all  at  once  before 
the  converter  is  turned  up  for  the  blow.  Lime  may  be  added  also  during  the  afterblow 
instead  of  scrap,  in  order  to  cool  the  bath  and  thicken  the  slag.  This  action  will  increase 
the  percentage  of  iron  in  the  slag,  and  also  increase  the  amount  of  metallic  shot  mechani- 
cally inclosed  in  the  slag,  leading  to  increased  loss  by  conversion.  , 

In  blowing  metal  of  normal  composition  the  blow  lasts  from  12  to  18  minutes, 
according  to  the  analysis  of  the  iron  and  according  to  the  blast  pressure.  The  propor- 
tions of  time  to  each  period  is  about  10  minutes  for  the  foreblow  and  five  minutes  for 
the  afterblow.  Air  delivered  at  converter  =  28  to  32  Ibs.  per  aq.  in.  The  quantity 

[2121 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 


of  air  is  about  8,928  cubic  feet  per  ton  during  the  foreblow  and  4,960  cubic  feet  during 
the  afterblow. 

The  overblow  in  basic  work  is  similar  to  that  in  acid  work,  in  that  it  begins  when 
the  usual  combustibles  in  the  bath  are  consumed  and  the  iron  itself  begins  to  burn. 
Overblowing  in  the  basic  converter  in  presence  of  excess  of  lime  conduces  to  a  more 
complete  elimination  of  phosphorus  and  to  a  more  rapid  elimination  of  sulphur,  ac- 
companied by  an  increase  in  the  amount  of  oxide  of  iron  going  with  the  slag.  Over- 
blowing without  excess  of  lime  in  the  slag,  on  the  other  hand,  increases  the  phosphorus 
in  the  metal  bath  by  rephosphorization,  makes  the  slag  thin  and  wild,  and  forces  oxide 
of  iron  into  the  metal  bath.  The  steel  produced  is  brittle  when  cold;  and  shows  a 
characteristic  oxide  glitter  in  the  fracture. 

It  is  an  open  question  when  the  overblow  begins.  The  whole  matter  rests  upon 
the  final  phosphorus  content  of  the  steel.  If  we  say  that  the  steel  of  a  completed  basic 
blow  should  contain  0.08%  phosphorus,  then  the  overblow  begins  when  the  phosphorus 
in  the  metal  bath  has  been  reduced  to  that  point.  But  if  we  say  that  normal  basic 
steel  should  contain  0.04%  phosphorus,  then  the  overblow  begins  at  that  point.  Should 
we  place  the  phosphorus  limit  below  0.01%,  most  blows  would  have  no  overblow  because 
the  metal  bath  would  probably  contain  that  much  phosphorus  as  long  as  there  remained 
any  metal  in  the  converter. 

Mr.  Thompson  determined  the  average  conversion  loss  accompanying  different 
values  of  phosphorus  in  the  steel  in  order  to  see  what  value  gives  the  most  economical 
results  consistent  with  good  soft  steel.  He  found  that  basic  steel  containing  0.04  to 
0.06%  phosphorus  is  most  economically  produced.  Tnis  grade  of  steel  is  also  better 
suited  for  structural  work  than  that  containing  either  very  low  phosphorus  or  phosphorus 
above  0.06%. 

Temperature:  There  are  no  phenomena  accompanying  the  basic  afterblow  by  which 
the  bath  temperature  can  be  judged  with  the  extreme  nicety  attained  in  acid  practice. 
Close  observation  of  the  brown  fumes  is  the  best  temperature  guide.  In  an  exceedingly 
hot  blow  the  flame  will  be  almost  entirely  obscured  shortly  before  the  completion  of  the 
blow;  but  the  hotter  the  blow  the  lower  is  the  conversion  loss,  unless  a  large  excess  of 
lime  be  present.  It  is  not  the  oxide. of  iron  going  up  the  stack  during  the  hot  blow 
which  causes  heavy  conversion  loss,  but  the  oxide  of  iron  and  metallic  iron  going  into 
the  slag  during  a  cold  blow,  which  usually  results  either  from  excess  of  lime  or  over- 
scrapping. 

Very  hot  blows  generally  result  from  excess  of  combustibles  in  the  iron.  When 
lime  is  normal  and  not  greatly  in  excess,  very  hot  blows  often  produce  phosphoric  steel 
owing  to  the  fact  that  phosphorus,  toward  the  end  of  the  blow,  does  not  pass  readily 
into  the  slag,  at  a  high  temperature.  Lowering  the  temperature  of  the  bath  by  scrap 
additions  serves  the  double  purpose  of  cooling  off  the  steel  and  f  acilitating  the  elimination 
of  phosphorus. 

Mr.  Thompson's  estimate  is  that  scrapped  hot  heats  yield  an  average  conversion 
loss  of  14.83%,  compared  with  12.81%  loss  in  unscrapped  heats. 

BASIC  BESSEMER  SLAG — AVERAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  FOUR  HEATS 
(F.  E.  Thompson) 


i 

2 

3 

4 

Silica, 

SiO2 

5  12% 

6  10% 

7  28% 

8  14% 

Ferrous  oxide, 

FeO  

16  85 

15  42 

19  89 

19  68 

Manganese  oxide, 

MnO  

3.82 

3.89 

4  17 

4  00 

Lime, 

CaO...    . 

50  04 

48  96 

48  46 

47  28 

Phosphorus  pentoxide, 
Magnesia  , 

P206  
MgO. 

20.30 
1  21 

19.92 
1  02 

16.62 

0  68 

16.81 
0  52 

Aluminium  oxide, 

A12O3  

1  40 

2  10 

2  40 

2  50 

Sulphur, 

S.... 

0  34 

0  29 

0  41 

0  41 

Moisture.  . 

0.91 

2.33 

0.11 

0.68 

[213 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

Mr.  Thompson's  experience  with  phosphoric  iron  (about  2.5%  phosphorus)  is  that 
in  normal  blows  the  phosphorus  is  about  one-half  burned  out  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
ioreblow.  In  very  hot  or  long  foreblow  the  phosphorus  may  be  reduced  much  more 
than  one-half  before  the  af terblow  begins,  while  in  a  generally  cold  blow  the  phosphorus 
may  remain  practically  unchanged  until  the  afterblow  has  progressed  well  toward  the 
middle.  The  whole  phosphorus  reaction  depends  upon  the  melting  of  the  lime,  and 
when  this  occurs  phosphorus  begins  to  be  oxidized,  whether  or  not  carbon  be  present 
in  the  bath. 

Sulphur  in  the  basic  converter  is  more  of  a  fixture  than  the  other  elements.  In  a 
normal  blow,  the  iron  of  which  contains  about  0.10%  sulphur,  about  50%  of  the  sulphur 
may  be  removed  by  overblowing.  When  the  sulphur  in  the  iron  exceeds  0.10%,  from 
50  to  90%  may  be  removed  in  the  converter. 

Bismuth,  Bi. — Atomic  weight,  208.  Specific  gravity,  9.8.  Melting  point,  271°  C., 
(520°  F.).  Specific  heat,  .0303.  Bismuth  is  a  hard,  brittle  metal,  the  fracture  is 
highly  crystalline  and  white,  with  a  perceptible  red  tinge  by  reflected  light.  Its  elec- 
tric conductivity,  according  to  Matthiessen,  is  1.19  at  14°  C.,  silver  being  100  at  0°  C. 
It  is  the  most  strongly  diamagnetic  of  all  metals.  It  does  not  change  in  dry  air,  but 
in  moist  air  it  oxidizes  superficially;  when  melted  at  a  red  heat  it  oxidizes,  and  the 
oxide,  by  a  higher  temperature,  melts  to  a  glassy  substance,  in  which  property  it  re- 
sembles lead,  the  oxide,  like  litharge,  exerting  a  corrosive  action  upon  earthen  crucibles 
or  substances  containing  silica  at  a  red  heat.  Bismuth  is  but  slightly  acted  upon  by 
hydrochloric  or  sulphuric  acids  in  the  cold;  but  the  latter  dissolves  it  more  readily 
when  heated.  The  best  solvent  is  nitric  acid,  which  attacks  it  readily. 

Bismuth  unites  readily  with  other  metals,  the  alloys  being  remarkable  for  their 
ready  fusibility  and  their  property  of  expanding  on  solidification.  Fusible  alloys 
containing  bismuth  are  used  to  some  extent  as  safety  plugs  for  steam  boilers,  as  an 
accessory  to  the  safety  valve. 

Blister  Steel  is  the  common  name  for  steel  made  by  the  cementation  process,  from 
the  blistered  appearance  of  the  bars  when  taken  from  the  converting  pot.  These 
bars  are  often  simply  cut  into  pieces,  piled,  heated  to  a  welding  heat,  and  forged,  when 
it  is  converted  into  shear  steel;  if  this  process  is  repeated  it  becomes  double  shear  steel; 
but  when  a  perfectly  homogeneous  product  is  required  it  is  melted  in  crucibles,  when 
it  becomes  cast  steel. 

The  nature  of  the  chemical  changes  taking  place  during  cementation  has  been 
often  regarded  as  somewhat  uncertain,  but  is  probably  due  to  the  occlusion  of  carbon 
oxide  in  the  iron  and  its  decomposition  by  the  metal  into  carbon  and  an  iron  oxide, 
which  is  subsequently  again  reduced  by  a  second  portion  of  carbon  oxide,  the  two 
changes  going  on  simultaneously.  The  escaping  carbon  dioxide,  which  penetrates 
through  the  metal  less  readily  than  does  carbon  oxide,  and  hence  is  apt  to  accumulate 
in  certain  parts,  is  probably  the  cause  of  the  blistering  of  the  surface  of  the  steel,  especially 
with  puddled  bars  containing  small  quantities  of  ferrous  silicate  disseminated  through 
them;  Percy  has  shown  that  fused  homogeneous  metal  free  from  interspersed  slag  does 
not  give  rise  to  blisters  upon  cementation. 

Many  cyanogen  compounds,  especially  ferrocyanide  of  potassium,  when  applied 
to  iron  in  a  heated  state  convert  it  exteriorly  into  steel,  such  as  case  hardening,  and 
it  has  in  consequence  been  supposed  that  nitrogeneous  substances  are  essential  to  the 
carbonization  of  iron  by  cementation  and  that  nitrogen  is  an  essential  constituent  of 
steel.  The  evidence  in  behalf  of  this  is,  however,  at  present  unsatisfactory;  on  the 
other  hand,  charcoal  rich  in  alkalies,  or  a  mixture  of  charcoal  powder  with  a  little  lime 
and  soda,  will  carbonize  iron  submitted  to  cementation  more  rapidly  than  charcoal 
more  free  from  alkalies. 

In  order  to  carry  out  the  process  of  cementation,  the  bars  of  iron  are  placed  in  a 
fire-brick  box  or  chest  several  feet  long,  layers  of  charcoal  and  iron  being  alternately 
piled  in  until  the  chest  is  filled,  when  a  luting  of  fire  clay,  or  of  the  sandy  ferruginous 
mud  produced  in  grinding  and  polishing  steel  articles  after  manufacture  termed  "  wheel- 
swarf,"  is  applied  so  as  to  close  up  the  upper  part  of  the  box  and  prevent  access  of  air; 
two  or  more  such  chests  are  then  arranged  under  the  arched  roof  of  a  chamber  erected 
over  a  fireplace  in  such  a  way  that  the  flames  of  the  fire  pass  under  and  lap  round 

[214) 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 


the  sides  of  the  chest,  and  impinge  upon  the  roof;  the  gases  escaping  through  orifices 
in  the  roof  into  a  conical  chimney  built  over  the  whole.  Trial  bars  are  arranged  in  the 
mass  of  charcoal  in  such  positions  that  they  can  be  withdrawn  from  time  to  time,  and 
the  progress  of  the  operation  examined  by  fracturing  the  bars  after  cooling,  and  seeing 
when  the  core  of  the  wrought  iron  disappears;  from  7  to  10  days'  heating,  according 
to  the  amount  of  carbonization  required  (averaging  about  1.0%),  is  generally  allowed, 
with  a  total  charge  of  some  10  to  20  tons  of  iron  in  the  furnace.  When  the  requisite 
carbonization  is  attained  the  fire  is  raked  out  and  the  chests  are  allowed  to  cool;  the 
blister  steel  is  then  melted  down  into  cast  steel,  or  converted  into  shear  steel  by  piling 
and  forging,  etc. 

A  slight  lowering  of  sulphur  content  in  the  iron  is  said  to  occur  during  cementation; 
experimentally,  the  quantity  has  been  about  0.007%  in  Swedish  bar  iron,  but  no  notice- 
able effect  is  produced  on  the  silicon,  phosphorus,  or  manganese  originally  present, 
so  far  as  the  irregular  way  in  which  traces  of  cinder,  always  interspersed  throughout 
the  bars  of  wrought  iron,  will  permit  conclusions  to  be  drawn.  Analysis  of  Dannemora 
bar  iron  and  its  resultant  steel  by  the  cementation  process: 


Fe 

C 

Mn 

Si 

3 

P 

Iron  

99.471 

0.352 

0.075 

0.050 

0.027 

0.025 

Steel  

98.603 

1.250 

0.072 

0.035 

0.0222 

0.018 

A  difference  of  0.007%  phosphorus  will  be  noted,  but  this  is  without  significance, 
as  the  permissible  quantity  of  phosphorus  in  steel  of  any  grade,  high  or  low,  is  0.03%. 
Some  irons  contain  a  great  deal  of  phosphorus;  as  practically  none  of  it  disappears 
during  the  process  of  conversion  into  steel,  the  practice  is  to  select  the  purest  bar  irons 
for  this  purpose. 

Borax. — A  sodium  salt  derived  from  boric  acid.  Its  chemical  formula  is  NaJB^Tj 
its  specific  gravity  is  1.7  =  106  pounds  per  cubic  foot.  Its  melting  point  is  561°  C. 
When  heated,  borax  puffs  up,  and  at  red  heat  it  melts,  forming  a  transparent,  colorless 
liquid.  In  its  molten  condition  it  combines  with  and  dissolves  many  metallic  oxides; 
it  is  used  in  the  process  of  soldering  metals,  its  action  consisting  in  rendering  the  sur- 
faces to  be  joined  metallic  by  dissolving  the  oxides.  In  the  manufacture  of  alloys, 
to  prevent  oxidation  as  far  as  possible,  the  metals  are  melted  in  graphite  crucibles 
and  covered  with  a  layer  of  charcoal  or  other  carbonaceous  material.  In  some  cases 
borax  is  used  as  a  covering,  as  it  melts  easily  and  forms  a  protecting  layer,  while  at 
the  same  time  it  combines  with  any  metallic  oxides  present  and  keeps  the  molten 
metal  clean. 

Boron,  B. — Atomic  weight,  10.9.  Specific  gravity,  2.68  =  167  pounds  per  cubic 
foot.  Melting  point,  2,200°  C.  (4,000°  F.).  This  element  belongs  to  the  same  family 
as  aluminium,  and  in  the  composition  of  its  compounds  it  is  undoubtedly  similar  to 
aluminium;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  its  oxide  is  distinctly  acidic,  while  that  of  alumin- 
ium is  basic.  Its  occurrence  in  nature  is  chiefly  in  the  form  of  boric  acid,  or  the  salts 
of  this  acid,  from  which  boron  is  obtained  in  amorphous  form;  it  is  a  dull,  greenish- 
brown  powder,  which  burns  in  the  air  when  heated,  producing  boric  oxide.  Boron 
is  used  as  a  deoxidizer  for  copper  in  the  production  of  copper  castings  for  electrical 
work.  Unlike  many  other  deoxidizers,  boron  does  not  alloy  with  copper,  so  that  the 
addition  of  a  slight  excess  does  not  impair  the  electrical  conductivity  of  copper. 

Cadmium,  Cd. — Atomic  weight,  112.  Specific  gravity,  8.6.  Melting  point,  321°  C. 
(610°  F.).  Specific  heat,  0.0548.  Cadmium  is  a  white  metal  with  a  slight  bluish 
tinge  by  reflected  light;  it  is  whiter  than  lead  or  zinc,  but  less  so  than  silver,  has  a 
high  luster  and  polish,  and  breaks  under  a  gradually  increasing  strain  with  the  fibrous 
fracture  characteristic  of  the  soft,  tough  metals.  It  is  somewhat  harder  than  tin, 
but  less  so  than  zinc,  and  like  tin  it  emits  a  peculiar  crackling  sound  when  bent.  It  is 
malleable  and  may  be  rolled  into  thin  sheets.  Its  electric  conductivity  is  22.10,  or 
somewhat  lower  than  that  of  zinc.  It  unites  readily  with  most  of  the  heavy  metals, 

[215] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

forming  alloys,  which  with  gold,  copper,  and  platinum  are  brittle,  while  those  with 
lead  and  tin  are  malleable  and  ductile.  An  alloy  of  two  parts  of  cadmium,  two  of 
lead,  and  four  of  tin,  known  as  Wo9d's  fusible  metal,  melts  at  a  somewhat  lower  point 
than  the  similar  alloy  where  bismuth  takes  the  place  of  cadmium.  It  forms  several 
amalgams,  among  which  those  containing  equal  parts  of  mercury  and  cadmium  and 
two  of  mercury  to  one  of  cadmium  are  remarkable  for  their  cohesive  power  and  malle- 
ability; whereas  that  containing  22%  of  cadmium  is  hard  and  brittle.  When  exposed 
to  damp  air  cadmium  becomes  rapidly  covered  with  a  dull  film  of  suboxide,  but  as 
with  zinc  the  oxidation  is  only  superficial.  When  heated  to  redness  in  air,  it  burns, 
forming  a  yellowish-brown  oxide.  It  is  soluble  in  sulphuric,  hydrochloric,  nitric,  and 
acetic  acids. 

Calcium,  Ca. — Atomic  weight,  40.  Specific  gravity,  1.54.  Melting  point,  810°  C. 
(1,490°  F.).  Specific  heat,  0.1804.  Calcium  is  one  of  the  most  abundant  and  widely 
diffused  of  the  metals,  though  it  is  never  found  in  the  free  state.  Calcium  is  a  light 
yellow  metal,  about  as  hard  as  gold,  very  ductile  and  may  be  cut,  filled,  or  hammered 
out  into  thin  plates.  It  tarnishes  slowly  in  dry,  more  quickly  in  damp  air;  calcium 
decomposes  the  water  quickly,  and  is  still  more  rapidly  acted  upon  by  dilute  acids. 
Heated  on  platinum  foil  over  a  spirit  lamp,  it  burns  with  a  bright  flash;  with  a  brilliant 
light  also  when  heated  in  oxygen  or  chlorine  gas. 

Calcium  Carbide,  CaC2,  specific  gravity  2.22;  138.5  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  is  now 
made  in  quantity  by  fusing  an  intimate  mixture  of  finely  powdered  carbon  and  pure 
lime  in  the  electric  furnace,  in  the  proportion  of  about  60  parts  of  lime  to  40  parts 
of  carbon,  by  weight.  The  carbon  may  be  either  powdered  coke,  charcoal,  or  anthra- 
cite, but  coke  running  low  in  ash  is  commonly  used.  The  temperature  required  to 
fuse  the  mixture  of  powdered  coke  and  lime  into  carbide  is  given  by  Lewes  as  2,700°  C. 
when  made  directly  by  arc-carbons,  which  is  the  commercial  method.  The  chemical 
reaction  being  CaO  +  C3  =  CaO2  -f  CO.  Pure  carbide  fresh  from  the  furnace  bears 
a  resemblance  to  crushed  granite,  it  is  of  crystalline  appearance,  very  dark  in  color 
and  with  a  purple  tinge.  It  is  a  safe  substance  to  store  or  transport,  but  it  must  be 
properly  packed  to  exclude  the  smallest  trace  of  moisture.  It  cannot  explode,  take 
fire,  or  otherwise  do  harm. 

Carbon,  C. — Atomic  weight,  12.  Specific  gravity:  diamond,  3.50,  graphite,  2.25, 
charcoal,  1.80.  Specific  heat  of  diamond,  0.366.  Carbon  is  one  of  the  most  important 
of  the  chemical  elements.  It  occurs  pure  in  the  diamond,  and  nearly  pure  as  graphite; 
it  is  a  constituent  of  all  animal  and  vegetable  tissues  and  of  coal.  The  diamond  is 
the  hardest  substance  known,  and  has  a  relatively  high  specific  gravity.  Graphite, 
or  plumbago,  appears  to  consist  essentially  of  pure  carbon,  although  most  specimens 
contain  iron.  In  the  electric  arc  carbon  appears  to  be  converted  into  vapor;  but 
the  temperature  which  is  required  to  volatilize  it  is  extremely  high.  Graphite  is  used 
for  making  crucibles,  for  lubricating  machinery,  and  is  the  so-called  black  lead  used 
in  making  pencils.  In  the  electrotype  process  it  is  used  for  coating  the  surfaces  of 
wood,  plaster  of  Paris,  and  other  non-conducting  materials  so  as  to  render  them  con- 
ductive. The  purest  amorphous  carbon  ordinarily  met  with  is  lampblack,  which  is 
prepared  by  the  imperfect  combustion  of  highly  carbonized  bodies,  such  as  resin.  An 
amorphous  carbon  of  considerable  purity,  known  as  gas-retort  carbon,  is  obtained  in 
the  manufacture  of  coal  gas.  It  is  a  good  conductor  of  heat  and  electricity,  and  burns 
with  difficulty,  and  is  therefore  employed  in  producing  the  electric  light.  Wood  char- 
coal and  coke  are  impure  forms  of  amorphous  carbon,  and  animal  charcoal  is  a  still 
more  impure  form.  There  are  two  direct  inorganic  compounds  of  carbon  and  oxygen 
called  carbon  monoxide  and  carbon  dioxide;  their  composition  by  weight  may  be  thus 
stated: 

Carbon  monoxide  CO    =  carbon  12  +  oxygen  16  =  28. 
Carbon  dioxide      CO2  =  carbon  12  +  oxygen  32  =  44. 

Cementation  Process. — The  conversion  of  wrought  iron  bars  into  steel  by  direct 
carbonization  is  accomplished  when  the  bars  are  enveloped  in  powdered  charcoal  in  a 
converting  pot  from  which  air  is  carefully  excluded,  heated  to  redness  for  several  days, 
during  which  time  the  bars  gradually  become  carbonized  and  converted  into  steel; 

[216] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

the  deposition  of  the  carbon  commencing  at  the  outside  of  the  bars  and  gradually 
penetrating  inward,  a  longer  time  being  consequently  requisite  for  the  carbonization 
of  thicker  than  of  thinner  bars.  This  process  is  called  cementation;  the  powdered 
substance,  in  this  case  charcoal,  is  called  the  cement  and  the  wrought  iron  is  said  to 
have  undergone  cementation. 

Cementite.— The  carbide  of  Fe3C,  so  named  by  Howe;  it  was  first  discovered 
in  steel  made  by  the  cementation  process,  and  has  been  variously  described  as  cement 
carbon,  or  as  carbide  carbon,  to  distinguish  it  from  other  forms  of  carbon  found  in 
iron  and  steel.  According  to  the  atomic  weights  of  iron  (56)  and  of  carbon  (12)  cemen- 

12  X  100 
tite  must  contain  -    ,    10    =  6.67%  carbon. 

o   /\  OO  ~r"  -«-^ 

It  therefore  contains  93.33%  iron  and  6.67%  carbon,  which  corresponds  to  the  chemical 
formula  FeaC. 

Cementite  is  an  intensely  hard  carbon,  being,  in  fact,  the  hardest  of  all  the  con- 
stituents occurring  in  iron  and  steel;  it  will  scratch  glass  and  feldspar,  but  not  quartz. 
It  has  therefore  a  hardness  of  about  6.5. 

Cementite  may  also  contain  small  amounts  of  silicon  and  sulphur  dissolved  in  it 
possibly  as  silicide  and  sulphide  of  iron  respectively.  When  containing  much  man- 
ganese it  has  been  called  manganiferous  cementite.  Manganese  and  sulphur  appar- 
ently increase  the  stability  of  cementite  while  silicon  decreases  it. 

Steel  containing  more  than  0,9%  carbon,  if  cooled  slowly  from  a  high  temperature, 
will  have  its  carbon  all  in  the  form  of  cementite;  the  percentage  of  carbon  multiplied 
by  15  will  give  the  percentage  of  cementite,  and  the  difference  between  this  and  100 
will  be  the  percentage  of  ferrite.  The  ferrite  will  all  be  present  as  pearlite;  the  per- 
centage of  cementite  in  the  pearlite  will  be  the  percentage  of  ferrite  divided  by  6.4, 
and  the  pearlite  will  of  course  be  the  sum  of  the  two.  The  metal  will  thus  consist 
of  pearlite  and  free  or  excess  cementite.  Free  cementite  does  not  occur  in  normal 
mild  steel,  and  is  practically  absent  from  highly  hardened  steels. 

Chromium,  Cr. — Atomic  weight,  52.  Specific  gravity,  6.7.  Melting  point,  1510°  C. 
(2,750°  F.).  Specific  heat,  0.120.  Chromium  is  one  of  the  metallic  chemical  elements, 
so  called  in  allusion  to  the  fine  color  of  its  compound.  It  does  not  occur  in  the  free 
state  or  very  abundantly  in  nature.  It  is  a  constituent  of  the  minerals  chrome  iron- 
stone, chrome  ocher,  chrome  garnet,  etc.  It  is  the  cause  of  the  color  of  green  serpen- 
tine, pyrope,  and  the  emerald.  The  alloy  termed  chromeisen,  containing  about  three 
parts  by  weight  of  chromium  to  one  of  iron,  is  hard  enough  to  serve  for  cutting  glass. 
An  extremely  soft  steel  can  be  made  by  employing  it  instead  of  spiegeleisen  in  Siemens' 
steel  process. 

Cobalt,  Co. — Atomic  weight,  59.  Specific  gravity,  8.79  at  17°  C.  for  unannealed 
metal;  8.81  at  14.5°  C.  after  annealing.  Melting  point,  1,490°  C.  (2,714°  F.).  Spe- 
cific heat,  0.103.  It  has  a  tensile  strength  of  about  34,100  pounds  per  square  inch, 
and  a  compressive  strength  of  about  122,000  pounds  per  square  inch  as  cast;  after 
annealing  the  tensile  strength  was  36,980  pounds,  the  compressive  strength  was 
117,200  pounds  per  square  inch  respectively.  Cast  cobalt  containing  0.06%  carbon 
has  a  tensile  strength  of  61,000  pounds  and  a  compressive  strength  above  175,000  per 
square  inch  respectively.  The  reduction  of  area  and  elongation  are  low  for  pure  cobalt, 
but  rise  to  20%  in  the  case  of  commercial  cobalt  (96.5  to  99.6  Co)  containing  carbon 
and  other  impurities. 

Pure  cobalt  is  a  white  metal,  resembling  nickel  in  appearance,  but  when  electro 
deposited  and  polished  it  has  a  slightly  bluish  cast.  In  hardness,  by  Brinnell  test, 
it  was  about  124  for  specimen  cast  in  an  iron  mold.  Under  similar  conditions  cast 
nickel  showed  83  and  cast  iron  about  102.  It  is  unchanged  in  the  air,  but  feebly 
attacked  by  dilute  hydrochloric  and  sulphuric  acids.  It  combines  most  readily  with 
arsenic  or  antimony,  forming  the  highly  crystalline  compound  known  by  the  general 
name  speiss,  which  can  scarcely  be  considered  an  alloy.  With  gold  and  silver  it  forms 
brittle  compounds,  with  mercury  a  silver-white  magnetic  amalgam.  With  copper  and 
zinc  the  alloy  is  white,  resembling  the  corresponding  compound  of  the  same  metal 
with  nickel  and  manganese;  with  tin  it  forms  a  somewhat  ductile  alloy  of  a  violet  color. 

[217] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

Copper,  Cu. — Atomic  weight,  63.6.  Specific  gravity,  8.93.  Melting  point,  1,083°  C. 
(1,981.5°  F.).  Specific  heat,  0.093.  Copper  is  a  metal  of  a  peculiar  red  color;  it 
takes  a  brilliant  polish,  is  in  a  high  degree  malleable  and  ductile,  and  in  tenacity  it 
only  falls  short  of  iron.  Copper  castings  have  an  ultimate  tensile  strength  of  about 
25,000  pounds  with  an  elastic  limit  of  6,000  pounds.  Its  ultimate  strength  under 
compression  is  about  40,000  pounds  and  the  ultimate  shearing  strength  is  30,000  pounds. 
The  modulus  of  elasticity  of  annealed  copper  averages  10,000,000  pounds.  Copper 
plates,  rods,  and  bolts  have  an  ultimate  tensile  strength  of  about  33,000  pounds  with 
an  elastic  limit  of  about  10,000  pounds.  In  electric  conductivity  it  is  equal  to  silver. 
Copper  undergoes  no  change  in  dry  air;  exposed  to  a  moist  atmosphere,  it  becomes 
covered  with  a  strongly  adherent  green  crust,  consisting  in  a  great  measure  of  car- 
bonate. Heated  to  redness  in  the  air,  it  is  quickly  oxidized,  becoming  covered  with 
a  black  scale.  Dilute  sulphuric  and  hydrochloric  acid  scarcely  act  upon  copper; 
boiling  oil  of  vitriol  attacks  it;  nitric  acid,  even  dilute,  dissolves  it  readily.  Copper 
unites  with  facility  with  almost  all  other  metals;  indeed,  it  is  much  more  important 
and  valuable  as  a  constituent  element  in  numerous  alloys  than  it  is  as  a  pure  metal. 
The  principal  alloys  in  which  it  forms  a  leading  ingredient  are  [brass,  bronze,  German 
silver,  nickel,  silver,  etc. 

Crucible  Steel. — This  method  of  steel  making  consists  in  charging  a  crucible  with 
small  pieces  of  wrought  iron  or  of  mild  steel,  with  ferro-manganese  and  the  addition  of 
such  other  substances  as  will  give  the  final  product  the  desired  chemical  and  physical 
properties;  these  are  packed  in  powdered  charcoal;  the  covered  and  luted  crucible 
is  placed  in  a  suitable  furnace;  when  the  steel  is  melted  it  is  poured  into  an  ingot  to 
be  hammered,  rolled,  or  otherwise  prepared  for  future  use.  Metals  melted  in  a  crucible 
undergo  little  or  no  change  except  that  incident  to  the  chemical  changes  in  the  mixture. 
Wrought  iron  readily  absorbs  carbon,  and  mild  steel  takes  up  additional  carbon  from 
the  incandescent  powdered  charcoal  in  which  it  is  embedded;  one  effect  of  the  ferro- 
manganese  in  the  mixture  is  its  union  with  oxygen  and  the  formation  of  oxides  of  both 
iron  and  manganese.  The  addition  of  alloy  metals  such  as  chromium,  nickel,  alumin- 
ium, vanadium,  is  through  the  ferro  compounds  of  the  metals;  they  may  be  included 
in  the  crucible  charge  or  added  in  metallic  form,  as  would  probably  be  the  case  with 
nickel,  after  the  melting  and  before  the  pouring.  The  material  of  which  the  crucible 
is  composed  is  not  without  its  influence  on  the  chemical  changes  which  occur  within 
it  at  high  temperatures.  In  regard  to  the  charge:  the  wrought  iron  or  mild  steel  may 
be  covered  with  rust  and,  perhaps,  a  certain  amount  of  free  moisture;  gases  such  as 
oxygen,  hydrogen,  carbonic  oxide,  are  known  to  be  readily  absorbed  by  iron,  and  these 
influence  somewhat  the  chemical  changes  which  take  place  in  the  crucible  during  the 
process  of  melting. 

Crucible  steel  is  practically  restricted  in  its  manufacture  to  tool  steels,  and  most  of 
these  are  alloy  steels.  A  crucible  carbon  steel,  0.60%  carbon;  0.52%  manganese; 
0.16%  silicon;  0.03%  sulphur;  0.03%  phosphorus;  when  tested  had  a  tensile  strength 
of  about  100,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  with  elongation  of  12%  in  2  inches,  and 
30%  reduction  of  area.  Increasing  the  carbon  only  in  this  steel  had  the  effect  of 
increasing  the  tensile  strength,  but  the  percentages  of  elongation  and  reduction  of 
area  were  both  lowered. 

A  carbon  steel  by  the  American  Vanadium  Co.  containing  0.969%  carbon;  0.448% 
manganese;  0,139%  silicon;  when  heat  treated  yielded  the  following: 

Treatment:  Tensile  strength 155,000  pounds  per  square  inch 

850°  —600°  C.         Elastic  limit 101,000  pounds  per  square  inch 

Oil  tempered.  Elongation  in  2  inches 8 . 0% 

Reduction  of  area 10.5% 

Ferrite  is  a  microscopical  constituent  of  iron  and  steel;  it  consists  of  practically 
pure  iron,  or  iron  free  from  carbon;  it  would  be  the  chief  constituent  of  wrought  iron 
and  mild  steel  if  they  could  be  made  wholly  free  from  carbon,  which  is  not  the  case; 
it  is  found  in  low-carbon  or  mild  steels  as  made  for  structural  work;  it  does  not  occur 

[218] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

in  hard  steels.  This  is  the  "  free  iron  "described  by  Sorby  in  his  microscopical  researches 
on  the  structure  of  iron  and  steel. 

Gold,  Au.— Atomic  weight,  197.  Specific  gravity,  19.3.  Melting  point,  1,063°  C. 
(1,945.5°  F.).  Specific  heat,  0.0316.  Gold  is  the  only  metal  of  a  yellow  color.  It  is 
nearly  as  soft  as  lead.  When  pure,  gold  is  the  most  malleable  of  all  metals.  It  is 
extremely  ductile  and  may  be  drawn  into  very  fine  wire.  The  electric  conductivity 
is  73.99  at  15.1°  C.,  pure  silver  being  100.  (Matthiessen.)  The  specific  resistance  of 
the  metal  in  electromagnetic  measure,  according  to  the  C.  G.  S.  system,  is  2,154.  Its 
conductivity  for  heat  is  53.2,  silver  being  100.  Its  coefficient  of  expansion  for  each 
degree  between  0°  C.  and  100°  C.  is  0.000014661.  The  specific  magnetism  of  the 
metal  is  3.47.  Finely  divided  gold  dissolves  when  heated  with  strong  sulphuric  acid 
and  a  little  nitric  acid.  It  is  also  attacked  when  strong  sulphuric  acid  is  submitted 
to  electrolysis  with  a  gold  positive  pole.  The  most  important  alloys  are  those  with 
silver  and  copper.  The  density  of  the  alloys  of  gold  and  silver  is  greater  than  that 
calculated  from  the  density  of  the  constituent  metals;  these  alloys  are  harder,  more 
fusible,  and  more  sonorous  than  pure  gold.  Certain  metals,  even  when  present  in 
small  quantities,  render  gold  brittle  and  unfit  for  rolling;  these  metals  are  bismuth, 
lead,  antimony,  arsenic,  and  zinc. 

Graphite. — A  crystallized  form  of  carbon,  known  also  as  plumbago,  and  popularly 
known  as  black  lead.  It  occurs  usually  in  compact  and  crystalline  masses,  but  occa- 
sionally in  six-sided  tabular  crystals  which  cleave  into  flexible  laminae  parallel  to  the 
basal  plane,  iron  black  or  steel  gray  in  color,  with  metallic  luster. 

Graphite  is  a  kind  of  mineral  carbon,  its  specific  gravity  is  2.2.  It  can  be  con- 
verted into  carbon  dioxide  by  the  action  of  nitric  acid.  As  the  carbon  is  usually  asso- 
ciated with  more  or  less  iron,  the  older  mineralogists  described  the  mineral  as  a  car- 
buret of  iron — but  Vanuxen  demonstrated  that  the  iron  is  present  as  ferric  oxide  and 
not  as  a  carbide.  The  ash  left  on  the  combustion  of  graphite  usually  contains,  in 
addition  to  the  ferric  oxide,  silica,  alumina,  and  lime. 

Exposed  on  platinum  foil  to  the  flame  of  the  blow-pipe,  graphite  burns,  but  often 
with  more  difficulty  than  diamond.  When  heated  with  a  mixture  of  potassium  dichro- 
mate  and  sulphuric  acid,  it  disappears. 

In  order  to  obtain  perfectly  pure  graphite,  the  mineral  is  first  ground  and  washed 
to  remove  earthy  matter,  and  then  treated,  according  to  Brodie's  method,  with  potas- 
sium chlorate  and  sulphuric  acid;  on  subjecting  the  resulting  product  to  a  red  heat, 
pure  carbon  is  obtained  in  a  remarkably  fine  state  of  division. 

The  following  analyses  are  selected  from  a  large  number  by  C.  Mene  (Compt. 
rend.  64.1091): 


1 

2 

3 

4 

Carbon                      

91.55 

81.08 

79.40 

78.48 

Volatile  matters  

1.10 

7.30 

5.10 

1.82 

Ash 

7.35 

11.62 

15  50 

19.70 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

1.  Very  fine  Cumberland  graphite,  specific  gravity,  2.345. 

2.  Graphite  from  Passau,  Bavaria,  specific  gravity,  2.303. 

3.  Crystallized  graphite,  from  Ceylon,  specific  gravity,  2.350. 

4.  Graphite  from  Buckingham,  Canada,  specific  gravity,  2.286. 

Excellent  graphite  is  found  in  Siberia,  in  the  Tunkinsk  Mountains,  Irkutsk.  This 
deposit  occurs  in  gneiss,  associated  with  diorite.  It  has  been  largely  worked  to  supply 
Faber's  pencil  factory. 

The  best  quality  of  graphite  found  in  large  quantities  is  that  from  Ceylon. 

In  the  United  States,  graphite  is  widely  diffused,  but  rarely  in  sufficient  quantity 

[219] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

to  be  worked.     The  principal  locality  is  Ticonderoga,  N.  Y.,  where  the  Dixon  Crucible 
Co.  have  worked  a  schist  containing  about  10%  graphite. 

In  consequence  of  its  refractory  character,  graphite  is  largely  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  crucibles,  retorts,  tuyeres,  and  other  objects  required  to  withstand  high 
temperatures. 

Harvey  Steel. — The  conversion  of  mild  or  low  carbon  steel  into  a  higher  grade 
having  the  characteristic  qualities  of  crucible  steel  is  possible  by  Harvey's  method, 
the  essential  conditions  being  the  subjection  of  the  ingot  or  the  body  of  steel  to  the 
presence  of  carbon,  the  absence  of  oxygen,  and  a  high  temperature,  the  latter  varied 
according  to  the  degree  of  hardness  which  the  product  is  required  to  be  capable  of 
taking  in  the  subsequent  process  of  tempering;  the  higher  the  temperature  during  the 
conversion  the  higher  will  be  the  temper  which  the  resultant  steel  is  rendered  capable 
of  taking. 

The  ingots  or  other  bodies  of  steel  which  are  to  be  treated  are  embedded,  preferably 
in  finely  powdered,  hard-wood  charcoal,  contained  in  crucibles,  boxes,  or  receptacles 
made  of  refractory  material,  and  provided  with  covers  to  prevent  the  charcoal  from 
being  consumed.  No  special  kind  of  furnace  is  required,  but  in  practice  a  furnace  of 
the  regenerative  type  may  be  preferred.  The  shape  and  dimensions  of  the  furnace  cham- 
ber will  be  governed  by  the  shapes  and  sizes  of  the  ingots  or  other  bodies  of  steel  to  be 
treated.  For  example,  ingots,  say,  2  X  3  X  18  inches  long  may  be  treated  in  recep- 
tacles which  will  serve  to  contain  6  ingots  separated  from  each  other  and  from  the 
walls  of  the  receptacle  by  a  thickness  of  one  inch  of  powdered  charcoal,  the  same  thick- 
ness from  the  bottom,  and  a  layer  of  3  inches  of  powdered  charcoal  at  the  top.  The 
boxes  or  other  receptacles  for  the  charcoal  may  be  heated  by  direct  contact  with  a 
body  of  incandescent  fuel,  in  which  they  are  embedded;  or  they  may  be  deposited  in 
a  heating-chamber  and  be  heated  by  contact  with  or  radiation  from  the  flames  con- 
ducted through  it.  The  tune  required  for  the  heating  operation  will  depend  upon 
the  dimensions  of  the  bodies  of  steel  under  treatment;  the  object  to  be  accomplished 
is  the  uniform  heating  throughout  of  the  steel  under  treatment.  For  large  masses  of 
steel  the  heating  operation  will  have  to  be  conducted  more  slowly  that  the  interior 
of  the  mass  may  be  raised  to  the  required  temperature  without  melting  the  crucible 
or  box  in  which  it  is  packed.  Mild  steel  thus  embedded  in  powdered  charcoal  may 
be  raised  slightly  above  its  melting  point  without  being  melted;  when  the  desired 
temperature  has  been  reached,  the  crucible  or  other  receptacle  containing  the  steel  is 
allowed  to  cool  off  either  in,  or  after  removal  from,  the  furnace.  By  this  treatment 
a  steel  is  produced  which  may  be  welded  or  tempered;  its  tensile  strength  is  increased, 
and  it^has  acquired  the  characteristics  of  a  crucible  steel  of  higher  grade. 
I  If  the  steel  under  treatment  is  to  be  made  capable  of  taking  a  temper  of  a  high 
degree  of  hardness,  its  temperature  will  be  raised  to  about  (1,650°  C.)  3,000°  F.,  and 
allowed  to  cool  off  to  a  temperature  of,  say.  (94°  to  149°  C.)  200°  to  300°  F.,  before  being 
removed  from  the  powdered  charcoal  in  which  it  has  been  embedded;  the  steel  will  on 
removal  be  found  very  soft,  will  exhibit  a  clean  surface  of  dull  gray  or  zinc  color,  and 
will  be  capable  of  taking  a  temper  so  high  that  tools  made  from  it  and  hardened  will 
cut  chilled  iron.  By  lowering  the  limit  of  temperature  to  about  (820°  C.)  1,500°  F. 
the  steel  under  treatment,  when  cooled,  will  exhibit  a  surface  of  dark-purple  color, 
but  will  be  capable  of  taking  a  low  temper.  Between  these  two  temperatures  all  the 
characteristic  temper-colors  may  be  had  together  with  the  characteristic  properties  in 
the  steel  corresponding  to  the  same  shades  of  color  in  steels  produced  by  the  crucible 
process.  The  time  required  will  depend  upon  the  size  and  number  of  pieces  to  be 
treated;  a  single  ingot,  say,  2  X  3  X  18  inches  long,  deposited  in  powdered  charcoal 
in  a  crucible,  say,  5  in.  diam.  X  24  in.  long,  can  be  successfully  treated  by  keeping  such 
a  crucible  embedded  in  a  free  burning  coke  fire  hi  four  to  six  hours.  A  larger  ingot 
or  a  number  of  ingots  contained  in  a  larger  crucible  will  require,  say,  12  to  20  hours. 

Armor  plates  require  to  be  homogeneous  in  large  masses,  sufficiently  tough  as  not 
to  crack  or  break  under  impact  of  projectiles,  yet  soft  enough  to  be  worked  with  steel 
tools.  By  the  Harvey  process  the  face  is  cemented,  i.e.,  animal  or  wood  charcoal  is  placed 
next  the  face  of  the  plate  (two  plates  being  usually  dealt  with  together,  face  to  face), 
and  the  whole  is  covered  in  with  bricks  and  run  into  a  gas  furnace,  where  it  remains 

[220] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

two  or  three  weeks,  seven  days  or  so  being  allowed  for  cooling.  In  this  way  the  propor- 
tion of  carbon  on  the  face  is  increased,  and  the  front  is  then  capable  of  being  hardened. 
The  plate  is  first  cemented  as  above,  and  then  bent  to  the  required  shape  and  all  neces- 
sary holes  made  in  the  surface.  It  is  then  heated  and  the  face  douched  with  cold 
water,  which  makes  the  front  of  the  plate  exceedingly  hard.  The  object  attained  is  a 
steel  plate,  without  welds,  having  such  a  proportion  of  carbon  in  the  surface  that 
water  cooling  would  produce  a  very  hard  face.  As  the  thickness  of  the  hard  steel 
is  practically  constant  for  all  thicknesses  of  plate,  it  follows  that  thin  plates  obtain 
relatively  higher  values  of  the  figure  of  merit  than  thicker  plates.  That  is,  a  12  in. 
plate  is  not  twice  as  good  as  a  6  in.  plate. 

Krupp  armor  plates,  when  first  introduced,  had  a  much  higher  tensile  strength 
before  treatment  than  had  the  earlier  Harvey  plates;  the  Krupp  steel  in  addition  to 
the  usual  small  proportion  of  carbon  contained,  also,  nickel,  chromium,  and  manganese. 
Plates  3  inches  and  below  were  not  cemented;  after  completion  of  the  machine  work 
they  were  simply  heated  and  water-cooled.  Plates  thicker  than  3  inches  underwent 
cementation  as  by  the  Harvey  process,  but  in  the  final  face  hardening  the  plate  was 
not  heated  bodily  as  in  the  Harvey  process,  but  the  heat  was  graduated  from  the  face 
to  the  back.  After  heating  the  face  was  cooled  by  placing  under  the  cold  water  douche. 

Hydrogen,  H.— Atomic  weight,  1.000.  Specific  gravity,  0.069,  air  =•=  1.000.  Weight 
per  cubic  foot,  0.0056  pound,  cubic  feet  per  pound,  177.94.  It  is  the  lightest  sub- 
stance known.  Specific  heat  at  constant  pressure,  3.406;  at  constant  volume,  2.412; 
the  specific  heat  rises  with  rise  of  temperature ..  Coefficient  of  thermal  expansion  at 
constant  pressure,  0.366;  at  constant  volume,  0.367.  Specific  inductive  capacity, 
1.0013,  vacuum  at  5  mm.  pressure,  1.0015,  when  air  =  1.0000.  Specific  inductive 
capacity,  0.9998.  Heat  of  combination  at  constant  pressure,  62,000  B.t.u.j  an  average 
of  seven  tests  gave  34,417  cals.  =  61,950  B.t.u.  The  critical  temperature  as  deter- 
mined by  Olszewski  is  —  220°  C.  under  a  pressure  of  20  atmospheres. 

Hydrogen  is  colorless,  tasteless,  and  inodorous  when  pure.  It  is  only  slightly 
soluble  in  water ;'  100  volumes  of  water  take  up  1.93  volumes  of  hydrogen.  It  is  in- 
flammable and  burns,  when  kindled,  with  a  pale,  yellowish  flame,  evolving  much  heat, 
but  very  little  light.  Water  is  the  only  product  of  combustion  when  hydrogen  is 
burnt  in  the  air  or  in  oxygen,  the  formula  being  H2O;  if  we  regard  the  atomic  weight 
of  oxygen  as  16  and  that  of  hydrogen  as  1,  the  total  weight  is  18,  so  that  hydrogen 
forms  one-ninth  the  weight  of  water.  The  volume  of  water  thus  formed  is  so  very 
small  as  compared  with  that  of  the  two  gases  as  to  appear  almost  negligible;  yet 
this  decrease  in  volume  truly  represents  the  total  volume  of  the  gases,  oxygen  and 
hydrogen,  which  combined  to  form  it. 

The  diffusive  power  of  hydrogen  is  very  great.  Suppose  a  vessel  to  be  divided 
into  two  portions  by  a  diaphragm  or  partition  of  porous  earthenware  and  each  half 
filled,  one  with  oxygen,  the  other  with  hydrogen;  diffusion  will  at  once  commence 
through  the  pores  of  the  dividing  diaphragm,  and  will  continue  until  an  equilibrium 
is  established.  The  rate  of  penetration  is  not  the  same  for  both  gases;  four  cubic 
inches  of  hydrogen  will  pass  into  the  oxygen  side,  while  one  cubic  inch  of  oxygen  passes 
into  the  hydrogen  side.  The  atomic  weights  of  the  two  gases  are  to  each  other  as 
16  to  1;  the  rate  of  diffusion  is  inversely  proportional  to  the  square  roots  of  these 
numbers,  or  as  4  to  1;  thus  the  diffusive  power  of  hydrogen  is  four  times  that  of 
oxygen. 

The  coefficient  of  diffusion  for  hydrogen  into  another  gas  or  vapor  is  thus  presented 
in  the  Smithsonian  Physical  Tables,  on  the  authority  of  Obermayer.  The  tempera- 
ture is  0°  C.  or  32°  F.  in  all  cases.  Air,  0.6340;  carbon  dioxide,  0.5384;  carbon  monox- 
ide, 0.6488;  ethane,  0.4593;  ethylene,  0.4863;  methane,  0.6254;  nitrous  oxide,  0.5347; 
oxygen,  0.6788.  According  to  Loschmidt,  the  coefficient  of  oxygen  diffusing  into 
hydrogen  at  0°  C.  is  0.7217. 

Ingot  Iron  is  of  molten  origin;  it  is,  in  fact,  a  nearly  carbonless  steel;  a  good  illus- 
tration is  that  by  the  American  Rolling  Mill  Co.,  which  is  marketing  under  the  trade 
name  "Armco  Ingot  Iron"  a  product  averaging  the  following  composition:  0.011% 
carbon;  0.002%  silicon;  0.019%  manganese;  0.025%  copper;  0.020%  sulphur;  0.003% 
phosphorus,  The  tensile  strength  is  from  38,000  to  44,000  pounds  per  square  inch, 

[221] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

with  elastic  limit  of  about  one-half  the  tensile  strength.  It  is  claimed  for  this  product 
that  it  will  resist  corrosion  better  than  any  other  grade  of  iron  or  steel.  By  reason  of 
its  low  tensile  strength  it  does  not  enter  into  structural  work  in  competition  with  mild, 
low-carbon,  or  soft  steels,  which  have  a  tensile  strength  of  55,000  to  65,000  pounds 
per  square  inch.  Its  manufacture  is  confined  principally  to  sheets. 

Ingot  Steel  is  of  molten  origin;  it  may  be  made  of  the  crucible,  Bessemer,  or  open 
hearth  processes,  but  not  by  puddling,  or  any  cementation  process.  It  is  immaterial 
whether  it  will  harden  or  not;  the  name  indicates  its  molten  origin  without  reference 
to  its  carbon  content.  Commonly,  however,  it  applies  to  Bessemer  or  open  hearth 
ingots  intended  for  structural  shapes,  bars,  plates,  etc.,  in  wliich  the  tensile  strength 
will  vary  from  55,000  to  65,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  for  forgings  from  60,000  to 
70,000  pounds.  High  tensile  steel  such  as  open  hearth  carbon,  nickel,  or  silicon  steel 
may  have  a  tensile  strength  of  80,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  or  even  higher  in  the 
case  of  vanadium,  or  other  alloy  steels. 

Iridium,  Ir.— Atomic  Weight,  193.  Specific  gravity,  22.42.  Melting  point,  2,300°  C. 
(4,170°  F.).  Specific  heat,  0.0323.  Iridium  is  a  white  brittle  metal,  fusible  with 
great  difficulty  before  the  oxy-hydrogen  blow-pipe.  It  has  acquired  importance  from 
its  employment  in  alloy  with  platinum  in  the  construction  of  the  international  stand- 
ards of  length  and  weight.  Iridium  is  almost  indestructible,  and  has  extreme  rigidity, 
especially  in  the  tube  form;  its  coefficient  of  elasticity  is  very  great;  and  a  most  beau- 
tifully polished  surface  can  be  obtained  upon  it.  An  iridio-platinum  alloy  containing 
about  20%  of  iridium  has  also  a  very  high  coefficient  of  elasticity,  while  its  malleability 
and  ductility  are  almost  without  limit. 

Iron,  Fe. — Atomic  weight,  56.  Specific  gravity^,  pure,  7.8.  Gray  cast,  average, 
7.08;  white  cast,  average,  7.66;  wrought,  average,  7.85.  Melting  point,  1,520°  C. 
(2,768°  F.).  Specific  heat,  0.116.  Heat  conductivity,  16.  Electrical  conductivity, 
17.  In  magnetic  characters  it  is  superior  to  all  other  substances.  Wrought  iron  has 
a  tensile  strength  of  48,000  min.  to  53,000  max.  pounds  per  square  inch,  with  elastic 
limit  in  no  case  less  than  one-half  the  tensile  strength. 

Pure  metallic  iron  is  rarely  found  in  nature;  nearly  all  specimens  examined  have 
been  meteoric  iron  containing  about  63%  of  metallic  iron,  always  associated  with 
nickel  and  small  quantities  of  cobalt,  phosphorus,  sulphur,  etc.  The  irons  of  com- 
merce are  reduced  from  ores  in  which  the  iron  occurs  chiefly  as  an  oxide.  The  prin- 
cipal oxides  of  iron  are  ferrous  oxide,  FeO,  ferric  oxide,  Fe2O3,  and  the  magnetic  or  black 
oxide,  Fe3O4.  The  ferrous  oxide  is  a  very  powerful  base,  neutralizing  acids,  and  iso- 
morphous  with  magnesia,  zinc  oxide,  etc.;  it  is  very  unstable,  readily  passing  into 
the  sesquioxide  in  the  presence  of  oxygen.  Ferric  oxide  is  a  feeble  base  isomorphous 
with  alumina,  it  occurs  native  in  iron  ores,  especially  hematite.  The  magnetic  or 
black  oxide  of  iron  is  well  known  as  the  product  of  the  oxidation  of  iron  at  high  tem- 
peratures in  the  air  or  in  watery  vapor.  The  magnetic  iron  ore  is  known  as  magnetite, 
which,  when  pure,  contains  nearly  75%  iron.  Spathic  iron  ore  is  a  carbonate  of  iron, 
FeCO3,  which,  when  pure,  contains  nearly  50%  iron. 

Commercial,  irons  are  extracted  from  ores  and  marketed  in  the  form  of  pig  iron, 
which  consists  of  iron  in  combination  with  graphitic  and  combined  carbon,  silicon, 
sulphur,  phosphorus,  and  manganese. 

Lead,  Pb. — Atomic  weight,  207.  Specific  gravity:  cast,  11.25  =  702  pounds  per 
cubic  foot  =  0.406  pound  per  cubic  inch;  sheet  or  rolled  lead,  11.42  =  713  pounds 
per  cubic  foot  =  0.412  pound  per  cubic  inch.  The  heaviest  of  the  common  metals. 
Melting  point,  327°  C.  (621°  F.).  Specific  heat,  0.0311.  Lead  boils  at  a  white  heat, 
1,500°  C.  to  1,600°  C.  (2,732°  to  2,912°  F.),  but  it  cannot  be  distilled.  It  is,  however, 
sensibly  volatile  at  much  lower  temperatures,  and  there  is  always  loss  when  the  metal 
is  melted.  Latent  heat  of  fusion,  9.86.  Coefficient  of  linear  expansion,  0.0000292. 
Heat  conductivity,  8.5;  silver  =  100.0.  Electrical  conductivity,  7.2;  silver  =  100.0. 
Properties  of  commercial  lead,  probably  slightly  alloyed;  tensile  strength,  cast  1,920 
pounds  per  square  inch;  rolled  or  sheet  lead  2,000  pounds  per  square  inch.  Crushing 
weight,  cast  lead,  6,950  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Lead,  when  pure,  is  a  feebly  lustrous  bluish-white  metal,  very  soft,  plastic,  and 
almost  entirely  devoid  of  elasticity.  In  the  air,  at  ordinary  temperature,  it  is  quickly 

[222] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

tarnished  in  consequence  of  the  formation  of  a  suboxide  of  the  composition  Pb2O,  but 
the  thin,  dark  film  thus  formed  is  very  slow  in  increasing. 

Pure  water  acts  upon  lead  when  free  oxygen,  air  for  example,  has  access  to  it,  and 
some  of  the  lead  dissolves,  with  formation  of  hydrated  oxide,  which  is  appreciably 
soluble  in  water,  forming  an  alkaline  liquid.  When  carbonic  acid  is  present,  the  dis- 
solved oxide  is  precipitated  as  basic  carbonate,  fresh,  hydrated  oxide  is  formed,  and 
the  corrosion  of  lead  progresses.  All  soluble  lead  compounds  are  strong  cumulative 
poisons,  hence  the  danger  involved  in  using  lead-lined  cisterns  for  the  storage  of  pure 
water  for  culinary  purposes.  Hie  word  pure  is  emphasized  because  the  presence 
in  water  of  even  small  proportions  of  bicarbonate  or  sulphate  of  lime  prevents  its  action 
on  lead.  Natural  waters  are  more  or  less  impure,  that  is,  they  contain  something 
in  solution.  In  contact  with  the  earth,  earthy  substances  are  dissolved;  for  example, 
water  which  flows  over  limestone  dissolves  some  of  this  and  becomes  hard.  Among  the 
substances  met  with  in  solution  in  natural  waters  are  carbonic  acid,  sodium  carbonate, 
sodium  sulphate,  sodium  chloride,  magnesium  sulphate,  carbonate  of  iron,  and  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen.  Waters  which  contain  considerable  quantities  of  sulphuric  acid 
in  the  form  of  sulphates  have  a  corroding  action  on  lead;  but  the  product  of  corro- 
sion in  this  case  is  a  practically  insoluble  compound,  lead  sulphate,  which  forms  a  coat- 
ing on  the  surface  of  the  metal  and  effectually  prevents  further  corrosion,  either  by 
sulphates  or  by  the  water  itself.  The  use  of  lead  pipe  in  domestic  water  supply  is 
almost  universal;  inasmuch  as  natural  waters  are  never  absolutely  pure,  the  inside 
of  the  pipe  is  quickly  coated  with  insoluble  compounds,  therefore  the  water  flowing 
through  the  pipes  does  not  come  in  contact  with  the  lead  and  its  use  is  generally  con- 
sidered harmless. 

Liquation. — The  separation  of  metals  differing  considerably  in  fusibility  by  sub- 
jecting them,  when  contained  in  an  alloy  or  mixture,  to  a  degree  of  heat  sufficient 
to  melt  the  most  fusible  only,  which  then  flows  away,  or  liquates,  from  the  unmelted 
mass.  A  homogeneous  liquid  alloy,  when  solidified  suddenly,  yields  an  equally  homo- 
geneous solid.  But  it  may  not  be  so  when  it  is  allowed  to  freeze  gradually.  If,  in 
this  case,  we  allow  the  process  to  go  a  certain  way,  and  then  pour  off  the  still  liquid 
portion,  the  frozen  part  generally  presents  itself  in  the  shape  of  more  or  less  distinct 
crystals;  whether  this  happens  or  not,  the  rule  is  that  its  composition  differs  from 
that  of  the  mother  liquor,  and  consequently  from  that  of  the  original  alloy.  This 
phenomena  of  liquation  is  occasionally  utilized  in  metallurgy  for  the  approximate 
separation  of  metals  from  one  another;  but  in  the  manipulation  of  alloys  made  to 
be  used  as  such  it  may  prove  inconvenient. 

The  existence  of  crystallized  alloys,  as  observed  in  the  phenomenon  of  liquation, 
strongly  suggests  the  idea  that  alloys  generally  are  mixtures,  not  of  their  elementary 
components,  but  of  chemical  compounds  of  these  elements  with  one  another,  associated 
possibly  with  uncombined  remnants  of  these. 

Lithium,  Li. — Atomic  weight,  7.  Specific  gravity,  0.54;  the  lightest  of  solid  and 
liquid  bodies.  Melting  point,  186°  C.  (367°  F.).  It  is  volatile  at  a  high  temperature, 
burning  with  a  white  flame.  It  manifests  but  little  tendency  to  combine  with  hydro- 
gen. Specific  heat,  0.941.  Electrical  conductivity,  16;  silver  =  100.0.  It  attracts 
oxygen  with  avidity  on  exposure  to  air.  Only  one  oxide  of  lithium  has  been  obtained,  Li2O. 

Lithium  is  one  of  the  metals  of  the  alkalies,  of  which  sodium  and  potassium  are 
also  in  the  same  grouping.  It  is  a  white  metal  having  the  luster  of  silver.  It  is  a  soft 
metal,  softer  than  lead.  In  many  of  its  properties  it  is  more  closely  allied  to  magnesium 
and  calcium  than  to  sodium.  Lithium  salts  communicate  a  beautiful  red  color  to  flame. 

Magnesia,  MgO,  is  an  oxide  of  magnesium,  it  is  a  product  of  the  combustion  of 
magnesium  in  air  or  oxygen.  It  is  also  formed  when  the  carbonate  or  nitrate  is  heated 
in  the  air.  As  thus  obtained,  it  is  a  white  amorphous  powder,  but  may  be  obtained 
crystallized  in  cubes  and  octahedra  by  heating  the  amorphous  form  in  a  current  of 
hydrogen  chloride. 

Calcined  magnesia  is  a  fine  bulky  powder,  specific  gravity,  3.07  to  3.20.  The  specific 
gravity  is  increased  to  3.61  by  heating  in  a  pottery  furnace.  It  is  fusible  only  at  the 
temperature  of  the  oxy-hydrogen  blow-pipe  flame.  It  is  alkaline  to  litmus  but  is 
not  caustic. 

[223] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

On  account  of  its  infusibility,  magnesia  is  now  extensively  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  firebricks,  especially  for  use  in  the  basic  Bessemer  steel  process.  The  bricks  are 
made  of  crushed  dead-burnt  magnesite,  mixed  with  sufficient  gently  calcined  magnesite 
to  give  plasticity  to  the  paste  formed  by  mixing  the  materials  with  water  to  permit 
of  molding.  The  bricks  are  fired  at  a  red  heat  before  use.  Dolomite  has  been  exten- 
sively used  for  this  purpose. 

Magnesium  carbonate  MgCO3  occurs  native  as  magnesite.  It  is  found  in  large 
compact  or  granular  masses,  and,  combined  with  calcium  carbonate,  as  dolomite 
(MgCa)  CO3,  in  immense  quantities  all  over  the  world.  Magnesium  carbonate  dis- 
solves in  water  saturated  with  carbon  dioxide. 

Magnesite. — This  mineral  is  a  magnesium  carbonate  MgC03.  Specific  gravity  of 
the  crystals  3.1.  It  crystallizes  in  a  number  of  different  forms,  the  most  common 
being  in  rhombohedrons,  but  the  crystals  are  not  of  common  occurrence;  it  more 
often  occurs  as  dull  white,  compact,  or  earthy  masses,  with  the  appearance  of  unglazed 
porcelain  or  chalk.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  but  dissolves  in  water  containing  carbon 
dioxide  in  solution. 

An  average  analysis  of  uncalcined  magnesite  gives  the  following: 

Magnesium  carbonate MgCO3 95.00% 

Alumina A^Os „• .50 

Silica SiO2 1 .50 

Lime CaO. 1.25 

Iron  oxide..  FeO.  .  1.75 


100.00% 

During  the  calcining  process  a  loss  of  3  to  9%  of  MgOs  occurs.  Calcined  magnesite 
is  made  into  refractory  bricks  for  lining  basic  steel  and  electric  furnaces.  It  is  also 
used  as  non-conducting  coverings  for  boilers,  steam-pipes,  etc. 

Magnesium,  Mg. — Atomic  weight,  24.3.  Specific  gravity,  1.74.  Melting  point, 
651°  C.  (1,204°  F.).  Specific  heat,  0.250.  Its  heat  conductivity  is  34.3,  its  electrical 
conductivity  is  34.0,  in  which  silver  =  100. 

Magnesium  occurs  abundantly  in  nature;  among  the  minerals  which  contain  it 
are  magnesite,  which  is  the  carbonate.  Mg  .  CO3;  dolomite,  a  double  carbonate  of 
magnesium  and  calcium,  commonly  known  as  magnesium  limestone.  Magnesium 
also  occurs  as  silicate,  combined  with  other  silicates,  in  a  variety  of  minerals. 

Magnesium  fuses  and  volatilizes  at  a  red  heat. 

It  is  a  malleable,  ductile  metal  of  the  color  and  brilliancy  of  silver.  Magnesium  in 
the  form  of  wire  or  ribbon  takes  fire  at  a  red  heat,  burning  with  a  dazzling  bluish-white 
light.  The  flame  of  a  candle  or  spirit  lamp  is  sufficient  to  inflame  it,  but  to  insure 
continuous  combustion  the  metal  must  be  kept  in  contact  with  the  flame.  For  this 
purpose  lamps  are  constructed  provided  with  a  mechanism  which  continually  pushes 
three  or  more  magnesium  wires  into  a  small  spirit  flame.  The  magnesium  flames  pro- 
duce a  continuous  spectrum,  containing  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  more  refrangible 
rays:  hence  it  is  well  adapted  for  photography. 

In  dry  air,  it  undergoes  little  change,  and  is  much  less  oxidizable  than  the  other 
metals  of  the  same  group  in  which  it  belongs  chemically.  It  does  not  decompose 
cold  water;  but  if  the  water  be  heated  to  about  90°  C.  there  is  a  slight  evolution  of 
hydrogen. 

Magnesium  Carbonate,  MgCO3. — Magnesium  shows  a  marked  tendency  to  form 
basic  salts  with  carbonic  acid.  When  a  neutral  magnesium  salt  is  treated  with  a  soluble 
carbonate,  a  basic  carbonate  is  precipitated,  the  composition  of  which  varies  according 
to  the  conditions  under  which  it  is  prepared. 

Normal  magnesium  carbonate  occurs  in  nature  as  magnesite.  It  crystallizes  in 
the  same  form  as  calcium  carbonate  or  is  isomorphous  with  it.  It  is  insoluble 
in  water,  but  like  calcium  carbonate  it  dissolves  in  water  containing  carbon  dioxide  in 
solution.  As  a  non-conductor  of  heat,  carbonate  of  magnesia  has  all  the  desirable 
qualities  of  heat  insulation  to  a  greater  degree  than  any  other  known  substance,  but 

[224] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

it  is  not  adhesive,  and  would  therefore  not  be  durable  if  it  were  used  exclusively.  As- 
bestos in  fibrous  form  is  fireproof,  light  and  practically  indestructible,  but  it  is  not  a 
thorough  non-conductor  of  heat;  by  combining  the  two  materials  in  proper  proportions 
the  asbestos  fiber  acting  as  a  binder  and  holding  the  magnesia  in  form,  on  the  same 
principle  that  hair  is  used  in  ordinary  plaster,  is  the  method  employed  in  the  construc- 
tion of  pipe  coverings  for  high-pressure  steam-heated  surfaces;  it  is  claimed  that  heat 
insulation  composed  of  approximately  85%  pure  carbonate  of  magnesia  and  15% 
fibrous  asbestos  is  the  lightest,  most  efficient,  durable,  and  economical  covering. 

Manganese,  Mn. — Atomic  weight,  55.  Specific  gravity,  8.00  =  499  pounds  per 
cubic  foot.  Melting  point,  1,225°  C.  (2,237°  F.).  Specific  heat,  0.120.  Manganese 
is  a  soft,  brittle,  grayish-white  metal,  which  oxidizes  quickly  on  exposure  to  the  air, 
decomposes  water  slowly  at  ordinary  temperatures,  and  dissolves  easily  in  acids;  it 
is  fully  magnetic.  Manganese  occurs  in  nature  principally  in  the  form  of  pyrolusite 
or  manganese  dioxide,  MnO2,  also  known  as  the  black  oxide  of  manganese,  which  is 
so  intimately  associated  with  iron  in  nature  that  few  iron  ores  are  free  from  that  ele- 
ment, consequently  nearly  all  commercial  iron  and  steel  contain  manganese. 

Manganese  will  combine  with  iron  through  a  wide  range  of  proportions,  ferro-man- 
ganese,  for  example,  containing  as  much  as  80%  manganese.  It  is  always  present 
in  pig  iron,  it  acts  as  a  hardener,  and  makes  iron  white,  crystalline,  and  brittle.  In 
the  foundry  the  direct  effect  of  combined  iron  and  manganese  is  less  important  than 
the  effect  of  the  manganese  on  the  non-metallic  elements  carbon,  silicon,  and  sulphur 
in  the  iron.  The  hardness  of  iron  castings  is  attributed  to  the  presence  of  combined 
carbon;  Hiorns,  referring  to  the  fact  that  manganese  causes  the  iron  to  go  into  the 
combined  form,  that  would  naturally  point  to  its  having  a  hardening  effect  on  cast 
iron;  although  manganese,  by  forming  an  alloy  with  iron,  would  harden  iron  inde- 
pendently of  the  indirect  effect  due  to  carbon. 

Carbon  is  always  present  in  pig  iron,  and  the  manganese  also  present  increases  the 
power  of  iron  to  combine  with  carbon  at  very  high  temperatures,  say  1,400°  C.  (2,552°  F.) 
so  that  the  higher  the  manganese  the  higher  is  the  quantity  of  combined  carbon,  hence 
manganese  tends  to  the  production  of  white  pig  iron.  Manganese  prevents  the  sep- 
aration of  carbon  as  graphite  at  temperatures  lower  than  given  above.  Manganese 
combines  with  iron  and  carbon,  forming  a  double  carbide,  which  is  much  more  stable 
than  carbide  of  iron,  less  easily  broken  up  by  silicon;  the  carbon  being  in  the  com- 
bined state,  the  presence  of  manganese  has  the  effect  of  hardening  the  iron;  but  the 
manganese  is  readily  removed  from  iron  by  oxidation,  and  in  this  way  restrains  the 
oxidation  of  iron  while  sometimes  permitting  the  oxidation  of  other  elements  combined 
with  it.  Silicon  combines  with  manganese  to  form  manganese  silicate.  Silicon  forms 
a  solid  solution  with  iron,  and  manganese  appears  to  go  into  solution  in  the  form  of 
a  silicide,  FeSi.  In  steel-making  a  certain  amount  of  silicon  is  found  in  the  form  of 
silicate  slag.  Ordinary  chemical  analysis  does  not  distinguish  between  silicate  and 
silicide,  only  the  total  content  of  silicon  being  returned. 

Sulphur  opposes  the  formation  of  graphitic  carbon  in  iron,  and  thus  tends  to  make 
iron  hard  and  brittle.  It  is  present  as  ferrous  sulphide,  FeS,  which  is  readily  soluble 
in  molten  iron.  Manganese  counteracts  the  bad  effects  of  sulphur,  and  this,  together 
with  its  power  of  reducing  oxide  of  iron,  prevents  red-shortness.  When  manganese 
is  added  to  or  is  already  present  in  an  iron  containing  sulphur,  the  manganese  decom- 
poses the  iron  sulphide,  forming  manganese  sulphide,  MnS,  and  liberating  iron;  thus 
FeS  +  Mn  =  MnS  +  Fe.  By  mixing  pig  iron  high  in  manganese  with  pig  iron  high 
in  sulphur,  a  sulphide  of  manganese  is  formed,  which  rises  to  the  surface  of  the  molten 
metal  in  virtue  of  its  lower  specific  gravity  and  passes  into  the  slag.  Hiorns  states 
that  it  requires  2.6  parts  of  manganese  to  remove  1  part  of  sulphur.  If  this  MnS  does 
not  rise  to  the  surface  and  pass  off  with  the  slag,  it  then  remains  as  intermixed  glob- 
ules scattered  through  the  mass,  and  if  there  is  enough  manganese  present  all  the 
sulphur  will  be  present  as  manganese  sulphide,  and  since  sulphur,  as  sulphide  of  iron, 
has  a  strong  tendency  to  keep  carbon  in  the  combined  condition,  the  addition  of  man- 
ganese by  converting  the  sulphur  into  manganese  sulphide,  tends  to  soften  the  iron. 

Phosphorus  is  present  in  pig  iron  as  phosphide.  In  steel-making  this  phosphide 
is  largely  removed  from  iron  by  a  strong,  basic  slag,  in  the  composition  of  which  is 

[225] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

included  oxide  of  manganese.  In  the  foundry,  the  brittleness  of  castings,  caused  by 
the  presence  of  phosphorus  in  the  pig  iron,  is  not  counteracted  by  the  use  of  ferro- 
manganese  in  the  ladle. 

Martensite. — This  micro-structure  occurring  hi  all  hardened  steels  is  not  a  con- 
stituent but  a  crystalline  development  hi  high  carbon  steel;  0.4%  carbon,  for  example, 
quenched  at  a  temperature  above  765°  C.,  1,409°  F.  Freshly  broken,  such  a  steel  pre- 
sents a  fine  granular  appearance  and  is  apparently  structureless,  but  under  the  micro- 
scope it  is  seen  to  consist  of  three  systems  of  fibers  respectively  parallel  to  the  three 
sides  of  a  triangle  and  crossing  each  other  frequently.  When  the  metal  contains  less 
carbon  the  needles  are  longer  and  more  clearly  differentiated.  With  the  carbon  content 
at  or  about  the  eutectoid  proportion,  0.89%,  the  whole  structure  consists  of  this  crystal- 
line formation  if  the  quenching  has  been  from  a  temperature  of  800°  C.,  1,472°  F.,  or 
thereabout.  This  characteristic  does  not  follow  a  definite  composition  of  steel  since 
it  is  found  hi  all  steels  with  carbon  content  varying  from  0.15  to  2.20%  which  have 
been  thus  heated  and  quickly  quenched. 

The  exact  nature  of  martensite  has  been  the  subject  of  much  discussion.  That  it 
is  the  chief  constituent  of  ordinary  hardened  steels,  that  is,  of  steels  quenched  from 
above  the  critical  temperature  in  water  or  in  an  iced  solution,  is  agreed. 

Osmond's  theory  is  that  in  martensite,  iron  is  present  chiefly  in  its  beta  condition, 
holding  carbon  in  solution,  hence  the  great  hardness  of  that  constituent.  Since  mar- 
tensite is  magnetic,  it  must  also  contain  an  appreciable  quantity  of  magnetic  alpha  iron. 

Edwards  and  Carpenter  contend  that  austenite  and  martensite  are  in  reality  the 
same  constituent,  namely,  a  solid  solution  of  carbon  in  gamma  iron,  differing  only  in 
structural  aspect,  the  needles  of  martensite  resulting  from  the  twinning  of  austenite 
caused  by  the  severe  pressure  exerted  upon  it  during  rapid  cooling. 

Arnold's  theory  is  that  martensite,  like  austenite,  is  the  carbide  Fe24C,  holding 
hi  solution  ferrite  hi  hypo-eutectoid  steel  and  cementite  in  hyper-eutectoid  steel. 

Sauveur,  after  careful  consideration  of  the  evidences  at  hand,  adopts  Osmond's 
theory  as  the  one  best  supported. 

Sexton  and  Primrose  regard  martensite  as  a  transition  product  in  the  decomposition 
of  austenite,  varying  in  hardness  according  to  its  carbon  content,  being,  in  fact,  a  solid 
solution  of  iron  carbide  in  one  of  the  allotropic  modifications  of  iron,  probably  beta. 
On  annealing  a  steel  showing  this  martensitic  structure,  the  needlelike  shapes  gradually 
disappear. 

On  dissolving  the  hardened  steel  in  dilute  acid,  a  dense  black  residue  is  left  which 
is  quite  different  from  the  plates  of  Abel's  iron  carbide  left  on  dissolving  the  unhardened 
steel.  High  power  magnifications  show  the  characteristic  martensite  structure  to  be 
made  up  of  two  differently  etching  portions  in  almost  all  cases,  except  that  of  the 
0.89%  or  eutectoid  steel,  when  the  structure  is  very  minute  and  practically  homogeneous. 
To  this  saturated  martensite,  Professor  Howe  has  given  the  name  of  Hardenile,  which 
term  is  often  now  used  synonymously  with  martensite,  which  should  always  be  named 
by  its  carbon  content  to  indicate  its  variable  nature  and  physical  properties. 

Mercury,  Hg. — Atomic  weight,  200.  Specific  gravity,  13.59.  Weight  per  cubic 
foot,  848  pounds  =  0.49  pound  per  cubic  inch.  At  ordinary  temperatures  mercury  is 
liquid;  it  solidifies  at  —39°  C.,  —38°  F.  The  specific  gravity  of  the  frozen  metal  is 
14.39.  Mercury  is  distinctly  volatile  at  all  temperatures  above  190°  C.  It  boils  at 
357°  C.,  675°  F.,  and  is  converted  into  a  colorless  vapor,  which  is  very  poisonous. 
The  specific  heat  of  liquid  mercury  is  0.033;  that  of  the  frozen  metal  is  0.0319.  Ex- 
pansion of  mercury  from  0°  to  100°  C.,  32°  to  212°  F.,  is  1.018153  volume  at  100°  C., 
212°  F.,  Regnault.  Heat  conductivity,  1.3;  silver  =  100.0.  Electrical  conductivity, 
1.5;  silver  =  100.0.  The  electric  conductivity  of  pure  mercury  at  0°  C.,  based  on 
the  definition  of  the  international  ohm,  is  0.017720  times  that  of  copper.  The  resistivity 
of  mercury  is  56.4327  times  that  of  copper. 

Mercury  has  a  nearly  silver-white  color,  and  a  very  high  degree  of  luster.  When 
pure,  it  is  quite  unalterable  in  the  air  at  common  temperatures,  but  when  heated  to 
near  its  boiling  point  it  slowly  absorbs  oxygen  and  becomes  converted  into  a  crystalline, 
dark-red  powder,  which  is  the  highest  oxide  HgO.  This  monoxide  is  commonly  known 
as  red  oxide  of  mercury  or  red  precipitate,  which  is  slightly  soluble  hi  water,  com- 

[226] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

municating  to  the  latter  an  alkaline  reaction  and  metallic  taste;  it  is  highly  poisonous. 
When  strongly  heated,  this  oxide  is  decomposed  into  metallic  mercury  and  oxygen  gas. 

Mercury  is  not  acted  upon  by  hydrochloric  acid?  and  is  almost  unaffected  by  dilute 
sulphuric  acid,  but  with  hot  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  it  forms  HgSO4,  a  mercuric  sul- 
phate. Mercury  is  dissolved  even  by  cold  dilute  nitric  acid,  and  is  rapidly  dissolved  in 
hot  nitric  acid.  It  is  dissolved  by  aqua  regia  with  formation  of  mercuric  chloride, 
HgC]2. 

The  mercury  of  commerce,  when  it  comes  directly  from  the  furnace,  is  in  most 
instances  nearly  pure,  but  is  sometimes  contaminated  by  holding  small  quantities  of 
other  metals  in  solution.  Pure  mercury  will  roll  down  an  inclined  surface  without 
forming  a  pronounced  "  tail  "  and  without  leaving  any  streak  behind  it.  If  a  blackish 
film  is  left  behind,  the  mercury  requires  purification.  To  separate  the  mercury  from 
its  impurities,  it  is  often  distilled  from  an  iron  retort  and  again  condensed  in  a  vessel 
containing  cold  water;  a  certain  portion  of  the  impurities  is,  however,  generally  carried 
over  into  the  receiver. 

Certain  difficulties  are  encountered  in  the  use  of  mercury  in  the  extraction  of  gold. 
Sir  T.  K.  Rose  enumerates  particularly  when  mercury  is  agitated  with  oil,  fats,  tur- 
pentine, many  organic  substances,  sulphur,  etc.,  it  is  split  into  minute  globules,  not 
easily  reunited.  This  is  known  as  the  "  flouring  "  of  mercury.  Vegetable  or  animal 
oils  cause  more  flouring  than  mineral  oils.  Coalesence  of  floured  mercury  is  effected 
by  the  action  of  certain  reducing  agents,  such  as  water  and  sodium,  the  passage  of  an 
electric  current,  or  with  some  loss  by  the  action  of  nitric  acid. 

Floured  mercury  is  perfectly  white  in  appearance,  like  flour,  sickened  mercury  being 
blackish.  The  "  flouring  "  of  mercury,  or  minute  mechanical  subdivision,  is  due  to 
excessive  stamping  or  grinding. 

The  "  sickening  "  of  mercury  is  an  extreme  subdivision  caused  by  chemical  means, 
in  which  a  coating  of  some  impurity  is  formed  over  the  minute  globules  of  mercury, 
which  are  thereby  prevented  from  coalescing,  from  taking  up  gold  and  silver,  or  from 
being  caught  by  the  plates  and  wells  in  the  amalgamating  machines,  as  the  coating, 
prevents  contact  between  the  mercury  and  other  bodies.  The  impurity  may  be  an 
oxide,  sulphate,  sulphide,  or  arsenide  of  some  base  metal. 

The  base  metals  usually  present  in  mercury  are.  rapidly  oxidized  in  the  air,  especially 
in  contact  with  water;  the  oxidation  is  made  much  more  rapid  by  the  presence  of  any 
acid  in  the  water,  and  this  acidity  is  rarely  quite  absent  from  battery  and  mine  waters, 
although  it  is  often  neutralized  by  lime.  The  metallic  oxides  thus  formed  are  not  soluble 
in  mercury,  and  they  float  on  its  surface  in  the  form  of  little  black  scales,  which  soon 
form  a  coating. 

Lead  is  one  of  the  impurities  in  mercury  most  to  be  feared,  as  the  amalgam  of  this 
metal  tends  to  separate  out  of  the  bath  of  mercury  in  which  it  is  dissolved. 

Amalgam  is  the  term  applied  to  any  mixture  of  which  mercury  is  the  chief  con- 
stituent. Mercury  unites  readily  with  gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  zinc,  tin,  bismuth, 
cadmium,  palladium,  magnesium,  potassium,  sodium;  mercury  does  not  combine 
readily  with  nickel,  manganese,  cobalt,  platinum;  iron  is  acted  upon  very  slightly  even 
when  hot. 

Molybdenum,  Mo. — Atomic  weight,  96.0.  Specific  gravity,  8.6.  Melting  point, 
2,500°  C.  (4,500°  F.).  Specific  heat,  0.072.  Molybdenum  occurs  in  Molybdenite,  MoS2, 
Wulfenite,  PbMoO4,  and  Molybdic  ochre,  MoO3,  usually  containing  a  considerable 
amount  of  Fe2O3. 

The  purest  molybdenum  metal  is  produced  from  Wulfenite,  but  practically  the  whole 
of  the  world's  supply  of  the  metal  and  its  compounds  is  obtained  from  molybdenite. 

When  pure  and  free  from  more  than  a  trace  of  carbon,  it  is  softer  than  steel,  mal- 
leable, and  capable  of  being  forged  and  welded. 

It  is  attacked  by  the  halogens  and  by  most  acids  and  fused  salts,  and  has  not  so 
far  been  applied  to  any  practical  use,  except  in  alloy  with  other  metals. 

Ferro-molybdenum  and  other  alloys  are  produced  by  the  direct  electric  furnace 
reduction  of  molybdenite  in  admixture  with  oxide  of  iron,  chromium  nickel,  or  tung- 
sten, the  only  metals  with  which  it  is  at  present  alloyed  for  technical  use. 

The  addition  of  molybdenum  to  steel  in  the  form  of  the  pure  metal  or  one  of  the 

[227] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

above  alloys  largely  increases  its  tensile  strength,  toughness,  and  fineness  of  grains 
and  its  retention  of  magnetism. 

For  the  production  of  high-grade  tool  steel,  it  has  a  value  similar  to,  but  greater 
than,  that  of  tungsten.  At  present  it  is  mainly  employed  in  crucible  steel,  and,  like 
many  of  the  steels  now  being  prepared  for  special  purposes,  molybdenum  steels  and 
molybdenum  alloys  must  be  regarded  as  still  on  trial  as  compared  with  others,  although 
the  fact  that  they  are  of  great  value  is  beyond  doubt;  molybdenum  is  now  prepared 
for  addition  to  steel,  as  90  to  98%  molybdenum  powder  or  fused  lump  practically  free 
from  carbon,  as  ferro-molybdenum  containing  10,  25,  50  and  80  to  85%  molybdenum, 
as  an  alloy  with  tungsten,  chromium,  or  nickel. 

The  following  are  typical  analyses  of  ferro-molybdenum  as  now  made  by  the  electric 
furnace: 

Molybdenum Mo  85.80  80.00  85.00  50.00 

Iron Fe  10.96  16.50  14.20  49.30 

Carbon C  3.07  3.24  0.50  0.35 

Silicon Si  0.11  0.21  0.25  0.30 

Sulphur S  0.05  0.02  0.03  0.03 

Phosphorus P  0.01  0.03  0.02  0.02 

The  two  low-carbon  alloys  were  probably  produced  by  the  refining  of  crude  cast 
ferro-molybdenum  by  a  modification  of  the  process  of  Moissan,  which  removes  the 
excess  of  carbon  by  heating  the  powdered  metal  with  molybdenum  dioxide  or  calcium 
molybdate,  with  the  addition  of  alumina  for  production  of  slag. 

Molybdenum  combines  with  the  halogens  to  form  a  large  variety  of  compounds, 
including  many  double  halogen  salts  and  various  oxy-salts.  It  forms  compounds  with 
phosphorus,  boron,  silicon,  and  sulphur,  which  are  of  no  technical  interest  except 
in  so  far  as  their  presence  in  molybdenum  or  ferro-molybdenum  is  objectionable. 
— G.  T.  Holloway. 

Nickel,  Ni.— Atomic  weight,  58.56.  Specific  gravity,  8.9  =  550  pounds  per  cubic 
foot  =  0.317  pound  per  cubic  inch.  Melting  point,  1,452°  C.  (2646°  F.).  Specific 
heat,  0.10916,  Regnault,  for  temperatures,  14°  to  97°  C.  Pionchon  gives  the  following: 
at  100°  C.  =  0.1128,  at  300°  C.  =  0.1403,  at  500°  C.  =  0.1299,  at  800°  C.  =  0.1484, 
at  1,000°  C.  =  0.1608. 

Nickel  is  a  gray-white  metal  capable  of  receiving  a  high  polish;  it  is  about  the  same 
hardness  as  iron,  and,  like  that  metal,  malleable  and  ductile.  It  has  about  the  same 
fusibility  as  wrought  iron,  but  is  less  readily  oxidized  than  that  metal.  It  is  slightly 
magnetic,  but  loses  its  magnetic  power  at  about  350°  C.  The  metal  in  its  ordinary 
condition  is  brittle,  but  when  it  contains  a  small  quantity  of  magnesium  or  phosphorus 
it  becomes  very  malleable.  Nickel  can  be  welded,  not  only  to  nickel,  but  also  to  cer- 
tain alloys,  and  to  iron  and  steel.  Nickel  takes  up  carbon  like  iron  by  cementation, 
and  the  carbon  may  exist  both  in  the  combined  and  in  the  graphitic  form  by  fusing 
the  cemented  metal.  It  does  not  possess  the  property  of  hardening  and  tempering 
like  iron.  It  unites  with  sulphur,  forming  nickel  sulphide,  NiS,  which  is  brass-yellow 
in  color  and  with  arsenic,  forming  nickel  arsenide,  NiAs.  Nickel  is  used  for  the  manu- 
facture of  various  small  articles  and  for  coinage.  It  is  largely  used  for  making  the 
alloy  known  as  nickel  silver,  and  it  is  used  for  alloying  with  steel  to  produce  .the  well- 
known  nickel  steel.  It  is  also  largely  used  for  covering  other  metals  by  the  process 
of  electroplating.  Commercial  nickel  was  formerly  very  impure,  due  to  the  presence 
of  iron,  copper,  silicon,  sulphur,  arsenic,  and  carbon,  which  make  it  hard  and  brittle. 
Nickel  of  very  great  purity  is  now  made  by  the  Mond  process.  Nickel  unites  readily 
with  most  metals  forming  alloys,  some  of  which  are  of  great  commercial  utility.  The 
most  important  of  these  is  German  silver,  for  which  there  is  a  wide  range  of  propor- 
tions; a  metal  which  is  to  be  rolled,  pressed,  or  stamped,  the  alloy  must  be  tough  and 
malleable;  and  as  whiteness  in  color  is  an  important  consideration,  it  follows  that  the 
metals  nickel  and  zinc  must  be  present  in  considerable  quantity  in  order  to  overcome 
the  red  color  of  the  copper.  Founders  whose  specialty  is  the  manufacture  of  German 

[228] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

silver  have  agreed  that  the  best  alloy  for  beauty,  luster,  and  working  properties  con- 
sists of  the  following  proportions:   46%  copper,  34%  nickel,  20%  zinc. 

Nitrogen,  N.— Atomic  weight,  14.01.  Specific  gravity,  0.971.  Air  =  1.000. 
Weight  per  cubic  foot,  0.0784  pound  at  0°  C.,  32°  F.  =  12.755  cubic  feet  per  pound. 
Specific  gravity  (H  =  1)  =  14.00.  The  density  of  atmospheric  nitrogen,  containing 
the  inert  gases,  is  0.972.  Specific  gravity  of  liquid  nitrogen  at  —194°  C.  is  0.8084; 
at  -198°  C.  it  is  0.8297.  The  specific  gravity  of  solid  nitrogen  at  -211°  C.  is  0.8792; 
at  253°  C.  it  is  1.0265.  Specific  heat  of  liquid  nitrogen  at  -196°  to  208°  C.  is  0.430. 
Specific  heat  of  gaseous  nitrogen  between  0°  and  200°  C.,  32°  to  392°  F.,  is  0.2348. 
Critical  pressure  of  nitrogen  is  35  atmospheres;  critical  temperature  — 146 °C.;  critical 
volume  42.6  c.c.;  critical  density,  0.0236.  (Thorpe.)  Increase  of  pressure  of  nitrogen 
under  constant  volume,  and  final  pressure  at  100°  C.,  212°  F.,  when  initial  pressure 
at  0°  C.,  32°  F.  =  1.0000  is  1.3688.  (Regnault.) 

The  specific  heat  of  nitrogen,  water  at  0°  C.,  32°  F.  =  1.000,  is:  For  equal  weights 
at  constant  pressure,  0.2440.  At  constant  volume,  0.1740;  this  is  the  real  specific 
heat.  For  equal  volumes  at  constant  pressure,  water  at  0°  C.,  32°  F.  =  1.0000;  air  = 
0.2377;  nitrogen  =  0.2370.  At  constant  volume,  water  at  0°  C.,  32°  F.  =  1.0000; 
air  =  0.1688;  nitrogen  =  0.1690.  (D.  K.  Clark.) 

Latent  heat  of  vaporization  at  boiling  point  is  50.4  cal. 

Coefficient  of  expansion  of  liquid  nitrogen  varies  from  0.002996  at  11°  C.  —132°  abs. 
under  6  mm.  to  0.003574  at  100°  abs.  under  1000  mm. 

Solubility:  Liquid  oxygen  at  —195.5°  C.  dissolves  458  times  its  volume,  or  50.7% 
of  its  weight  of  gaseous  nitrogen.  Solubility  in  water: 

Temperature 0°  C.      10°  C.      20°  C.      30°  C.      40°  C.      50°  C. 

C.c.  per  liter 23.00       18.54       15.54       13.55       12.15       11.02 

Wood  charcoal  absorbs  ten  times  as  much  nitrogen  at  —185°  C.  as  at  0°  C. 

Nitrogen  is  a  colorless,  odorless,  and  tasteless  gas.  It  is  found  in  the  free  state  in 
the  atmosphere,  of  which  it  constitutes  about  four-fifths  by  volume.  It  is  a  permanent 
gas  in  that  no  pressure  will  liquefy  it,  at  any  temperature  lying  above  the  "critical  point" 
of  —146°  C.  At  or  a  little  below  this  temperature,  35  atmospheres  of  pressure  will 
reduce  it  to  a  liquid.  Nitrogen  plays  no  active  part  in  the  processes  of  combustion 
and  of  animal  respiration;  in  either  case  it  appears  to  act  only  as  an  inert  diluent  of 
the  oxygen.  In  the  case  of  respiration,  no  animal  could  live  healthily  for  any  con- 
siderable period  of  time  in  pure  oxygen,  and  we  know  of  no  other  diluent  which  could 
be  substituted  for  the  nitrogen  without  poisonous  effects. 

Atmospheric  nitrogen,  in  an  indirect  way,  contributes  toward  the  building  up  of 
nitrogenous  organic  matter.  Every  process  of  ordinary  combustion  probably,  and 
every  electric  discharge  in  the  atmosphere  certainly,  induces  the  formation  of  some 
nitric  acid,  which  by  combining  with  the  atmospheric  ammonia  becomes  nitrate  of 
ammonia.  The  compounds  of  nitrogen  may  be  arranged  under  the  heads  of  ammonia, 
nitrates,  nitro-compounds,  organic  nitrogen  compounds,  and  cyanides. 

Occlusion  is  the  process  of  absorption  or  condensation  of  gases  within  the  pores 
of  a  substance.  Metals  have  the  power  of  absorbing  gases;  thus,  hydrogen  is  capable 
of  penetrating  platinum  and  iron  tubes  at  a  red  heat.  Platinum  wire  or  plate,  at  a 
low,  red  heat,  can  take  up  3.8  volumes  of  hydrogen  measured  cold,  and  palladium  foil 
condenses  as  much  as  643  times  its  volume  of  hydrogen  at  a  temperature  below  100°  C. 
In  the  form  of  sponge,  platinum  absorbed  1.48  times  its  volume  of  hydrogen  and 
palladium  90  volumes.  The  occlusion  of  gases  by  metals  is  well  known,  and  the  im- 
portance of  this  action  on  iron,  especially  in  regard  to  oxygen,  is  thus  pointed  out  by 
Hiorns  in  the  effects  of  various  elements  on  steel:  The  absorption  and  retention  of 
oxygen  at  the  conclusion  of  the  Bessemer  blow  is  a  powerful  factor  that  has  to  be  reck- 
oned with,  owing  to  its  intimate  association  with  the  iron  and  its  profound  influence 
on  the  properties.  The  precise  manner  in  which  it  exists,  whether  as  a  dissolved  gas 
or  an  oxide,  is  not  yet  ascertained ;  at  any  rate,  oxygen  may  be  readily  removed  from 
iron  by  means  of  manganese  and  other  deoxidizers.  Carbonic  oxide  is  another  gas 
readily  absorbed  by  iron,  and  its  decomposition  and  recomposition  are  supposed  to 
play  an  important  part  in  the  process  of  cementation.  Silicon  and  manganese  appear 
to  be  able  to  keep  carbonic  oxide  in  solution  in  iron.  The  quantity  of  oxygen  retained 

;.[229] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

by  iron  is  probably  small,  seldom  more  than  1.0%,  and  often  very  much  less,  but  this 
small  quantity  is  very  powerful  in  affecting  its  physical  properties. 

Open-Hearth  Process. — In  this  process  for  making  steel  a  regenerative  furnace 
hearth  is  used  of  the  reverberatory  type.  A  feature  of  this  design  of  furnace  is  that 
the  waste  heat  is  employed  to  heat  up  both  the  gaseous  fuel  and  the  air  requisite  to 
burn  it  before  they  are  introduced  into  the  furnace  or  chamber  where  they  undergo 
combustion.  This  is  effected  by  making  the  exit  gases  pass  through  regenerators  con- 
sisting of  piles  of  fire  bricks  stacked  loosely  together  so  as  to  expose  as  much  surface 
as  possible.  Four  such  piles  of  fire  bricks,  in  separate  chambers,  are  employed,  two 
being  heated  up  by  the  waste  gases  escaping  from  the  melting  furnace,  while  the  other 
two  are  in  use,  the  one  for  heating  the  gaseous  fuel  supplied  by  a  gas  producer,  the 
other  for  heating  the  ah*  requisite  for  the  combustion  of  the  gas.  By  suitable  valves 
the  waste  gases  are  shunted  from  the  first  to  the  second  pair  of  regenerators,  while 
simultaneously  the  gas  and  air  are  changed  from  the  second  to  the  first  pair;  as  the 
temperature  at  which  the  gas  and  air  enter  is  close  to  that  at  which  the  products  of 
combustion  leave  the  furnace,  while  the  regenerators  are  being  heated  up,  the  tem- 
perature of  the  combustion  chamber  continually  rises  with  each  reversal  of  the  currents 
through  the  regenerators;  so  that  ultimately  the  only  limit  to  the  temperature  attain- 
able is  the  refractoriness  of  the  materials  of  which  the  furnace  is  constructed;  as  the 
melting  point  of  iron  is  1,520°  C.,  and  that  of  the  best  quality  of  bauxite  fire  bricks 
about  1,820°  C.,  there  is  a  working  margin  of  300°  C.  between  melting  the  iron  and 
fusing  the  exposed  surface  of  the  lining  having  equivalent  resistance  to  bauxite 
brick. 

The  furnace  hearth  is  not  unlike  a  shallow  concave  dish  with  sloping  sides  carried 
up  to  the  level  of  the  charging  door.  The  depth  of  the  hearth  below  the  level  of  the 
charging  doors  is  such  as  to  provide  for  a  depth  of  about  12  inches  of  molten  metal  for 
furnaces  6  to  12  tons  capacity,  up  to  about  24  inches  for  50-ton  furnaces,  or  larger.  An 
acid  open-hearth  furnace  will  have  a  silica  fire-brick  lining  with  a  top  coating  of  refrac- 
tory sand  and  clay  rammed  into  place,  the  furnace  to  be  afterward  gradually  brought 
to  full  furnace  heat.  The  roof  is  lined  with  silica  fire  brick. 

The  Acid  Open-Hearth  Furnace  is  principally  a  melting  furnace,  and  none  of  the 
impurities  hi  the  metal  are  removed  except  carbon  and  silicon.  The  consequence  is 
that  the  quality  of  the  steel  made  is  dependent  upon  the  quality  of  the  metal  used. 
Pig  iron  for  acid  open-hearth  use  may  follow  the  composition  prescribed  for  the  acid 
Bessemer  process,  that  is,  not  over  2.0%  silicon,  total  carbon  about  3.5%,  with  less 
than  0.10%  phosphorus  and  sulphur,  because  neither  of  these  two  is  reduced  in  the 
process.  In  making  a  steel  suitable  for  boiler  plate,  in  a  small  furnace,  about  25% 
of  the  entire  charge  was  melted  in  the  hearth  and  brought  to  a  high  heat  when  wrought 
iron  and  mild  steel  scrap  previously  heated  to  a  bright  red  was  then  immersed  in  the 
bath  and  allowed  to  dissolve  in  it.  When  the  carbon  in  the  whole  mixture  had  been 
brought  to  the  desired  point,  i.e.,  practically  eliminated,  the  silicon  had  also  been 
reduced,  either  by  fusion  or  by  chemical  action  to  the  minimum  amount,  say  from 
0.01  to  0.05%.  Ferro-manganese  previously  heated  was  put  into  the  bath,  the 
whole  mass  of  metal  thoroughly  stirred  and  then  run  out  into  a  large  ladle,  from 
which  it  was  poured  into  ingot  molds.  During  this  process  silicon  and  carbon  were 
oxidized  together  with  any  other  oxidizable  impurities  and  passed  into  the  slag,  but 
most  of  the  sulphur  and  practically  all  of  the  phosphorus  remained  in  the  metal.  As 
this  steel  was  made  on  a  silica  or  acid  bottom,  the  slag  was  therefore  necessarily  acid, 
and  would  not  combine  with  the  phosphorus  as  it  oxidized  in  the  steel,  the  latter  element 
therefore  immediately  recombined  with  the  metal. 

The  Basic  Open-Hearth  Furnace  differs  from  the  acid  hearth  mainly  in  the  character 
of  its  lining.  As  its  name  indicates,  the  metal  is  melted  on  a  basic  bottom,  which  may 
be  formed  of  lime  or  magnesia.  In  either  case  additions  of  lime  are  made  to  the  bath 
to  insure  a  highly  basic  slag,  which  will  be  sure  to  hold  all  the  phosphorus  as  fast  as  it 
is  oxidized  from  the  metal.  Pig  iron  for  basic  open-hearth  use  should  contain  not  more 
than  1.0%  silicon;  the  sulphur  should  always  be  low,  not  more  than  0.10%  if  possible; 
phosphoric  irons  may  contain  up  to  3.0%  phosphorus,  depending  upon  the  locality; 
usually,  however,  it  is  below  1.5%.  The  basic  process  works  the  practical  elim- 

[230] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

ination  of  phosphorus  in  iron,  it  matters  little  therefore  what  its  percentage  is  in  the 
pig  so  long  as  this  is  accurately  known  at  the  time  of  charging  the  furnace. 

The  reactions  involved  in  oxidation  of  phosphorus  in  general  consist,  first,  in  the 
formation  of  P2O5,  and  second,  the  combination  of  this  oxide  with  lime,  forming  calcium 
phosphate,  which  latter  is  held  in  a  slag  high  in  iron  oxide.  The  oxygen  for  the  removal 
of  phosphorus  comes  largely  through  the  medium  of  iron  oxide  and  furnace  gases;  but 
not  from  lime,  and  the  lime  itself  cannot  prevent  the  reduction  of  phosphorus  back 
into  the  metal  out  of  the  slags  from  which  iron  oxide  is  largely  reduced.  The  tem- 
perature of  the  furnace  is  maintained  by  combustion  of  the  gas  in  the  furnace  chamber, 
and  this  atmosphere  is  oxidizing  to  a  greater  or  less  extent.  Any  control  over  the 
reducing  conditions  must  therefore  come  from  reducing  agents  in  the  metal,  and  limited 
control,  if  any,  can  be  had  over  the  action  of  agents  such  as  silicon  or  dissolved  carbon. 
Since  iron  oxide  cannot  be  kept  from  forming  in  the  slag  under  influence  of  the  furnace 
atmosphere,  the  silicon  and  carbon  in  the  metal  are  the  agents  to  be  relied  upon  to 
prevent  oxidation.  To  hold  the  strongly  acid  oxide  of  phosphorus  in  the  slag  requires 
a  fluxing  agent  having  strong  affinity  for  phosphorus  and  strongly  basic  in  chemical 
nature,  like  lime.  Calcium  phosphate  can  be  reduced  from  the  slag  back  into  the 
metal  when  the  conditions  of  equilibrium  between  the  iron  oxides  in  the  slag  are  such 
as  to  reduce  the  amount  of  iron  oxide  below  a  certain  limit.  Silicon  is  such  a  strong 
reducing  agent  that  it  must  be  oxidized  out  of  the  metal  before  the  phosphorus  is 
attacked.  The  influence  of  carbon,  an  important  reducing  agent  in  the  metal,  is  largely 
dependent  on  the  temperature,  its  affinity  for  oxygen  being  less  than  that  of  phosphorus 
at  low  temperatures,  and  greater  at  temperatures  above  1,450°  C.  Lime  is  necessary 
to  hold  the  phosphorus  in  the  slag.  Combustion  is  the  source  of  heat  and  iron  oxide 
is  always  present  and  usually  in  large  amounts;  silicon  oxidizes  before  phosphorus, 
and  the  oxidation  of  carbon  before  or  after  phosphorus  is  determined  by  the  temperature. 
—Albert  E.  Greene. 

The  various  reactions  in  the  removal  of  phosphorus  from  iron  have  been  thus  sum- 
marized by  Mr.  Greene: 

1.  At  temperatures  below  1,450°  C.,  phosphorus  in  pig  iron  has  greater  affinity 
for  oxygen  than  has  the  carbon  in  the  pig  iron,  but  less  affinity  for  oxygen  than  solid 
carbon  in  the  presence  of  pig  iron. 

2.  At  temperatures  above  1,450°  C.,  the  affinity  of  the  carbon  dissolved  in  iron 
for  oxygen  becomes  greater  than  the  affinity  of  phosphorus  in  the  iron,  and  the  dissolved 
carbon  can  reduce  calcium  phosphate  in  the  slag. 

3.  Phosphorus  oxidizes  in  presence  of  lime,  and  iron  oxide  to  calcium  phosphate 
in  absence  of  silicon  or  solid  carbon. 

4.  Silicon  reduces  calcium  phosphate  nearly  always,  but  there  may  be  a  range 
of  temperature  below  1,450°  C.  where  phosphorus  oxidizes  to  calcium  phosphate  more 
easily  than  silicon  to  calcium  silicate. 

5.  Solid  carbon  will  reduce  calcium  phosphate  contained  in  a  slag  or  bath  of  iron, 
and  phosphorus  will  go  into  the  metal. 

6.  Calcium  phosphate  can  form  without  oxidation  of  iron  in  presence  of  carbon 
dissolved  in  pig  iron  at  low  temperature. 

7.  Calcium  phosphate  can  form  without  oxidation  of  iron  in  absence  of  carbon 
and  silicon  at  high  temperatures,  that  is,  above  1,450°  C. 

8.  Iron  oxide  can  be  reduced  without  reduction  of  calcium  phosphate  contained  in 
the  same  slag. 

The  Talbot  Process  is  a  continuous  basic  open-hearth  process  developed  by  Benjamin 
Talbot  (1899).  The  general  practice  in  open-hearth  working  is  to  charge  solid  pig  iron 
and  scrap  into  the  furnace  in  which  hours  of  valuable  time  are  consumed  before  the 
furnace  contains  the  necessary  heat  to  enable  the  ordinary  slag  additions  to  be  made 
ia  order  to  purify  the  charge  and  convert  the  metal  into  steel  of  the  desired  quality. 
In  the  Bessemer  process  what  is  gained  in  time  and  labor  is  lost  in  yield;  the  gain  in 
yield  in  the  open-hearth  practice  is  largely  annulled  by  loss  in  time  and  cost  of  labor. 
To  approach  in  any  way  the  rapidity  of  Bessemer  practice  on  the  one  hand,  and  the 
yield  of  the  open  hearth  on  the  other,  Mr.  Talbot  considers  the  following  conditions 
essential  to  success: 

[231] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

1.  The  use  of  fluid  metal  from  blast  furnace,  mixer  or  cupola,  direct. 

2.  The  oxidation  of  the  metalloids  should  be  effected  entirely  by  means  of  solid 
oxides  of  iron,  and  not  by  the  action  of  the  air. 

3.  Maintaining  by  some  suitable  means  a  large  reserve  of  heat  to  keep  the  oxidizing 
slags  and  metal  in  a  fluid  condition,  and  to  insure  the  rapid  removal  of  the  metalloids 
from  the  molten  pig  iron. 

A  trouble  with  hearth  and  bottoms  of  furnaces,  both  acid  and  basic,  is  due  to  the 
action  of  the  slag,  and  not  to  the  metal.  If  after  considerable  work  the  face  of  a  basic 
hearth  is  examined,  it  will  be  found  to  be  nearly  of  the  same  composition  as  the  slag; 
the  effect  is  to  render  the  hearth  less  refractory,  therefore  less  able  to  withstand  the 
heat  of  the  finished  steel  when  hot  enough  to  pour.  To  overcome  this  drawback  the 
slag  must  be  prevented  from  washing  and  impregnating  the  lower  portion  of  the  hearth 
every  time  the  furnace  is  tapped.  This  is  accomplished  by  flowing  the  slag  off  from 
the  surface  of  the  bath  through  a  slag  spout  at  the  foreplate  level.  A  tilting  furnace 
permits  any  quantity  of  metal  or  slag  to  be  poured  out  when  desired.  The  furnace 
tilts  in  both  directions,  so  that  slag  can  be  poured  off  from  the  opposite  side  to  the 
metal.  This  tilting  furnace  permits  the  withdrawal  of  metal  or  of  slag  at  any  time, 
and  as  the  slag  does  not  come  in  contact  with  the  lining  of  the  hearth,  the  latter  is 
not  softened  and  the  refining  operations  can  be  made  continuous,  the  usual  runs  extend 
through  a  period  of  six  days. 

Oxides. — An  oxide  is  the  product  of  the  combination  of  oxygen  with  a  metal  or 
metalloid.  In  the  former  case  a  base  is  formed,  in  the  latter  an  acid  radical.  An 
acid  contains  hydrogen  in  its  composition;  a  base  contains  a  metal.  When  the  acid 
acts  upon  a  base  the  hydrogen  and  the  metal  exchange  places.  The  products  of  the 
action  of  an  acid  upon  a  base  are  first  water,  and,  second,  a  neutral  substance  called 
a  salt.  Oxides  may  therefore  be  divided  into  three  classes:  acid,  neutral,  and  basic; 
the  first  and  third  being  capable  of  uniting  with  one  another  in  definite  proportions 
and  forming  compounds  called  salts.  To  distinguish  between  different  oxides,  the 
name  of  the  element  with  which  the  oxygen  is  in  combination  is  prefixed;  thus,  iron 
oxide,  zinc  oxide,  etc. 

For  chemical  action  to  take  place  between  two  bodies  it  is  necessary  that  they 
be  in  contact,  and,  generally  speaking,  that  one  of  them  should  be  in  the  state  of  liquid 
or  gas.  Oxidation  is  the  chemical  change  which  gives  rise  to  the  formation  of  oxides 
brought  about  by  the  action  of  oxygen  acids,  water,  or  free  oxygen.  In  all  cases  of 
oxidation  heat  is  developed,  but  it  depends  altogether  upon  the  rapidity  with  which 
the  oxidation  is  effected  whether  light  is  also  produced,  that  is  to  say,  whether  what 
is  termed  combustion  takes  place,  such  as  the  burning  of  coal,  or  a  slow  oxidation,  such 
as  the  rusting  of  iron. 

Protoxides  are  compounds  each  having  one  equivalent  of  oxygen  with  another 
element;  thus,  protoxide  of  iron  or  ferrous  oxide,  FeO,  is  composed  of  one  equivalent 
of  iron  and  one  of  oxygen. 

Sesquioxides  require  three  equivalents  of  oxygen  to  two  of  a  metal;  thus,  sesqui- 
oxide  of  iron  or  ferric  oxide,  Fe2O3,  is  composed  of  two  equivalents  of  iron  with  three 
equivalents  of  oxygen. 

When  an  element  forms  more  than  one  compound  with  oxygen,  suffixes  are  used  to 
distinguish  between  them;  thus,  among  the  oxides  of  copper  there  are  two  represented 
by  the  symbols  Cu2O  and  CuO.  The  first  of  these  symbols,  Cu2O,  is  that  of  copper  or 
cuprous  oxide,  the  suffix  ous  being  added  to  show  that  it  contains  for  a  given  quantity 
of  the  other  element  a  smaller  quantity  of  oxygen.  The  second  symbol,  CuO,  stands  for 
copper  or  cupric  oxide,  the  suffix  ic  indicates  that  the  proportion  of  oxygen  is  larger. 

Metallic  oxides  are  the  most  important  of  all  the  compounds  of  the  metals;  in 
many  cases  these  occur  naturally  as  ores,  most  of  which  are  readily  fusible;  those  of 
lead  and  bismuth  at  a  low  red  heat;  those  of  copper  and  iron  at  a  white  heat;  those 
of  aluminium  are  fused  in  the  electric  furnace;  while  calcium  oxide  does  not  fuse  at 
any  temperature  at  our  command. 

There  are  three  oxides  of  iron  of  metallurgical  importance:  The  ferrous  oxide  FeO, 
a  monoxide,  basic  in  its  properties  and  which  will  neutralize  acids;  it  is  isomorphous 
with  magnesia,  zinc  oxide,  etc,  It  is  almost  unknown  in  a  separate  state  from  its 

[232] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

readiness  to  absorb  oxygen  and  pass  into  the  sesquioxide.  This  oxide  is  the  principal 
base  in  all  iron  slags  produced  in  the  refining  of  iron. 

Ferric  oxide,  Fe2O3,  or  the  sesquioxide  of  iron,  is  feebly  basic;  it  is  isomorphous 
with  alumina.  It  occurs  native,  crystallized,  as  specular  iron  ore,  it  also  occurs  as 
hematite,  forming  one  of  the  most  valuable  ores  of  iron.  As  hematite,  it  is  a  black, 
crystallized  substance  with  a  high  luster;  otherwise,  it  has  a  red  or  reddish-brown 
color.  It  is  easily  reduced  at  a  high  temperature  by  carbon  or  hydrogen.  Ferric 
oxide  is  a  powerful  oxidizing  agent;  like  alumina,  it  can  act  as  an  acid  in  combination 
with  a  stronger  base,  such  as  lime. 

Magnetic  oxide,  Fe3O4,  a  ferrous-ferric  oxide;  also  called  black  oxide  of  iron.  It  is 
found  in  nature  as  the  mineral  magnetite  and  lodestone.  Chemically,  it  may  be 
regarded  as  a  compound  of  ferrous  oxide,  FeO,  with  ferric  oxide,  Fe2O3,  in  which  the 
ferrous  oxide  plays  the  part  of  a  base  and  the  ferric  oxide  that  of  the  acid. 

Oxides  of  the  non-metals  are  of  considerable  importance  in  the  arts.  Among  famil- 
iar examples  occur  carbon  monoxide,  CO,  and  carbon  dioxide,  CO2,  both  products  of 
combustion,  the  former  of  incomplete  and  the  latter  of  complete  combustion.  Sulphur 
combines  in  two  proportions,  forming  the  oxides  SO2,  sulphur  dioxide,  and  SO 3,  sulphur 
trioxide.  Sulphur  dioxide,  or  sulphurous  oxide,  is  the  only  product  formed  when  sul- 
phur is  burned  in  dry  air  or  in  oxygen;  with  water  it  forms  sulphurous  acid,  SO3H2  = 
SO2  -f-  OH2,  much  used  as  a  bleaching  agent;  it  is  also  used  as  a  disinfectant. 

Oxygen,  O. — Atomic  weight,  15.96  (formerly  16).  Specific  gravity,  1.106,  air  = 
1.000.  Weight  per  cubic  foot,  0.089  pound;  1  pound  =  11.202  cubic  feet. 

Specific  heat:  For  equal  weights  at  constant  pressure,  0.2182,  water  =  1.00.  At 
constant  volume,  0.1559,  water  =  1.000  (real  specific  heat).  For  equal  volumes  at 
constant  pressure,  0.2412,  air  =  0.2377.  At  constant  volume,  0.1723,  air  =  0.1688. 

Oxygen  exists  in  a  free  and  uncombined  state  in  atmospheric  air,  which  consists 
of  a  mixture  of  23  parts  of  oxygen,  77  parts  of  nitrogen  by  weight;  or  21  parts  oxygen 
and  79  parts  of  nitrogen  by  volume.  When  pure,  oxygen  is  colorless,  tasteless,  and 
inodorous.  It  is  the  sustaining  principle  of  animal  life  and  of  all  the  ordinary  phe- 
nomena of  combustion. 

Oxygen  forms  a  large  proportion  of  the  solid  crust  of  the  earth,  which  has  been 
variously  estimated  at  from  44  to  48%;  it  forms  eight-ninths  of  water  and  about 
one-fifth  of  the  ah*.  It  occurs  in  combination  with  carbon  and  hydrogen,  or  with 
carbon,  hydrogen,  and  nitrogen  in  the  substances  which  go  to  make  up  the  structure 
of  living  things,  whether  vegetable  or  animal.  The  compounds  formed  by  the  direct 
union  of  oxygen  with  other  bodies  bear  the  general  name  of  oxides;  these  are  very 
numerous  and  important. 

Oxygen  was  liquefied  by  Wroblewski  in  1883.  The  following  data  for  oxygen  is 
from  Comptes  Rendus,  Vol.  XCVI: 

At  temperature  of  -  131.6°  C.  (-  204.9°  F.)  begins  to  liquefy  at  25.5  atmospheres, 
375  pounds  per  square  inch. 

At  temperature  of  -  133.4°  C.  (-208.1°  F.)  begins  to  liquefy  at  24.8  atmospheres, 
365  pounds  per  square  inch. 

At  temperature  of  —  135.8°  C.  (—  212.4°  F.)  begins  to  liquefy  at  22.5  atmospheres, 
331  pounds  per  square  inch. 

The  liquid  oxygen  was  colorless  and  transparent,  very  mobile,  and  giving  a  sharp 
meniscus. 

Pearlite. — When  a  steel  having  about  0.9%  carbon  is  brought  to  a  temperature 
above  red  heat  and  allowed  to  cool  slowly  and  a  prepared  section  of  this  steel  is  exam- 
ined under  the  microscope,  there  will  be  exhibited  a  structure  made  up  usually  of 
alternate  plates  of  ferrite  and  cementite  paralleling  each  other;  this  structure  is  called 
pearlite  because  the  display  of  colors,  especially  under  oblique  illumination,  shows 
a  definite  pearly  luster.  The  cementite  plate  in  the  structure  of  pearlite  consists 
chiefly  of  carbide  of  iron,  Fe3C;  the  other  plate  is  ferrite,  or  practically  pure  iron;  ferrite 
is  the  softest  constituent  of  iron. 

Pearlite  is  the  eutectic  of  iron  and  carbide  of  iron,  Fe3C,  and  contains  about  0.85% 
carbon.  Cementite  and  ferrite  usually  unite  in  definite  proportions  to  form  pearlite, 
and  any  excess  of  cementite  or  ferrite  remains  uncombined.  Pearlite  may  therefore 

[233] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

be  considered  an  intimate  mixture  of  ferrite  and  cementite;  but  steel  containing  0.89% 
carbon  is  practically  all  pearlite. 

The  amount  of  pearlite  in  low-carbon  steel  increases  progressively  with  the  carbon 
contents.  Doubling  the  amount  of  carbon  doubles  the  proportion  of  the  iron  carbide 
in  the  steel,  and  since  the  amount  of  pearlite  is  apparently  also  doubled  it  follows 
that  iron  carbide  and  ferrite  must  unite  with  each  other  in  fixed  ratio  to  form  pearlite; 
in  other  words,  that  pearlite  always  contains  the  same  proportion  of  carbide  and  hence 
also  of  carbon. — Sauveur. 

In  the  case  of  steel  containing  0.9%  carbon,  as  above,  all  the  carbon  is  combined 
with  the  iron  to  form  cementite,  the  percentage  of  cementite  will  be  the  percentage 
of  carbon  multiplied  by  15,  in  this  case  .9  X  15  =  13.5;  the  difference,  100  —  13.5  = 
86.5,  is  the  ferrite,  and  the  amount  of  ferrite  in  the  pearlite  is  the  amount  of  cementite 
multiplied  by  6.4. 

Suppose  steel  to  contain  less  than  0.9%  carbon,  which  has  also  been  cooled  from 
a  high  temperature,  its  structure  will  be  different.  Pearlite  will  be  present,  but  it  will 
not  occupy  the  whole  area.  If  there  be  0.1%  carbon,  the  area  occupied  by  the  pearlite 
will  be  11.1%,  and  this  pearlite  will  contain  all  the  carbon.  The  remainder  of  the 
mass  will  be  carbon,  free  iron,  or  ferrite,  so  that  in  this  case  (0.1%  carbon)  the  amount 
of  cementite  containing  all  the  carbon  will  be  1.5%,  and  this  will  be  associated  with 
9.6%  of  ferrite  to  make  up  the  pearlite,  and  there  will  be  88.9%  of  excess  or  free  fer- 
rite; that  is,  ferrite  not  in  the  pearlite. 

White  cast  iron  consists  of  about  two-thirds  pearlite  and  one-third  cementite; 
while  spiegeleisen  contains  about  equal  quantities  of  each. 

Phosphorus,  P. — Atomic  weight,  30.96.  Specific  gravity,  1.80.  Melting  point, 
44°  C.  (111.4°  F.),  and  boils  at  280°  C.  (536°  F.).  Specific  heat,  50°  to  86°  F.,  0.189, 
from  32°  to  212°  F.,  0.250.  In  the  smelting  of  iron,  the  phosphorus  present  in  either 
the  ore,  the  flux,  or  the  fuel,  is  almost  entirely  taken  up  by  the  pig  iron  whether  it 
be  white  or  gray.  Foundry  irons  contain  from  0.25%  to  1.25%  phosphorus.  It  has 
little  effect  on  the  condition  of  the  carbon,  but  it  makes  the  metal  harder  and  dimin- 
ishes the  color  of  gray  irons.  It  increases  the  fluidity  of  cast  iron,  and  renders  the 
metal  more  suitable  for  the  production  of  fine  castings.  For  good  strong  castings 
the  amount  of  phosphorus  should  not  exceed  0.50%,  and  less  for  those  of  the  highest 
quality.  For  fine  castings,  where  strength  is  not  of  first  importance,  1.50%  phos- 
phorus may  be  present  with  advantage.  A  moderate  amount  of  phosphorus,  while 
increasing  the  fluidity,  also  lessens  the  shrinkage  of  a  casting.  As  a  rule  the  amount 
of  phosphorus  should  not  exceed  1.0%. — Hiorns. 

Platinum,  Pt. — Atomic  weight,  194.3.  Specific  gravity,  21.50.  In  the  shape  of 
foil  and  wire,  the  density  of  platinum  varies  from  21.2  to  21.7,  and  that  of  platinum 
sponge  from  16.32  to  21.24.  Melting  point,  1,755°  C.  (3,191°  F.).  Specific  heat, 
0.032,  between  0°  and  100°  C.  Coefficient  of  linear  expansion,  0.0000089.  The  coef- 
ficient of  expansion  of  platinum  is  given  as  0.00000907  at  50°  C.,  and  as  0.00001130 
at  1,000°  C.  This  is  less  than  that  of  any  other  metal.  The  tensile  strength  of  plati- 
num (hard)  is  given  as  265,000  pounds  per  square  inch.  Its  thermal  conductivity, 
silver  =  100,  is  0.166.  Electrical  conductivity,  silver  =  100,  is  13.5  at  0°  C.  The 
metal  is  not  so  white  as  silver,  having  a  grayish  tinge,  but  its  luster  is  very  little  less 
brilliant  in  polished  specimens.  The  color  of  finally  divided  platinum,  however,  is 
black.  It  is  harder  than  copper,  silver  or  gold,  being  4.3.  Its  tenacity  is  between 
those  of  silver  and  copper.  It  is  malleable  and  ductile,  but  the  presence  of  certain 
impurities  decreases  the  quality;  for  instance,  0.03%  silicon  makes  platinum  hard 
and  brittle,  while  small  quantities  of  the  metals  generally  associated  with  platinum, 
such  as  palladium,  irridium,  etc.,  reduce  its  ductility. 

Platinum  is  not  changed  by  air,  water,  or  steam  at  any  temperature.  Unit  of 
light:  The  unit  called  the  platinum  standard  of  light,  sometimes  improperly  called  an 
absolute  unit,  is  the  light  emitted  perpendicularly  from  a  square  centimeter  of  surface 
of  melted  platinum  at  the  temperature  of  its  solidification.  It  is  often  called  the 
viotte.  This  was  virtually  adopted  by  an  International  Congress,  but  never  came  into 
use,  and  seems  to  have  been  abandoned.  Its  value  is  not  known  definitely,  but  is 
approximately  20  candles. — Bering. 

[234] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

Potassium,  K. — Atomic  weight,  39.  Specific  gravity,  0.86.  Weight  per  cubic 
foot,  54  pounds  =  0.031  pound  per  cubic  inch.  Melting  point,  62°  C.,  144°  F.  It 
volatilizes  at  a  red  heat.  Specific  heat,  0.1662.  Heat  conductivity,  45;  electrical 
conductivity,  17;  silver  =  100  in  each  case.  Potassium  is  one  of  the  metals  of  the  al- 
kalies; it  is  a  brilliant  white  metal  with  a  high  degree  of  luster;  at  the  common  tem- 
perature of  the  air  it  is  soft,  and  may  be  easily  cut  with  a  knife,  but  at  0°  C.,  32°  F., 
it  is  brittle  and  crystalline.  It  melts  completely  at  62.5°  C.,  144°  F.,  and  distills  at  a  red 
heat,  about  700°  C.,  1,292°  F.  Exposed  to  the  air  it  oxidizes  instantly,  a  tarnish  cover- 
ing the  surface  of  the  metal,  which  quickly  thickens  to  a  crust  of  caustic  potash. 

It  attracts  oxygen  with  avidity  on  exposure  to  the  air,  but  when  thrown  upon  water 
it  decomposes  it  with  sufficient  energy  to  ignite  the  liberated  hydrogen,  burning  with 
a  purple  flame,  yielding  an  alkaline  solution.  The  heat  developed  in  the  decomposition 
of  water  by  potassium  is  43,000  B.t.u.  In  contact  with  any  combustible  body  it  under- 
goes decomposition  with  great  rapidity;  five-sixths  of  the  oxygen  being  available  for 
the  oxidation  of  the  combustible  substance,  the  nitrogen  is  evolved  in  a  free  state. 

It  occurs  as  a  constituent  of  many  minerals;  orthoclase  or  ordinary  feldspar  is  an 
aluminium  potassium  salt;  when  vegetable  material  is  burned,  the  potassium  originally 
taken  up  by  the  plants  remains  behind,  in  the  ashes,  as  potassium  carbonate.  Enormous 
quantities  are  obtained  from  carnellite,  a  double  chloride  of  potassium  and  magnesium 
found  at  Stassfurt,  Prussia,  in  a  layer  about  140  feet  thick.  The  Stassfurt  potassiferous 
minerals  owe  their  industrial  importance  to  their  solubility  in  water  and  consequent 
ready  amenability  to  chemical  operations. 

Potassium  hydroxide,  OKH,  commonly  called  caustic  potash,  is  a  brittle  white 
substance,  very  deliquescent,  and  soluble  in  water.  The  solution  of  this  substance 
possesses,  in  the  very  highest  degree,  the  properties  termed  alkaline;  it  restores  the 
blue  color  to  litmus  which  has  been  reddened  by  an  acid;  it  neutralizes  completely  the 
most  powerful  acids.  It  rapidly  absorbs  carbonic  acid  from  the  air,  hence  it  must  be 
kept  in  closely  stoppered  bottles.  It  is  not  decomposed  by  heat,  but  volatilizes  unde- 
composed  at  a  very  high  temperature.  It  is  the  strongest  of  the  bases.  It  decomposes 
the  salts  of  all  other  bases. 

Potassium  oxide:  Potassium  combines  with  oxygen  in  three  proportions,  forming 
a  monoxide  OK2j  a  dioxide,  O2K2;  and  a  tetroxide,  O4K2;  besides  a  hydrate,  OKH, 
corresponding  to  the  monoxide. 

Potassium  nitrate,  KNO3,  commonly  called  saltpeter,  crystallizes  in  six-sided  prisms; 
it  is  soluble  in  seven  parts  of  water  at  62°  F.,  and  in  its  own  weight  of  boiling  water. 
It  is  saline  to  the  taste,  and  is  without  action  on  vegetable  colors.  It  fuses  at  about 
334°  C.,  633°  F.,  to  a  colorless  liquid,  which  solidifies  on  cooling  to  a  translucent,  brittle, 
crystalline  mass.  If  instead  of  being  allowed  to  cool,  the  heat  is  continued  and  increased 
in  temperature  the  molten  mass  will  be  completely  decomposed,  yielding  a  large  volume 
of  oxygen  at  the  expense  of  the  oxygen  of  the  nitric  acid. 

As  an  oxidizing  agent,  in  metallurgy,  potassium  nitrate,  when  thrown  upon  the 
surface  of  many  metals  in  a  state  of  fusion,  is  instantly  decomposed,  and  rapid  oxidation 
of  the  molten  metal  occurs,  the  sulphur  of  the  metallic  sulphides  is  converted  into 
sulphurous  acid  and  the  metals  into  oxides. 

Gunpowder  consists  of  75%  potassium  nitrate;  15%  charcoal;  10%  sulphur;  when 
these  are  intimately  mixed  and  otherwise  prepared,  the  compound  forms  a  stable 
commercial  article,  the  chief  value  of  which  is  due  to  the  fact  that  upon  ignition  by  a 
spark  combustion  begins,  the  necessary  oxygen  being  supplied  by  the  powder  itself, 
independently  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  and  this  oxidation  is  so  rapid,  and  the  evolution 
of  gases  so  sudden,  that  a  violent  explosion  occurs.  This  has  been  explained  in  the 
whole  of  the  oxygen  of  the  potassium  nitrate  being  transferred  to  the  carbon,  forming 
carbon  dioxide,  the  sulphur  combining  with  the  potassium,  and  the  nitrogen  being 
set  free;  but  analysis  of  the  actual  products  of  the  combustion  of  gunpowder  shows 
the  reaction  to  be  much  more  complicated  than  this. 

Potassium  chlorate,  KC1O3,  is  soluble  in  about  twenty  parts  of  cold  and  two  of  boil- 
ing water;  the  crystals  are  anhydrous,  flat  and  tabular.  When  heated  it  gives  off  the 
whole  of  its  oxygen  gas  and  leaves  potassium  chloride.  Its  melting  point  is  354° 
C.,  669°  F.  In  consequence  of  the  ease  with  which  it  gives  up  its  oxygen,  the  chlorate 

[235] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

is  an  excellent  oxidizing  agent,  especially  in  assaying.  Its  chief  use  is  in  the  preparation 
of  oxygen  and  in  the  manufacture  of  matches  and  fireworks. 

Potassium  chloride,  KC1,  is  a  salt  which  is  commonly  known  as  muriate  of  potash. 
It  closely  resembles  common  salt  in  appearance,  assuming  the  cubic  form  of  crystalli- 
zation. The  crystals  dissolve  in  three  parts  of  cold,  and  in  a  much  smaller  quantity  of 
boiling  water;  it  melts  at  734°  C.,  1,353°  F.,  and  volatilizes  at  a  much  higher  temperature. 
Analysis  of  potassium  chloride:  98.58%  KC1;  0.22%  NaCi;  0.07%  MgCl,;  0.12% 
MgSO4;  0.24%  CaSO4;  0.31%  insoluble;  0.46%  water. 

Potassium  cyanide,  KCN.  Carbon  and  nitrogen  do  not,  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances, combine,  but  when  brought  together  at  very  high  temperatures  in  the  presence 
of  metals  they  combine  to  form  compounds  known  as  cyanides.  Potassium  cyanide  is 
formed  when  nitrogen  is  passed  over  a  highly  heated  mixture  of  carbon  and  potassium 
carbonate.  Potassium  cyanide  forms  colorless  cubic  or  octohedral  crystals,  deliquescent 
in  the  air,  and  exceedingly  soluble  in  water.  It  is  readily  fusible,  and  undergoes  no 
change  at  a  red  heat  when  excluded  from  the  air. 

As  a  flux,  potassium  cyanide  is  valuable  on  account  of  the  facility  with  which  it 
fuses  and  the  readiness  with  which  it  reduces  many  metallic  compounds  when  mixed 
with  carbonate  of  soda.  Common  cyanide  is  preferable  as  a  reducing  agent  because 
it  contains  carbonate  of  potash. 

Amalgam:  Potassium  combines  directly  with  mercury  with  evolution  of  heat. 
When  containing  70  to  96  parts  of  mercury  to  1  part  of  potassium,  the  amalgam  is 
crystalline.  With  30  parts  of  mercury  it  is  hard  and  brittle.  When  heated  to  440°  C., 
824°  F.,  they  all  leave  a  crystalline  amalgam  of  the  composition  HgK2,  spontaneously 
inflammable  on  exposure  to  air,  but  all  the  mercury  is  evolved  below  a  red  heat.  A 
crystalline  amalgam  of  the  composition  Hg24K2  has  been  prepared. 

It  is  the  most  electro-positive  element  known  with  the  exception  of  caesium  and 
rubidium,  and  is  an  extremely  powerful  reducing  agent.  Hence  the  use  of  potassium 
for  the  preparation  of  less  electro-positive  elements,  such  as  boron,  silicon,  magnesium/ 
aluminium,  etc.,  for  the  reduction  of  gases  containing  oxygen  out  of  organic  and  other 
compounds. 

Reduction  is  the  removal  of  oxygen  from  a  compound;  it  is  the  opposite  of  oxida- 
tion. A  reducing  agent  is  any  substance  which  has  the  power  to  abstract  oxygen. 
Such  an  agent  may  act  by  adding  hydrogen  to  an  organic  body,  thus:  Ethene  oxide, 
C2H4O  -f-  HH  =  C2H6O,  alcohol;  or  by  removing  oxygen  without  introducing  any- 
thing in  its  place,  thus:  Benzoic  acid,  C7H6O2 .+  HH  =  OH2  +  C7H6O,  benzoic  alde- 
hyde. Any  substance  which  has  the  power  to  add  oxygen  to  a  substance,  or  to  decom- 
pose it  by  the  action  of  oxygen,  is  called  an  oxidizing  agent. 

Semi-steel  is  a  variety  of  cast  iron;  it  is  usually  made  by  placing  on  top  of  the 
regular  charge  of  pig  and  scrap  iron  in  the  cupola  an  additional  charge  of  15  to  25% 
of  mild  steel  scrap;  then  melting  all  down  into  a  common  mixture.  The  tbtal  carbon 
in  the  resultant  semi-steel  is  only  slightly  different  from  that  which  would  have  resulted 
by  melting  the  iron  unmixed  by  steel;  but  a  change  does  occur  during  the  melting  in 
the  conversion  of  much  of  the  graphitic  carbon  into  the  combined  state.  The  silicon 
in  the  iron  will  be  much  reduced  by  its  admixture  with  the  molten  steel.  Crushed 
ferro-manganese  should  be  strewn  in  the  ladle  and  the  molten  metal  from  the  cupola 
allowed  to  flow  upon  it.  The  resultant  metal  will  be  harder  and  tougher  than  cast 
iron,  and  will  also  be  of  higher  tensile  strength. 

Silica,  SiO2,  is  a  non-metallic  oxide  of  silicon.  It  contains  28  parts  silicon  and 
32  parts  oxygen;  it  is  the  only  known  oxide.  This  oxide  is  much  used  in  the  reduc- 
tion of  metals  from  their  ores,  being  the  chief  slag-forming  substance.  It  is  essen- 
tially an  acid  oxide,  forming  salts  with  basic  metallic  oxides.  When  heated  with 
bases,  especially  those  which  are  capable  of  undergoing  fusion,  it  unites  with  them 
and  forms  salts.  The  various  slags  in  steel  making  are  chiefly  composed  of  silicon,  SiO2, 
together  with  lime,  CaO;  alumina,  AUOs;  manganese  oxide,  MnO;  ferrous  oxide,  FeO. 

The  list  of  oxides,  both  metallic  and  non-metallic,  is  very  large,  but  the  above  will 
serve  to  show  the  general  characteristics  of  familiar  examples. 

Silicon,  Si. — Atomic  weight,  28.  Specific  gravity,  2.25  =  140  pounds  per  cubic 
foot.  Melting  point,  1,429°  C.  (2,588°  F.).  Specific  heat,  0.177.  Silicon  does  not 

[236] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

occur  in  nature  in  a  free  state.  It  occurs  chiefly  in  the  form  of  the  dioxide  SiO2,  com- 
monly called  silica,  or  silicon  dioxide;  and  in  combination  with  oxygen  and  several 
of  the  common  metallic  elements,  particularly  with  sodium,  potassium,  aluminium, 
and  calcium,  in  the  form  of  silicates.  Next  to  oxygen,  it  is  the  most  abundant  element 
in  nature. 

Silicon  is  ordinarily  described  as  a  non-metal,  very  hard,  dark  brown  in  color,  a 
non-conductor  of  electricity,  lustrous,  not  readily  oxidized,  and  soluble  in  all  ordinary 
acids,  with  the  exception  of  hydrofluoric. 

In  foundry  practice  silicon  pig  irons  have  always  had  the  reputation  of  imparting 
fluidity  to  other  brands,  and  naturally  this  was  at  first  supposed  to  be  owing  to  the 
silicon  added.  Hadfield  shows  that  this  is  not  directly  so,  and  that  it  is  from  the 
fact  that  the  silicon  present  causes  an  increase  in  the  quantity  of  graphite,  and  conse- 
quently a  more  fluid  cast  iron.  Silicon  is  not,  therefore,  directly  the  cause,  except 
by  its  indirect  action  on  the  carbon. 

Silicon  is  said  to  resemble  carbon  in  its  general  properties;  it  was  formerly  believed 
to  exist  like  carbon  in  a  graphitic,  amorphous,  and  combined  form.  Holgate,  after 
making  many  analyses,  states  that  he  has  never  found  any  evidence  as  to  the  existence 
of  graphitic  silicon  in  ferrosilicon  alloys. 

Pig  iron,  with  a  certain  amount  of  silicon,  is  necessary  for  the  acid  Bessemer  proc- 
ess, as  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  heat  required  for  the  conversion  must  come  from 
the  silicon  contained  in  the  iron.  The  higher  the  percentage  of  silicon  the  hotter  the 
charge. 

Silver,  Ag. — Atomic  weight,  107.9.  Specific  gravity,  10.53.  Weight  per  cubic 
foot,  657.07  =  0.380  pound  per  cubic  inch.  Melting  point,  960.5°  C.  (1,761°  F.). 
It  volatilizes  appreciably  at  a  full  red  heat;  in  the  oxyhydrogen  flame  it  boils,  with 
formation  of  blue  vapor.  Specific  heat,  0.056.  Latent  heat  of  fusion,  21.07  cals., 
37.93  B.t.u.  Coefficient  of  linear  expansion,  0.00001079  C.  (0.00001943  F.).  Heat 
conductivity,  100.  Electrical  conductivity,  100.  It  is  the  best  conductor  of  both 
heat  and  electricity  known.  The  tensile  strength  of  silver  (wire)  is  about  42,000 
pounds  per  square  inch. 

Silver  is  a  white  metal  with  a  high  luster.  It  is  exceedingly  malleable  and  ductile. 
It  is  harder  than  gold  and  softer  than  tin.  It  does  not  tarnish  by  air  and  moisture, 
but  in  air  contaminated  with  ever  so  little  sulphuretted  hydrogen  it  gradually  draws 
a  black  film  of  sulphide.  It  does  not  oxidize  at  any  temperature,  but  the  fused  metal 
readily  absorbs  oxygen  if  exposed  in  the  air;  upon  solidification,  however,  the  oxygen 
thus  absorbed  is  disengaged,  excepting  a  trace,  perhaps,  which  remains  permanently 
in  the  metal.  The  addition  of  2%  copper  is  sufficient  to  prevent  the  absorption  of 
oxygen. 

Water  and  ordinary  non-oxidizing  aqueous  acids  generally  do  not  attack  silver 
in  the  least,  hydrochloric  acid  excepted — which,  in  the  presence  of  air,  dissolves  the 
metal  very  slowly  as  chloride. 

Aqueous  nitric  acid  dissolves  the  metal  readily  as  nitrate;  hot  vitriol  converts 
it  into  a  magma  of  crystalline  sulphate  with  evolution  of  sulphurous  acid. 

Silver  is  proof  against  the  action  of  caustic  alkali-lyes,  and  almost  so  against  that 
of  fused  caustic  alkalies  even  in  the  presence  of  air.  It  ranks  in  this  respect  next  to 
gold,  and  is  much  used  to  make  vessels  for  chemical  operation  involving  the  use  of 
fused  caustic  potash  or  soda. 

Sodium,  Na. — Atomic  weight,  23.  Specific  gravity,  0.9735.  Weight  per  cubic 
foot,  60.75,  or  0.035  pound  per  cubic  inch.  Melting  point,  97.5°  C.,  207.5°  F.  Boiling 
point,  825°  C.,  1,517°  F.  Specific  heat  at  -28°  C.,  -18°.4  F.,  0.290.  Heat  con- 
ductivity, 36.5.  Electrical  conductivity,  28;  silver  =  100,  in  both  cases.  It  occurs  in 
nature  in  large  quantities  as  chloride,  constituting  the  mineral  rock  salt;  as  sodium 
nitrate  or  Chile  saltpeter;  as  a  double  fluoride  of  aluminium  and  sodium  called  cryolite. 
It  also  occurs  as  the  sulphate  glauberite,  and  as  borax  or  tincal;  sea  water  contains 
about  2.6%  of  sodium  chloride. 

Sodium  is  an  alkaline  metal;  freshly  cut  it  exhibits  a  silvery  metallic  luster,  which 
rapidly  disappears  on  exposure  to  air.  At  a  temperature  of—  20  °C.,  —  4°F.,  sodium 
is  hard;  at  0°  C.,  32°  F.,  it  becomes  ductile;  and  at  the  ordinary  temperature  it  is 

-[237] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

soft  like  wax.  It  oxidizes  rapidly  when  exposed  to  moist  air,  but  can  be  distilled  un- 
changed in  air  or  even  oxygen  provided  all  traces  of  moisture  be  excluded.  Heated  in 
the  air,  sodium  takes  fire  and  burns  with  a  yellow  flame,  forming  a  mixture  of  oxides. 
Thrown  on  cold  water  it  swims  on  the  surface,  disengaging  hydrogen  and  dissolving, 
but  not  evolving;  sufficient  heat  to  ignite  the  gas.  If  water  at  60°  C.,  140°  F.,  be  used, 
or  the  free  motion  of  the  metal  be  hindered  by  increasing  the  viscosity  of  the  liquid  by 
the  addition  of  gum  or  starch,  the  evolved  hydrogen  ignites,  burning  with  a  characteristic 
yellow  flame. 

Sodium  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  isolating  some  elements  whose  oxides  can  not  easily 
be  reduced,  such  as  aluminium,  magnesium,  boron,  and  silicon. 

Alloys  of  sodium  with  different  metals  have  been  prepared,  the  most  important 
being  those  with  potassium.  These  are  liquid  at  ordinary  temperatures  and  resemble 
mercury  in  appearance. 

Oxides:  Only  two  well-defined  oxides  of  sodium  are  known,  a  monoxide  and  a 
dioxide. 

Sodium  monoxide,  Na2O,  or  anhydrous  soda,  is  produced,  together  with  dioxide, 
when  sodium  burns  in  the  air,  and  may  be  obtained  pure  by  exposing  the  dioxide  to 
a  very  high  temperature.  Sodium  monoxide  is  a  white  hygroscopic  substance  of  specific 
gravity  2.27,  and  melts  at  a  red  heat.  Hydrogen  reduces  it  to  a  metal  at  170°  to  180°  C. 
338°  to  356°  F. 

Sodium  dioxide,  or  peroxide  Na2O2,  also  known  as  caustic  soda,  is  obtained  when 
the  metal  is  burned  in  an  excess  of  air  or  oxygen.  Pure  sodium  dioxide  is  yellow.  It 
absorbs  carbon  dioxide  with  formation  of  sodium  carbonate  and  liberation  of  oxygen; 
a  mixture  of  this  dioxide  with  potassium  peroxide  is  used  in  life-saving  apparatus  to 
regenerate  air  contaminated  by  respiration.  Charcoal  and  the  alkaline  earth  carbides 
reduce  it  to  metallic  sodium  at  a  temperature  of  300  to  400°  C. 

Sodium  carbonate,  Na6CO3,  or  soda,  is  made  from  sodium  chloride,  NaCl,  or  com- 
mon salt.  The  anhydrous  sodium  carbonate  usually  presents  itself  in  the  form  of  a 
white,  opaque,  porous  solid,  with  specific  gravity  of  2.65.  It  fuses  at  818°  C.,  1,504°  F., 
into  a  colorless  liquid.  On  fusing  it  loses  some  of  its  carbonic  acid,  and  at  a  bright 
red  heat  it  volatilizes.  The  porous  salt  absorbs  water  from  the  air,  and  dissolves  in 
water  very  readily  with  evolution  of  heat;  its  maximum  solubility  is  at  temperatures 
between  33°  C.,  91°  F.,  and  70°  C.,  158°  F.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  glass,  and 
in  the  preparation  of  caustic  soda,  which  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  soap.  Sodium 
carbonate  has  the  property  of  oxidizing  many  metals,  such  as  tin,  iron,  zinc,  etc.,  by  the 
action  of  its  carbonic  acid,  and  as  a  consequence  of  this  action  it  acts  as  a  desulphurizer. 
It  forms  fusible  compounds  with  silica  and  many  metallic  oxides;  it  also  melts  at  a  mod- 
erate temperature,  absorbing  many  infusible  substances,  such  as  lime,  alumina,  charcoal, 
etc.  In  some  cases  it  acts  as  a  reducing  agent,  as  in  the  case  of  chloride  of  silver. 
When  mixed  with  carbonate  of  potash  a  double  salt  is  formed,  which  fuses  at  a  lower 
temperature  than  either  taken  alone,  a  property  very  useful  in  the  fusion  of  silicate, 
etc.  (Hiorns.) 

Sodium  chloride,  NaCl,  or  common  salt,  occurs  in  nature  in  a  nearly  pure  state. 
Rock  salt  has  a  specific  gravity  of  2.35.  Weight  per  cubic  foot,  147  pounds,  or  0.084 
pound  per  cubic  inch.  The  solubility  of  pure  salt  in  water  is  almost  independent  of 
temperature.  Its  melting  point  is  772°  C.,  1,421°  F.  It  volatilizes  at  a  red  heat. 
Sodium  chloride  is  the  starting  point  in  the  preparation  of  all  sodium  compounds. 

Sodium  fluoride,  NaF,  occurs  abundantly  as  cryolite,  a  so-called  double  fluoride 
of  aluminium  and  sodium,  represented  by  the  formula  Na3Al  Fe.  Sodium  fluoride 
crystallizes  in  colorless  cubes,  having  a  specific  gravity  of  2.766.  Weight  per  cubic 
footj  173  pounds,  or  0.10  pound  per  cubic  inch.  It  melts  at  about  900°  C.,  1,652°  F., 
but  volatilizes  at  a  lower  temperature. 

Sodium  amalgam  is  made  by  bringing  sodium  and  mercury  together.  It  is  best 
prepared  by  adding  successive  small  pieces  of  sodium  to  gently  warmed  mercury;  as 
each  piece  dissolves  it  produces  a  flash  of  light  and  emits  a  hissing  noise.  With  one 
part  of  sodium  to  100  of  mercury  the  amalgam  formed  has  an  oily  consistency,  but 
with  80  parts  of  mercury  to  one  of  sodium  a  pasty  mass  results,  and  with  smaller  ratios 
of  mercury  to  sodium  hard  crystalline  amalgams  are  obtained.  This  amalgam  is  used 

[238] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

in  the  preparation  of  other  amalgams.  Metallic  chlorides,  such  as  those  of  silver  and 
gold,  for  example,  are  decomposed  by  sodium-amalgam,  and  the  reduced  metal  then  unites 
with  the  mercury.  Metals  which  do  not  readily  unite  directly  with  mercury  may  be 
amalgamated  by  the  action  of  sodium-amalgam  on  certain  solutions  of  their  salts. 
Thus:  Iron-amalgam  is  obtained  by  immersing  sodium-amalgam,  containing  1%  of 
sodium,  in  a  clear  saturated  solution  of  ferrous  sulphate.  (Hiorns.)  It  is  also  used 
in  the  extraction  of  gold  and  silver  from  their  ores  instead  of  mercury.  It  is  said  to 
facilitate  the  amalgamation  and  to  prevent  "  flouring  "  of  the  mercury;  that  is,  it 
prevents  the  formation  of  oxide,  sulphide,  arsenide,  etc.,  which  would  form  a  coat  on 
the  mercury  and  prevent  contact  with  the  gold  or  silver. 

Steel. — Cast  steel  is  of  molten  origin;  it  is  distinguished  from  cast  iron  as  contain- 
ing less  carbon,  and  in  being  malleable  enough  to  be  rolled  into  bars,  shapes  or  plates, 
forged  into  shapes,  or  drawn  into  wire.  It  is  distinguished  from  wrought  iron  in  being 
homogeneous  and  not  fibrous,  and  for  its  freedom  from  intermingled  slag,  which  always 
accompanies  wrought  iron,  due  to  the  method  of  its  manufacture  by  the  puddling 
process.  Steel  welds  readily  and  satisfactorily  with  wrought  iron,  less  readily  and 
less  satisfactorily  with  steel.  When  alloyed  with  carbon,  steel  will  harden  upon  quench- 
ing from  a  red  heat,  but  steel  may  contain  so  little  carbon  as  to  be  incapable  of  harden- 
ing by  heating  and  quenching;  this  is  true  of  the  great  mass  of  structural  shapes  and 
plates  classed  as  mild  steel. 

Steel  Castings,  when  of  any  considerable  size,  are  commonly  of  open-hearth  steel, 
which  may  be  of  any  desired  composition;  inasmuch  as  they  are  made  to  take  the 
place  of  forgings,  the  tensile  strength  of  castings  will  approximate  that  of  forgings 
perhaps  higher.  The  tensile  strength  of  castings  for  general  purposes  will  vary  from 
60,000  to  75*000  pounds  per  square  inch.  The  tensile  strength  of  the  steel  suitable  for 
locomotive  frames  is  about  75,000  pounds  as  compared  with  53,000  to  54,000  pounds 
per  square  inch  for  the  best  hammered  iron.  For  warships  the  tensile  strengths  are 
graded  from  60,000  to  80,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  with  special  castings  of  90,000 
pounds.  The  United  States  Navy  castings  contain  0.20  to  0.30%  carbon.  Steel  cast- 
ings shrink  more  than  iron  castings;  the  hotter  the  metal  at  time  of  pouring  the  greater 
the  shrinkage.  Patterns  should  have  an  allowance  of  about  \  inch  per  foot  for  shrinkage. 
To  stand  the  same  stress  as  iron  castings,  steel  castings  need  be  but  one-third  to  one- 
half  as  heavy,  for  medium  thickness,  such  as  heavy  machine  parts.  Blow-holes  can 
be  prevented  by  the  use  of  manganese  and  silicon,  but  in  mild  steel  a  small  quantity 
of  aluminium  may  be  beneficial.  Annealing  is  very  important  where  the  casting  is 
subject  to  great  strains  or  shocks,  as  it  eliminates  internal  strains  and  tends  to  increase 
the  ductility  of  the  casting. 

Sulphur,  S. — Atomic  weight,  31.98.  Specific  gravity,  2  =  125  pounds  per  cubic 
foot.  Melting  point,  114.5°  C.  (238°  F.).  Specific  heat,  0.203.  Latent  heat,  17 
B.t.u.  Pure  sulphur  is  a  pale  yellow  brittle  solid;  it  melts  when  heated,  and  distills 
over  unaltered,  if  air  be  excluded.  Sulphur  is  insoluble  in  water,  and  slightly  soluble 
in  alcohol  and  ether.  Sulphur  is  a  much  less  active  element  chemically  than  oxygen; 
it  combines  readily  with  most  metals,  forming  compounds  called  sulphides,  which  are 
analogous  to  the  oxides.  Thus  when  heated  together  with  iron,  copper,  or  lead,  com- 
bination takes  place  readily  with  evolution  of  heat.  The  only  product  of  the  combus- 
tion of  sulphur  in  dry  air  or  oxygen  gas  is  sulphur  dioxide,  SO2,  or  sulphurous  oxide, 
a  colorless  gas,  having  the  peculiar  suffocating  odor  of  burning  brimstone;  it  instantly 
extinguishes  flame,  and  is  quite  iirespirable. 

Tantalum,  Ta. — Atomic  weight,  182.  Specific  gravity,  10.80.  Melting  point, 
2,850°  C.  (5,160°  F.).  Specific  heat,  0.036.  Coefficient  of  linear  expansion,  0.0000079. 
Electrical  conductivity,  8.9,  silver  =  100.  Tantalum  occurs  in  the  minerals  colum- 
bite  and  tantalite,  accompanied  by  niobium.  In  these  minerals  tantalum  exists  as  a 
tantalate  of  iron  and  manganese.  Metallic  tantalum  is  obtained  by  heating  the  fluotanta- 
late  of  potassium  or  sodium  with  metallic  sodium  hi  a  well-covered  iron  crucible  and 
washing  out  the  soluble  salts  with  water.  It  is  a  black  powder,  which,  when  heated  in 
the  air,  burns  with  a  bright  light  and  is  converted,  though  with  difficulty,  into  tantalic 
oxide.  Tantalum  is  used  in  steel  making,  but  the  utility  of  tantalum-steel  alloys 
is  as  yet  undetermined;  at  least  its  metallurgy  may  be  said  still  to  be  in  the  experi- 

[239] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

mental  stage.  Iron  alloyed  with  5  to  10%  tantalum  is  hard,  but  is  ductile.  Scientific 
investigators  have  experimented  with  a  number  of  tantalum-steel  alloys,  but  have 
thus  far  found  them  of  no  commercial  value.  It  is  thought  that  possibly  had  the 
steel  contained  a  higher  percentage  of  carbon  more  satisfactory  results  might  have 
been  obtained. 

Tin,  Sn. — Atomic  weight,  119.  Specific  gravity,  7.29  =  455  pounds  per  cubic  foot  = 
0.263  pound  per  cubic  inch.  Melting  point,  231.9°  C.  (449.4°  F.).  Specific  heat, 
0.0551.  Latent  heat  of  fusion,  25.6  B.t.u.  The  boiling  point  has  been  variously 
placed:  the  Smithsonian  Physical  Tables  give  1,450  to  1,600°  C.;  the  "  Metal  Indus- 
try Handbook  for  1916  "  gives  2,270°  C.  as  a  recent  and  reliable  determination.  Coeffi- 
cient of  linear  expansion  0.0000209°  C.  and  0.0000116°  F.  temperatures.  Heat  conduc- 
tivity 15.2,  silver  =  100.0.  Electrical  conductivity,  11.3,  silver  =  100.0.  The  tensile 
strength  of  tin  is  about  3,500  pounds  per  square  inch;  the  crushing  strength  about 
6,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Tin  is  a  white  metal  not  unlike  silver  in  its  general  appearance.  It  is  a  soft  metal, 
less  hard  than  zinc,  and  harder  than  lead.  It  is  malleable  and  ductile,  but  quite  low 
in  tenacity.  Though  seemingly  amorphous,  tin  has  a  crystalline  structure;  when  a 
bar  or  small  ingot  is  bent  or  twisted  it  emits  a  characteristic  crackling  sound.  This 
crystalline  structure  must  account  for  the  striking  fact  that  the  ingot,  when  exposed 
for  a  sufficient  time  to  a  very  low  temperature  (to  —  39°  C.  for  14  hours),  becomes 
so  brittle  that  it  falls  into  powder  under  a  pestle  or  hammer;  it,  indeed,  sometimes 
crumbles  into  powder  spontaneously.  This  behavior  of  the  metal  may  probably  be 
explained  by  assuming  that  in  any  tin  crystal  the  coefficient  of  thermic  expansion  has 
one  value  in  the  direction  of  the  principal  axis  and  another  in  that  of  either  of  the 
subsidiary  axes.  From  0°  to  100°  C.  the  coefficients  are  practically  identical;  below 
—  14°  C.  and  from  somewhere  considerably  above  100°  C.  they  assume  different  values 
and  as  the  several  crystals  are  differently  oriented,  this  must  tend  to  disintegrate 
the  mass. 

The  ductility  of  tin  under  the  hammer,  at  ordinary  temperatures,  is  fairly  good, 
the  ductility  seems  to  increase  as  the  temperature  rises  up  to  about  100°  C.  (212°  F.); 
above  this  temperature  and  near  the  fusing  point  (approximately  200°  C. — 392°  F.) 
the  metal  becomes  brittle,  and  still  more  brittle  from  —  14°  C.  (6.8°  F.),  downward. 
This  property  of  brittleness  is  taken  advantage  of  by  heating  ingots  of  tin  to  this  crit- 
ical temperature,  and,  dropping  from  a  considerable  height,  the  effect  of  the  fall  ia 
to  break  up  the  ingot  into  small  granular  pieces  which  are  marketed  as  grain-tin.* 

Hydrochloric  acid  dissolves  tin,  forming  stannous  chloride,  SnCl2.  When  it  is 
dissolved  in  sulphuric  acid,  stannous  sulphate  SnSO4  is  formed.  Nitric  acid  oxidizes 
it,  the  product  being  a  compound  of  tin,  oxygen,  and  hydrogen  known  as  metastannic 
acid;  a  white  powder  insoluble  in  nitric  acid  and  in  water.  Tin  does  not  form  a  com- 
pound with  hydrogen. 

As  pure  tin  does  not  tarnish  in  the  air  and  is  proof  against  acid  liquids,  such  as 
vinegar,  lime  juice,  etc.,  it  is  utilized  for  culinary  and  domestic  utensils.  It  is  an  ex- 
pensive metal  and  vessels  must  be  made  heavy  to  give  them  stability  of  form;  hence 
tin  is  generally  employed  merely  as  a  protective  coating  for  utensils  made  essentially 
of  copper  and  iron. 

Tinstone  or  cassiterite  is  the  principal  source  of  tin.  The  ores  are  roasted  for 
getting  rid  of  the  sulphur  and  arsenic,  the  oxide  is  then  heated  with  coal  in  a  furnace 
and,  after  the  reduction  is  complete,  the  tin  is  drawn  off  and  cast  in  bars.  This  tin 
is  impure  and,  when  again  slowly  melted,  that  which  first  melts  is  purer.  The  com- 
mercial variety  of  tin  known  as  Banco,  tin  is  the  purest.  It  receives  its  name  from 
Banca,  in  the  East  Indies,  where  it  is  made.  Block  tin  is  made  in  England  and  is  also 
comparatively  pure. 

Tin  is  very  largely  used  for  coating  iron,  and  special  sheets  of  iron  are  manufac- 
tured for  tinning  and  termed  tinplate.  The  iron  plates,  having  been  carefully  cleaned 
with  sand  and  muriatic  or  sulphuric  acid,  and  lastly  with  water,  are  plunged  into  heated 

*  When  heated  above  its  molting  point,  tin  oxidizes  rapidly,  becoming  converted  into  a  whitish  powder, 
used  in  the  arts  for  polishing  under  the  name  of  putty  powder. 

[240] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

tallow  to  drive  away  the  water  without  oxidation  of  the  metal.  They  are  next  steeped 
in  a  bath,  first  of  molten  ferruginous,  then  of  pure  tin.  They  are  then  taken  out  and 
kept  suspended  in  hot  tallow  to  enable  the  surplus  tin  to  run  off.  The  tin  of  the  sec- 
ond bath  dissolves  iron  gradually  and  becomes  fit  for  the  first  bath. 

To  tin  cast-iron  articles  they  must  be  decarburetted  superficially  by  ignition  within 
a  bath  of  ferric  oxide  (powdered  hematite  or  similar  material),  then  cleaned  with  acid, 
and  tinned  by  immersion  as  explained  above. 

By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  tin  produced  metallurgically  is  used  for  making  tin 
alloys. 

Titanium,  Ti. — Atomic  weight,  48.1.  Specific  gravity,  4.8.  Weight  per  cubic  foot, 
300  pounds  or  0.17  pound  per  cubic  inch.  Melting  point,  1,800°  to  1,850°  G.  (3,272° 
to  3,362°  F.).  Specific  heat,  0.130.  Silver-white  color,  hard  and  brittle  when  cold, 
but  can  be  readily  forged  when  red  hot. 

Titanium  is  not  found  in  a  free  state,  but  occurs  as  oxide  in  three  minerals  of  different 
crystalline  form,  rutile,  anatase,  and  brookite.  Rutile  occurs  as  a  black  or  reddish- 
brown  mineral  having  a  specific  gravity  of  about  4.3,  and  containing  98  to  99%  of  titanic 
oxide,  TiO2,  together  with  1  to  2%  ferric  oxide,  Fe2O3.  Ilmenite,  or  titaniferous  iron 
ore,  is  an  iron-black  mineral  having  a  specific  gravity  .of  about  4.5  and  containing  a 
maximum  of  52.7%  titanic  oxide,  and  47.3%  ferrous  oxide,  corresponding  to  a  formula 
FeO,  TiO2. 

Ferro  Alloys:  One  of  the  most  important  uses  of  titanium  minerals  is  for  the 
production  of  ferro  alloys,  which  are  used  in  the  final  purification  of  steel  and  cast 
iron.  For  the  industrial  production  of  ferro-titanium,  two  general  processes  are  in  use, 
one  in  which  the  finely  pulverized  titaniferous  iron  ore  is  mixed  with  charcoal  and 
heated  in  an  electric  furnace  of  the  Siemens  type  to  a  temperature  of  not  less  than 
1,927°  C.  (3,500°  F.).  This  yields  an  alloy  containing  15  to  18%  titanium,  5  to  8% 
carbon,  and  the  balance  iron.  In  the  second  type  of  process,  if  an  alloy  free  from 
carbon  is  desired,  the  reduction  is  performed  by  some  substance  other  than  carbon, 
and  for  this  purpose  aluminium  is  frequently  employed. 

Ferro-titanium.  The  efficiency  of  ferro-titanium  as  a  purifying  agent  is  said  to 
be  due  to  the  great  affinity  which  titanium  has  for  nitrogen  and  oxygen  at  temperatures 
above  800°  C.  (1,472°  F.).  Nitrogen  in  steel  tends  to  cause  brittleness  and  segregation 
of  sulphur  and  phosphorus  in  the  finished  product.  Titanium  is  not  added  to  steel 
to  give  the  latter  new  properties,  but  only  as  a  cleanser,  and  in  the  finished  steel  prac- 
tically no  titanium  remains.  The  alloy  which  finds  most  frequent  use  for  this  purpose 
is  one  containing  15  to  18%  titanium.  For  low  carbon  steels,  such  as  for  wire  or 
plate,  from  2  to  4  pounds  ferro-carbon  titanium  is  used  per  ton  of  steel,  for  rail  steel 
15  to  20  pounds  per  ton  is  used.  From  4  to  8  pounds  of  the  alloy  is  added  to  each  ton 
of  steel  castings.  From  8  to  10  pounds  per  ton  is  used  for  axle  steels. 

Metallic  titanium,  other  than  in  the  form  of  its  ferro  alloys,  has,  so  far,  been  put 
to  but  few  uses.  When  heated  to  600°  C.  (1,112°  F.)  in  oxygen  it  readily  burns  to  the 
oxide  TiO2,  as  it  also  does  in  nitrogen  at  800°  C.  (1,472°  F.),  yielding  in  the  latter  case 
several  nitrides,  and  this  property  has  been  suggested  as  a  means  of  fixation  of  atmos- 
pheric nitrogen,  as  the  nitrides  are  stated  to  yield  ammonia  on  treatment  with  steam 
or  acids.  Titanium  carbide  produced  in  the  electric  furnace  was  used  for  the  production 
of  incandescent  electric  lamp  filaments,  but  is  now  displaced  by  the  more  economical 
filaments,  tantalum  and  tungsten. 

Pig  iron  sometimes  contains  titanium,  but  as  it  is  only  reduced  at  very  high  tem- 
peratures it  is  usually  found  only  in  gray  irons.  Professor  Turner  mentions  a  sample 
of  pig  iron  containing  0.28%  titanium;  it  had  a  peculiar  black  mottled  fracture  char- 
acteristic of  titanium,  particularly  at  the  bottom  of  the  pig,  and  at  the  upper  side 
there  were  blow  holes.  The  titanium  in  this  case  was  present  probably  as  a  carbide, 
and  a  carbide,  TiC,  has  been  isolated. 

Titaniferous  iron  ores  have  been  held  in  high  esteem  because  the  iron  and  steel 
produced  was  of  excellent  quality,  but  the  excellence  was  probably  due  to  the  fact 
that  such  ores  contain  little  or  no  phosphorus.  Titanium  is  most  abundant  in  gray 
pig  irons,  seldom  in  white  irons,  and  none  at  all  in  puddled  irons,  as  the  titanium  passes 
into  the  slag-during  the  process  of  refining. 

[241] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

Tungsten,  W. — Atomic  weight,  184.0.  Specific  gravity,  19.10.  Specific  heat, 
0.034.  Melting  point,  3,000°  C.  (5,430°  F.).  Specific  heat,  0.034.  Tungsten  is  found 
as  a  tungstate  of  iron  and  manganese  in  wolframite,  FeWO4,  as  tungstate  of  calcium, 
CaWO4,  and  also  as  tungstate  of  lead,  PbWO4. 

Tungsten  is  obtained  in  the  state  of  a  lustrous  dark-gray  powder  or  as  a  black 
powder  by  heating  tungstic  oxide  in  a  stream  of  hydrogen,  but  for  fusion  an  exceedingly 
high  temperature  is  required.  Heated  to  redness  in  the  air,  it  takes  fire  and  reproduces 
tungstic  oxide.  Tungsten  forms  three  oxides,  WO2,  WO3,  and  W2O5,  neither  of  which 
exhibits  basic  properties,  so  that  there  are  no  tungsten  salts  in  which  the  metal  re- 
places the  hydrogen  of  an  acid  or  takes  the  electro-positive  part.  The  trioxide  ex- 
hibits decided  acid  tendencies,  uniting  with  basic  metallic  oxides  and  forming  crystal- 
lizablc  salts  called  tungstates.  The  pentoxide  may  be  regarded  as  a  compound  of  the 
other  two. 

In  a  very  general  way  ductile  tungsten  is  made  as  follows:  The  carefully  purified 
tungsten  trioxide  is  reduced  to  metallic  tungsten  by  passing  pure  hydrogen  over  the 
heated  oxide.  The  resulting  metal  is  in  a  fine  powder,  which  is  squeezed  under  a 
hydraulic  press  into  a  stick  strong  enough  to  stand  careful  handling.  This  stick  is 
then  heated  to  a  very  high  temperature  in  a  fuel-using  furnace  and  later  further  sin- 
tered by  heating  under  an  electric  current.  It  is  then  hammered,  rolled,  or  drawn 
into  the  forms  desired. 

Tungsten  is  favorably  known  as  a  filament  of  incandescent  lamps.  The  great 
improvements  in  drawing  tungsten  wire,  and  further  improvements  in  the  size  of  globe 
and  in  other  mechanical  details  that  add  efficiency,  have  made  the  tungsten  lamp 
far  superior  to  the  carbon-filament  lamp  and  the  arc  lamp;  it  is  much  superior  to 
the  tantalum  lamp,  which  was  the  first  good  metallic-filament  incandescent 
lamp. 

Diamonds  are  said  to  be  used  for  dies  in  drawing  tungsten  wire.  At  first  it  did 
not  seem  possible  to  drill  small  enough  holes  through  the  diamonds  to  make  wire  suf- 
ficiently fine  for  lamps  of  small  candle  power,  but  wire  0.0006  inch  in  diameter  can 
now  be  drawn  in  quantity. 

The  properties  of  pure  wrought  tungsten  are  entirely  different  from  those  of  the 
powdered  or  ordinary  cast  metal.  It  is  white,  lustrous,  tough  and  non-magnetic,  and 
can  be  rolled,  like  steel,  into  a  thin  sheet,  welded  at  a  yellow  heat,  and  drawn  into  a 
wire  considerably  thinner  than  0.001  inch. 

Hard-drawn  tungsten  wire  "has  an  electrical  resistivity  of  6.2  michroms  per  cubic 
centimeter  at  25°  C.,  the  temperature  coefficient  for  0°  C.  to  170°  C.  being  0.0051.  The 
corresponding  figure  for  annealed  wire  is  5.0.  Tungsten  is  unaffected  by  water  or 
air  at  ordinary  temperature,  but  both  air  and  steam  oxidize  it  at  a  red  heat.  Molten 
sulphur  or  phosphorus  attacks  it  slowly,  while  at  a  red  heat  their  vapors  rapidly  con- 
vert it  into  the  sulphide  or  phosphide.  It  does  not  combine  directly  with  nitrogen. 
Tungsten  is  one  of  the  most  important  metals  other  than  those  commonly  spoken 
of  as  commercial  metals;  the  saving  which  has  been  introduced  by  its  employment  in 
steel  manufacture  and  in  the  electric-light  industry  shows  very  remarkable  figures. 
The  patents  of  Mushet  (1859)  for  the  manufacture  of  steel,  etc.,  containing  tungsten, 
following  a  patent  by  Oxland  (1857)  for  the  production  of  certain  alloys  of  tungsten 
with  iron  and  steel,  nickel,  etc.,  and  the  earlier  and  more  important  patent  of  Oxland 
(1847)  for  the  manufacture  of  sodium  tungstate,  tungstic  acid,  and  metallic  tungsten 
from  tin-wolfram  ores,  may  be  considered  to  form  the  basis  of  all  present  commercial 
methods  of  treating  tungsten  ores  and  of  practically  all  the  technical  uses  of  the  metal 
and  its  compounds. 

Ferro-tungsten  is  now  being  made  by  direct  reduction  of  the  ore  in  the  electric 
furnace;  the  old  difficulty,  due  to  the  large  proportion  of  carbon  formerly  always 
present  in  directly  made  ferro-tungsten,  has  been  largely  overcome,  but  metallic  tung- 
sten and  its  alloys  are  still  mainly  prepared  by  the  reduction  of  tungstic  acid  prepared 
from  sodium  tungstate,  which  has  been  obtained  by  fusion  of  wolfram  with  sodium 
carbonate. 

Vanadium,  V. — Atomic  weight,  51.1.  Specific  gravity,  5.5.  Melting  point,  1730° 
C.  (3150°  F.).  Specific  heat,  0.125.  It  is  grayish  white  in  appearance,  is  non-magnetic, 

[242] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

has  a  high  electrical  resistivity,  it  is  the  hardest  of  the  metallic  elements  and  the  most 
difficult  to  reduce.     It  has  not  yet  been  produced  in  the  pure  metallic  state. 

Vanadium  alloys  readily  with  iron,  silicon,  copper,  nickel,  and  manganese,  producing 
alloys  with  a  relatively  low  melting  point. 

Vanadium  acts  on  steel  in  the  same  manner  as  carbon,  but  to  a  much  more  decided 
extent,  so  that  the  carbon  content  must  be  carefully  controlled.  Arnold  considers 
that  vanadium  combines  with  carbon  to  form  a  double  carbide  of  iron  and  vanadium. 

Vanadium  seems  to  promote  the  even  distribution  of  carbon  and  retards  segrega- 
tion, hence  it  largely  prevents  the  deterioration  of  steel  under  constant  vibration  and 
its  liability  to  brittleness.  The  only  vanadium  steels  capable  of  application  are  those 
with  less  than  0.7%  of  vanadium. 

The  function  of  vanadium  is  to  harden  steel,  increase  its  tenacity  and  elastic  limit, 
without  greatly  lowering  its  elongation  and  reduction  of  area. 

Vanadium  steels  are  very  sensitive  to  thermal  and  mechanical  treatment  and  should 
not  be  used  until  they  have  been  annealed  at  900°  C.  and  slowly  cooled. — Hiorns. 

The  alloy  of  vanadium  and  iron  is  known  as  ferro-vanadium  and  when  properly 
made  with  a  content  of  from  30%  to  40%  vanadium  and  as  little  carbon  as  possible 
melts  and  dissolves  readily  at  a  temperature  considerably  below  the  fusing  point  of  iron 
or  steel. 

The  strong  affinity  of  vanadium  for  carbon  makes  it  impossible  to  produce  ferro- 
vanadium  with  carbon  as  a  reducing  agent  without  obtaining  a  large  percentage  in 
the  finished  alloy.  Ferro-vanadium  reduced  in  this  manner  generally  contains  from 
6%  to  7%  of  carbon,  an  amount  sufficient  to  combine  with  from  25%  to  30%  of  vanadium. 

Carbide  of  vanadium  is  a  very  stable  compound,  decomposed  or  broken  up  with 
difficulty.  Added  to  molten  steel,  it  goes  into  solution  without  decomposition  and 
becomes  practically  an  inert  constituent.  For  this  reason  a  ferro-vanadium  containing 
any  considerable  amount  of  carbon  will  not  produce  the  reaction  combinations  and 
physical  results,  when  added  to  molten  steel,  that  are  obtained  from  ferro-vanadium 
containing  little  or  no  carbon,  because  the  vanadium  is  not  available  to  react  with 
the  other  constituents  of  the  steel.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  reduce  the  vanadium 
by  a  process  that  will  give  a  ferro-vanadium  as  free  as  possible  from  carbon. 

Alloys  of  vanadium  and  iron  can  be  made  without  great  difficulty  by  reducing  agents 
other  than  carbon  and,  by  means  of  these,  ferro-vanadium  practically  free  from  car- 
bon can  be  produced. 

The  greater  the  degree  of  fusibility  and  solubility  possessed  by  the  ferro-vanadium, 
the  more  satisfactorily  it  should  react  when  added  to  steel,  other  things  being  equal. 

The  melting  point  of  a  ferro-vanadium  containing  practically  nothing  besides  vana- 
dium and  iron  is  about  1480°  C.  for  a  40%  alloy.  The  melting  point  gradually  lowers 
with  decreasing  percentage  of  vanadium  until  35%  is  reached,  when  the  point  remains 
practically  constant  at  1425°  C.  until  30%  is  reached,  when  the  melting  point  again 
rises,  and  reaches  about  1450°  C.  for  a  25%  alloy. 

The  presence  of  some  of  the  other  elements  in  the  alloy,  especially  such  as  silicon 
and  manganese,  besides  in  other  ways  being  beneficial,  has  a  marked  effect  in  lowering 
the  melting  point. 

It  is  Professor  Arnold's  opinion  that  vanadium  is  undoubtedly  the  element  which, 
together  with  carbon,  acts  with  the  greatest  intensity  in  the  way  of  improving  alloys 
of  iron,  that  is  to  say,  in  very  small  percentages.  He  was  of  the  opinion  that  vana- 
dium combines  to  form  a  double  carbide  of  iron  and  vanadium,  and  that  it  has  not 
only  a  chemical  but  a  physical  influence  in  promoting  the  even  distribution  of  the  car- 
bon and  retarding  constitutional  segregation.  In  this  manner  it  renders  steel  particu- 
larly susceptible  to  the  highly  important  improvement  due  to  heat  treatment,  and, 
in  addition,  is  a  powerful  factor  in  the  production  of  steels  that  are  very  resistant  to 
wear,  erosion,  and  fatigue. 

Vanadium  is  the  most  powerful  metal  yet  discovered  for  alloying  with  steel.  Its 
intensifying  effect  on  the  other  elements  generally  used  in  the  alloys,  chromium,  nickel, 
silicon,  tungsten,  and  molybdenum,  and  even  carbon,  is  so  great,  that  although  these 
elements  preponderate  the  alloy  is  improved  and  changed  to  such  a  degree  that  it 
is  designated  as  chrome-vanadium  steel,  nickel-vanadium  steel,  etc. 

[243] 


PROPERTIES  OF  SOME  MATERIALS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

Wulfenite. — A  mineral  consisting  of  lead  molybdate,  PbMoO4,  crystallizing  in  the 
tetragonal  system,  and  isomorphous  with  scheelite.  Next  to  molybdenite  it  is  the 
most  abundant  of  the  few  minerals  containing  molybdenum.  It  has  been  found  in 
some  quantity  at  Bleiberg  in  Carinthia,  and  at  several  places  in  Arizona,  Nevada  and 
Utah.  To  obtain  ferro-molybdenum  of  low  carbon  content,  the  wulfenite  is  smelted 
in  the  electric  furnace  with  suitable  quantities  of  coke  and  magnesium  carbonate,  the 
lead  which  is  liberated  being  collected.  The  magnesian  slag  is  pulverized  and  treated 
with  boiling  water,  and  the  solution  cooled,  whereupon  it  deposits  crystals  of  magnesium 
molybdate.  These  are  dehydrated  by  calcination,  powdered,  mixed  with  the  requisite 
amount  of  50%  ferro-silicon,  and  briquetted  by  means  of  tar  or  pitch.  When  these 
briquettes  are  heated  in  a  furnace,  the  following  reaction  occurs: 

4MgMoO4  +  3FeSi2  =  Mo4Fe3  +  4MgSiO3  +  2SiO2. 

If  the  magnesium  molybdate  is  heated  with  molybdenum  silicide,  pure  molybdenum 
is  obtained. 

Zinc,  Zn. — Atomic  weight,  65.2.  Specific  gravity,  7.15.  Weight  per  cubic  foot, 
446.16  pounds  =  0.258  pound  per  cubic  inch.  The  specific  gravity  of  zinc  is  not 
constant;  that  of  pure  ingot  is  6.915,  and  rises  to  7.191  after  rolling.  Melting  point, 
419.4°  C.  (786.9°  F.).  Boiling  point,  906°  C.  (1663°  F.).  Specific  heat,  0.094.  The 
coefficient  of  linear  expansion  is  .00002918  between  0  and  100°  C. 

Metallic  zinc  is  not  met  with  hi  nature;  the  ores  of  zinc  from  which  the  metal  is 
extracted  are:  Red  zinc  ore,  an  impure  oxide,  ZnO;  Calamine,  a  native  carbonate, 
ZnCO3,  and  Blende,  a  zinc  sulphide,  ZnS.  The  ore  is  first  roasted  to  expel  water  and 
carbonic  acid,  then  mixed  with  fragments  of  coke  or  charcoal,  and  distilled  at  a  full 
red  heat  in  a  large  earthen  retort;  carbon  monoxide  escapes,  while  the  reduced  metal 
volatilizes  and  is  condensed  by  suitable  means,  generally  with  one  or  more  impurities. 
Of  the  several  metallic  impurities  in  zinc  ores,  iron  is  at  once  the  most  common  and  the 
least  objectionable,  because  it  is  absolutely  non-volatile  at  the  temperature  of  a  zinc 
retort.  As  indicated,  the  zinc  thus  obtained  is  not  pure  but  contains  lead,  iron,  and 
sometimes  arsenic  and  cadmium.  This  crude  metal  is  called  spelter. 

Regarding  the  impurities,  zinc  made  from  oxidized  ores  is  usually  free  from  arsenic; 
that  derived  from  blende  is  almost  sure  to  contain  it.  Traces  of  arsenic  do. not,  how- 
ever, interfere  with  any  of  the  technical  applications  of  the  metal.  Cadmium  and  ar- 
senic, being  more  volatile  than  zinc  itself,  if  present,  accumulate  in  the  first  fractions 
of  the  distillate,  but  may  pervade  it  in  traces  to  the  end. 

Zinc  is  a  bluish-white  metal,  which  slowly  tarnishes  in  the  air;  it  has  a  lamellar, 
crystalline  structure,  and  is,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  brittle.  Between  120°  C. 
(248°  F.)  and  150°  C.  (300°  F.)  it  is,  on  the  contrary,  malleable,  and  may  be  rolled  or  ham- 
mered without  danger  of  fracture;  and,  what  is  very  remarkable,  after  such  treatment  it 
retains  its  malleability  when  cold;  the  sheet  zinc  of  commerce  is  thus  made.  At  210°  C. 
(410°  F.)  it  is  so  brittle  that  it  may  be  reduced  to  powder.  At  412°  C.  (773°  F.)  it 
melts;  at  a  bright  red  heat  it  boils  and  volatilizes,  and,  if  air  be  admitted,  burns  with 
a  splendid  greenish  light,  generating  the  oxide.  Dilute  acid  dissolves  zinc  very  readily, 
it  is  constantly  employed  in  this  manner  for  preparing  hydrogen  gas.  Zinc  forms 
with  other  metals  a  most  important  class  of  alloys,  the  chief  being  with  copper  to 
make  brass;  it  is  also  used  in  the  composition  of  white  metals,  German  silver,  etc. 
It  is  used  hi  the  form  of  sheets  worked  into  a  variety  of  shapes;  it  is  used  as  a  coating 
to  protect  iron  from  rusting,  as  in  galvanized  Iron;  it  forms  the  electro-positive  element 
in  many  batteries;  and  in  the  form  of  fine  dust  it  is  obtained  in  large  quantities  mixed 
with  zinc  oxide,  and  forms  a  valuable  reducing  agent. 

The  tensile  strength  of  castings  is  about  5,600  pounds  per  square  inch.  The  ten- 
sile strength  of  sheet  zinc  is  about  17,920  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Zinc  is  a  poor  conductor  of  heat  and  electricity,  its  heat  conductivity  being  about 
26  and  its  electrical  conductivity  25.5,  silver  being  taken  as  100  in  each  case. 

Zinc  is  dissolved  by  vegetable  acids;  this  metal  should  not,  therefore,  be  used  for 
cooking  utensils. 

[244] 


ALLOY  STEELS 

BUREAU  OF  MINES 

"  Manufacture  and  Uses  of  Alloy  Steels,"  by  Henry  D.  Hibbard,  prepared  for  the 
Bureau  of  Mines,  gives  briefly  information  of  present  value  relating  to  the  manufac- 
ture and  uses  of  various  commercial  alloy  steels,  with  the  hope  of  stimulating  the 
demand  for  such  steels  and  extending  their  practical  use.  The  following  abstract  is 
limited  to  the  physical  properties  and  uses  of  alloy  steels. 

DEFINITIONS  OF  TERMS  RELATING  TO  ALLOY  STEELS 

Simple  Steel,  often  called  "  carbon  steel,"  consists  chiefly  of  iron,  carbon,  and 
manganese.  Other  elements  are  always  present,  but  are  not  essential  to  the  forma- 
tion of  the  steel,  and  the  content  of  carbon  or  manganese,  or  both,  may  be  very  small. 

Alloy  Steel  is  steel  that  contains  one  or  more  elements  other  than  carbon  in  suffi- 
cient proportion  to  modify  or  improve  substantially  and  positively  some  of  its  useful 
properties. 

Simple  Alloy  Steel  is  alloy  steel  containing  one  alloying  element,  as  for  example, 
simple  nickel  steel. 

Ternary  Steel  is  alloy  steel  that  contains  one  alloying  element,  the  term  being 
synonymous  with  "  simple  alloy  steel." 

Quaternary  Steel  is  an  alloy  steel  that  contains  two  alloying  elements,  such  as 
chromium-vanadium  steel. 

Complex  Steel  is  an  alloy  steel  containing  more  than  two  alloying  elements,  such 
as  high-speed  tool  steel. 

Alloy-Treated  Steel  is  a  simple  steel  to  which  one  or  more  alloying  elements  have 
been  added  for  curative  purposes,  but  in  which  the  excess  of  the  element  or  elements 
is  not  enough  to  make  it  an  alloy  steel. 

Raw  Steel  is  steel  as  cast,  either  an  ingot  or  casting. 

Natural  Steel  is  steel  in  the  condition  left  by  a  hot-working  operation,  and  cooled 
in  the  open  air. 

Normalized  Steel  is  steel  that  has  been  given  a  normalizing  heat  treatment  intended 
to  bring  all  of  a  lot  of  samples  under  consideration  into  the  same  condition. 

Annealed  Steel  is  steel  that  has  been  subjected  to  an  annealing  operation. 

Hardened  Steel  is  steel  that  has  been  hardened  by  quenching  from  or  above  the 
hardening  temperature. 

Tempered  Steel  is  steel  that  has  been  hardened  and  subsequently  tempered  by  a 
second  lower  heating. 

These  definitions  are  based  on  the  definition  of  steel  that  states  that  steel  must 
be  usefully  malleable.  The  definitions  of  alloy  steels  do  not  include  effects  which 
are  negative,  or  the  prevention  or  cure  of  ills  which  the  steel  might  possess  were  the 
alloying  element  or  elements  not  added. 

An  iron  alloy  is  not  considered  as  useful  unless  it  presents  some  useful  property 
or  modification  of  a  property  not  offered  to  the  same  degree  by  a  simple  steel. 

Useful  Alloy  Steels. — The  eight  alloy  steels  named  below  in  the  chronological  order 
of  their  introduction  include  all  the  regular  commercial  varieties: 

1.  Simple  tungsten  steels  5.  Nickel-chromium  steels 

2.  Simple  chromium  steels  6.  Silicon  steels 

3.  Manganese  steels  7.  High-speed  tool  steels 

4.  Simple  nickel  steels  8.  Chromium-vanadium  steels 

The  first  four  and  the  sixth  of  these  are  ternary  steels,  the  fifth  and  eighth  are  quater- 
nary, and  the  seventh  is  of  complex  composition.  Alloy  steels  are  considered  as  regards 
their  value  for  structural,  cutting,  or  electrical  purposes. 

[245] 


SIMPLE  TUNGSTEN  STEEL 


Steel  used  for  structural  purposes  is  taken  to  include  that  used  for  the  stationary 
as  well  as  the  moving  parts  of  structures  and  machines.  Steel  used  for  cutting  purposes 
includes  that  employed  to  form  an  actual  cutting  edge  and  that  used  in  projectiles  for 
war.  Steel  for  electrical  purposes  is  used  in  magnets,  core  steel,  non-magnetic  articles, 
and  electrical-resistance  devices. 

SIMPLE  TUNGSTEN  STEEL 

Mushet's  air-hardening  steel  (1868),  the  first  of  the  alloy  steels,  may  be  considered 
as  a  simple  tungsten  steel  though  it  contained  so  much  manganese  (about  2%)  that 
it  might  with  some  reason  be  classed  as  a  quaternary  steel,  as  it  contained  also  about 
2%  of  carbon  and  6%  of  tungsten.  The  manganese  was  essential  to  give  the  self- 
hardening  property. 

Tungsten  is  very  heavy,  its  specific  gravity  being,  according  to  recent  determina- 
tions, about  19.3,  and  it  is  the  most  infusible  substance  known  except  carbon  and, 
perhaps,  boron.  These  properties  have  some  effect  on  the  production  of  tungsten  steel. 

Tungsten  steel  is  generally,  if  not  always,  made  by  the  crucible  process.  Good 
tungsten  steel  makes  remarkably  sound  solid  ingots,  except  for  the  pipe,  though  tung- 
sten itself  is  not  considered  to  aid  in  removing  or  controlling  either  the  oxides  or  the 
gases.  It  is  added  solely  for  its  effect  on  the  finished  and  treated  steel. 

Simple  tun  sten  steel  is  at  present  chiefly  used  in  permanent  magnets  for  electric 
meters,  in  small  dynamos,  and  hand  use.  This  steel  contains  about  0.6%  of  carbon 
and  6%  of  tungsten. 

To  make  permanent  magnets  retain  their  magnetism  as  much  as  possible  they 
are  made  very  hard  by  heating  and  quenching.  They  are  then  magnetized,  and  if 
they  are  to  be  used  for  electric  meters,  they  are  seasoned  by  a  treatment  involving 
protracted  heating  to  100°  C.  (212°  F.)  to  make  their  magnetism  as  nearly  constant 
as  possible. 

SIMPLE  CHROMIUM  STEEL 

Simple  chromium  steels,  though  one  of  the  earliest  if  not  the  first  of  the  alloy  steels 
to  be  made,  are  not  now  largely  used.  In  combination  with  other  alloying  elements, 
however,  chromium  is  still  one  of  the  most  important  constituents  of  alloy  steels.  It  is 
made  by  either  the  acid  open-hearth  or  crucible  process. 

The  effect  of  a  chromium  content  up  to  a  maximum  of  2J%  in  steel  is  to  increase 
the  hardness  moderately  when  the  steel  is  in  the  natural  state,  and  particularly  when 
it  is  in  the  hardened  condition  after  having  been  quenched. 

Chromium  steels  are  cast,  forged,  and  rolled  by  the  same  methods  as  simple  steels 
of  the  same  or  slightly  higher  carbon  contents.  Castings  are  annealed,  or  heat 

COMPOSITION  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  HEAT-TREATED  SIMPLE  CHROMIUM  STEELS 


CONSTITUENTS 

HEAT  TREATMENT 

Con- 

Elon- 

Tempera- 

Tempera- 

Sample 
No. 

C 

Mn 

Si 

S 

P 

Cr 

Tensile 
Strength 

Elastic 
Limit 

trac- 
tion 
of 
Area 

tion 
in  2 
Inch- 

Ball 
hard- 
ness 

ture  at 
Which 
Steel 
Was 

ture  at 
Which 
Hard- 
ness 

Quench- 

Was 

ed  in 

Drawn 

Water 

in  Air 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Of 
70 

% 

°c. 

°c. 

1  

070 

054 

009 

001 

D01 

070 

129,000 

121,700 

60 

21 

235 

816 

593 

2  

.70 

.54 

.09 

.01 

.01 

.70 

110,900 

105,300 

63 

26 

195 

816 

649 

3   

70 

54 

09 

01 

01 

70 

88,000 

73,000 

68 

36 

168 

816 

754 

4.  .  .'.  . 

40 

78 

54 

02 

01 

92 

143,500 

131,600 

56 

18 

242 

816 

538 

5  

40 

78 

54 

0? 

01 

92 

103,200 

90,200 

69 

26 

201 

816 

714 

6 

.91 

.35 

.08 

.03 

.01 

.91 

96,800 

69,300 

63 

28 

175 

[246] 


MANGANESE  STEEL 

treated*  as  the  conditions  warrant  or  require  to  give  the  most  suitable"properties  for  the 
proposed  use. 

Chromium  steels  are  perhaps  never  used  in  the  untreated  condition,  and  their 
properties  in  that  state  are  therefore  .not  given. 

The  longest  established  use  of  chromium  steels  now  current  is  in  stamp  shoes  and 
dies  for  pulverizing  certain  gold  and  silver  ores.  These  shoes  and  dies  contain  0.8 
to  0.9%  of  carbon,  with  0.4  to  0.5%  of  chromium.  They  are  preferably  annealed  to 
destroy  ingotism  and  so  impart  some  toughness  to  the  metal,  which  increases  their 
durability  in  an  important  degree. 

Another  long-established  use  of  chromium  steel  is  in  five-ply  plates  for  the  manu- 
facture of  safes.  These  plates  are  made  of  five  alternate  layers,  two  of  chromium 
steel  and  three  of  soft  steel  or  wrought  iron,  and  after  having  been  hardened  offer 
great  resistance  to  the  drilling  tools  employed  by  burglars. 

Hardened  chromium-steel  rolls  having  0.9%  of  carbon  and  2%  of  chromium  are 
used  for  cold-rolling  metals.  They  are  glass  hard  so  that  the  ball  hardness  can  not 
be  determined,  the  ball  making  no  impression.  The  hardness,  as  determined  by  the 
sclerescope,  is  107. 

Files  of  chromium  steel  are  excellent,  the  carbon  content  being  1.3  to  1.5%  and 
the  chromium  content  about  0.5%. 

An  important  use  of  chromium  steel  is  in  balls  and  rollers  for  bearings.  One  large 
maker  uses  steel  containing  carbon,  1.10%;  chromium,  1.40%;  manganese,  0.35%; 
sulphur,  0.025%;  and  phosphorus,  0.025%.  Sizes  smaller  than  one-half  inch  diameter 
are  heat-treated  by  being  quenched  in  water  from  774°  C.  (1,425°  F.)  and  then  drawn 
to  190°  C.  (375°  F.)  for  half  an  hour.  For  larger  balls  the  quenching  temperature  is 
802°  C.  (1,475°  F.).  The  second  heating  does  not  produce  an  oxide  color,  but  is  enough 
to  let  down  in  some  degree  the  internal  stresses  due  to  the  irregular  cooling  of  quench- 
ing so  that  the  balls  are  less  liable  to  crack  spontaneously  or  to  be  broken  in  use. 

The  strength  of  a  good,  well-treated  ball  is  prodigious,  a  ball  three-fourths  of  an 
inch  diameter,  tested  by  the  three-ball  method,  sustaining  a  load  of  52,000  pounds. 
On  the  small  area  of  contact  the  intensity  of  the  pressure  amounts  to  over  one  million 
pounds  per  square  inch. 

MANGANESE  STEEL 

Manganese  steel  in  the  commercial  meaning  of  the  name  is  a  variety  of  iron  con- 
taining 11  to  14%  of  manganese  and  1.0  to  1.3%  of  carbon.  The  bulk  of  the  man- 
ganese steel  made  at  present  is  put  into  castings. 

Manufacture. — Manganese  steel  is  still  made  in  the  ladle  according  to  Hadfield's 
expired  patents  by  the  mixture  of  decarburized  iron  and  80%  ferromanganese.  The 
decarburized  iron  is  prepared  either  by  the  pneumatic  process,  being  blown  in  some 
one  of  the  many  modified  pneumatic  converters  or  in  the  Siemens  furnace.  As  ferro- 
manganese forms  such  a  large  proportion  of  the  charge,  about  one-seventh,  it  must 
be  melted  or  nearly  so  before  being  added  to  or  mixed  with  the  decarburized  iron,  or 
the  resulting  steel  would  be  too  cold.  After  the  manganese  steel  has  been  made  in  the 
ladle  it  should  be  cast  as  soon  as  practicable  if  it  is  to  be  used  for  castings,  but  if  it 
is  to  be  used  for  ingots  a  little  time  should  be  allowed  for  the  silicate  formed  within 
the  metal  to  collect  and  float  to  the  top. 

The  quantity  of  manganese  is  proportioned  to  the  size  of  the  charge  of  decarbur- 
ized iron  with  allowance  for  loss  through  oxidation  of  an  amount  equal  to  about  1£% 
of^the  steel.  Thus  14%  is  added  to  yield  12.5%  in  the  steel. 

Because  of  its  large  content  of  carbon,  silicon,  and  manganese,  the  latter  fusing 
at  1,260°  C.,  manganese  steel  melts  at  about  1,325°  C.,  a  temperature  lower  than  that 
of  simple  steel,  and  one  that  favors  the  running  of  intricate  castings.  For  the  same 
reason  manganese  steel,  containing  so  much  gas  solvent,  is  usually  free  from  gas  holes; 
but  if  the  decarburized  iron  of  which  it  is  made  is  too  hot,  and  therefore  too  heavily 
charged  with  gases,  the  solvent  powers  of  the  silicon  and  manganese  may  be  exceeded 
and  the  steel  be  saturated  with  gases,  the  ingots  or  castings  being  consequently  infested 
with  blowholes  by  the  gases  liberated  in  cooling. 

[247] 


MANGANESE  STEEL 

Composition. — In  making  manganese  steel  one  composition  is  practically  standard. 
The  usual  analyses  of  manganese  steel  lie  between  the  following  limits:  Carbon,  1.0 
to  1.3%;  silicon,  0.3  to  0.8%;  manganese,  11.0  to  14.0%;  phosphorus,  0.05  to  0.08%. 
The  sulphur  content  is  so  low  as  to  be  negligible  in  manganese  steel  as  in  other  iron- 
manganese  alloys,  from  which  any  sulphur  that  may  get  in  is  quickly  eliminated  by 
the  manganese,  probably  as  sulphide,  which  rises  to  the  surface  or  enters  the  slag. 

Low-manganese  steels  with  7  to  8%  of  manganese  are  finding  some  use,  having 
a  higher  and  better  defined  elastic  limit  than  the  regular  grade  and  yet  with  consid- 
erable though  much  less  ductility.  Manganese-iron  alloys  containing  3  to  10%  of 
manganese  and  1%  of  carbon  are  martensitic.  With  the  manganese  over  10%  the 
structure  is  austenitic.  The  steels  having  7  to  10%  of  manganese  are  so  different 
from  commercial  manganese  steel  that  another  name  should  be  given  them  to  avoid 
confusion.  The  name  "  loman  steel,"  an  abbreviation  of  "  low-manganese  steel," 
has  been  applied  to  them  and  seems  to  be  suitable  as  a  short  distinctive  name. 

Properties. — Manganese  steel  is  a  hard  self-hardening  steel,  owing  this  property 
to  its  composition  and  not  to  treatment.  It  can  not  be  softened  by  heating  followed 
by  slow  cooling.  It  is,  for  a  metal,  a  poor  conductor  of  electricity. 

Manganese  steel  has  a  high  coefficient  of  expansion,  small  patterns  being  made 
with  a  shrinkage  of  five-sixteenths  of  an  inch  to  1  foot,  which  sometimes  is  not  quite 
enough.  A  shrinkage  of  five-sixteenths  of  an  inch  to  1  foot  gives  a  mean  coefficient 
of  expansion  of  about  0.000024  per  degree  Centigrade. 

In  respect  to  specific  gravity,  manganese  steel  is  not  to  be  distinguished  from  simple 
steels  of  the  same  carbon  content,  as  all  have,  generally  speaking,  about  the  same. 

Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  property  of  manganese  steel  is  its  almost  total  lack 
of  magnetic  permeability  and  susceptibility.  This  metal,  containing  85%  of  iron 
in  a  metallic  form,  is  so  slightly  attracted  by  a  magnet  that  the  pull  can  not  be  felt 
with  the  hand. 

The  properties  of  manganese  steel  in  the  raw  state  are  much  like  those  of  other 
raw  high-carbon  steels,  the  metal  being  very  hard,  but  its  ductility  being  practically 
negligible.  The  steel,  because  non-magnetic,  may  be  used  for  purposes  requiring  a  hard 
non-magnetic  metal,  if  it  is  not  liable  to  shock. 

Heat  Treatment. — Although  the  composition  of  manganese  steel  is  extremely  im- 
portant in  determining  its  properties,  the  heat  treatment  to  which  it  is  subjected  to 
develop  in  it  its  great  toughness  or  ductility  is  even  more  so. 

As  used,  it  is  almost  universally  water-toughened  according  to  the  method  Had- 
field  set  forth,  which  treatment  consists  in  heating  the  whole  article  to  about  1,050°  C. 
and  then  cooling  it  as  quickly  as  possible  by  immersing  it  in  cold  water,  the  colder 
the  water  and  the  more  of  it  the  better.  It  will  not  do  to  heat  only  a  part  of  the  piece 
for  quenching,  and  if  a  part  of  a  toughened  article  becomes  heated  to  redness  or  near 
it  by  accident  or  design  the  whole  piece  should  be  reheated  and  again  quenched  to 
give  it  proper  qualities  for  use.  No  time  should  be  lost  in  completing  the  heating  and 
quenching  after  the  piece  has  become  red-hot  to  avoid  oxidation  as  completely  as  possible. 

Manganese  steel  is  a  poor  conductor  of  heat,  a  factor  that  interferes  with  its  heat 
treatment  and  tends  to  limit  the  thickness  of  the  steel  that  may  be  profitably  treated. 
This  limit  of  thickness  is  generally  taken  as  4  inches,  though  somewhat  thicker  pieces 
in  which  the  presence  of  internal  cracks  in  the  central  parts  would  not  be  ruinous  are 
treated  in  particular  instances. 

The  hardness  of  toughened  manganese  steel  is  unique,  and  it  may  be  termed  a 
tough  hardness  and  not  a  flinty  hardness.  Such  steel  may  easily  be  dented  with  a 
hammer  or  marked  with  a  file  or  chisel,  but  cutting  it  to  a  useful  extent  is  almost  im- 
practicable, so  that  such  finishing  as  is  necessary  is  usually  done  by  grinding  with 
abrasive  wheels. 

The  water  toughening  of  manganese  steel  gives  it  great  ductility — greater  as  to 
elongation,  perhaps,  than  that  of  any  other  steel  and  exceeding  sometimes  50%  in 
8  inches,  although  its  high  degree  of  hardness  is  not  greatly  altered.  This  high  duc- 
tility in  combination  with  the  great  hardness  of  manganese  steel  gives  it  great  resis- 
tance to  abrasive  wear  as  well  as  safety  from  breakage.  Practically  all  manganese 
steel  is  used  in  the  toughened  state. 

[248] 


MANGANESE  STEEL 


In  the  pulling  test  the  percentage  of  contraction  of  area  is  less  than  the  elonga- 
tion, a  result  directly  opposite  to  that  with  simple  as  well  as  most  alloy  steels,  in  which 
the  percentage  of  contraction  is  usually  twice  or  more  than  of  the  elongation.  The 
pulled  test  piece  has  a  rather  uniform  stretch  throughout  its  length,  whereas  simple 
steels,  as  is  well  known,  have  a  largely  increased  amount  of  stretch  near  the  point 
of  fracture.  A  recent  pulling  test  of  forged,  heat-treated  manganese  steel  gave  the 
results  following.  The  steel  was  cast  in  a  test  bar  3  inches  square,  forged  down  to 
a  test  piece  of  about  the  dimensions  given,  and  finished  by  grinding. 

Diameter  of  piece,  inches 0.823 

Length,  inches 

Tensile  strength  per  square  inch,  pounds 152,840 

Elastic  limit  per  square  inch,  pounds 56,400 


Elongation,  per  cent , 
Contraction,  per  cent . 

Carbon,  per  cent 

Manganese,  per  cent .  . 

Silicon,  per  cent 

Phosphorus,  per  cent . 


51 
39.5 
1.10 
12.4 
0.15 
0.06 


The  length  of  the  pulled  section  of  a  manganese-steel  test  piece  does  not  affect 
the  elongation  as  much  as  is  the  case  with  simple  steels  because  the  stretch  is  so  much 
more  nearly  uniform,  as  described  above. 

The  elastic  limit  of  manganese  steel  is  unexpectedly  low  and  not  well  defined, 
as  the  steel  yields  at  a  gradually  increasing  rate  when  pulled,  as  in  testing,  giving  no 
point  that,  strictly  speaking,  can  be  said  to  be  the  elastic  limit  or  even  yield  point. 

Owing  to  its  lack  of  elastic  limit  and  to  its  high  ductility,  manganese  steel  is  prone 
to  flow  under  stress,  and  it  does  not  have  high  resistance  to  compression  or  to  con- 
tinually repeated  blows  of  a  hard  mineral  or  other  material  that  will  gradually  batter 
it  out  of  shape. 

COMPRESSION  TESTS  OF  CAST  MANGANESE  STEEL 
(Watertown  Arsenal) 


Number 
of  Test  Piece 

ANALYSIS 

PERMANENT  SET  AT  A  PRESSURE  PER 
SQUARE  INCH  OP  — 

Total 
Load 

C. 

Si. 

Mn. 

Cr. 

40,000 
Pounds 

50,000 
Pounds 

60,000 
Pounds 

70,000 
Pounds 

1.  ..    . 

% 
1.23 
1.26 
1.31 
1.22 

% 
0.95 
.54 
.43 

.72 

% 

12.6 
12.8 
12.7 
11.7 

% 

CK86 

Ins. 
0.0006 
.0020 
.0010 
.0002 

Ins. 
0.0036 
.0046 
.0036 
.0009 

Ins. 
0.0213 
.0182 
.0204 
.0038 

Ins. 
0.0981 
.0899 
.0998 
.0220 

Lbs. 

190,100 
180,100 
172,300 
175,200 

2  

3 

4  

All  test  pieces  were  cast  and  finished  by  grinding  to  4  inches  long  and  1.129  inches 
in  diameter,  giving  1  square  inch  of  cross-sectional  area.  At  the  total  load  the  pieces 
•buckled.  The  permanent  set  at  a  pressure  of  40,000  pounds  per  square  inch  shows 
that  the  limit  of  elasticity  was  passed  in  every  case. 

The  hardness  by  Brinell's  ball  test  of  manganese  steel  is  low,  running  usually  about 
190. 

Manganese-steel  Castings  are  made  in  dry  sand,  in  green  sand,  and  in  some  in- 
stances in  iron  molds,  the  considerations  leading  to  the  adoption  of  any  particular 
material  being  much  the  same  as  with  ordinary  simple  steel  castings,  such  as  danger 
of  pulling  apart  or  cracking  in  cooling,  misrunning,  or  failure  to  fill  the  mold  properly, 
and  breaking  or  washing  of  the  mold,  and  numerous  others.  The  high  coefficient  of 

[249] 


MANGANESE  STEEL 

expansion  of  manganese  steel  must  be  considered,  as  it  increases  the  liability  of  a  cast- 
ing to  be  cracked  or  pulled  apart  by  shrinkage  in  cooling. 

Manganese  steel  is  prone  to  settle,  as  it  solidifies,  demanding,  for  a  given  massive- 
ness  of  design,  larger  sink  heads  than  simple  steels  to  feed  the  casting  properly  and 
prevent  settle  holes. 

Even  more  than  with  other  steel  castings,  it  is  important  that  manganese-steel 
castings  be  so  designed  that  the  mass  is  fairly  uniform  throughout,  or  in  particular 
that  no  part  is  much  thicker  than  the  rest.  If  a  thick  part  is  unavoidable,  it  should  be 
connected  with  a  sink  head  by  metal  as  thick  or  nearly  so.  Thus,  bosses  and  heavy 
fillets,  often  advisable  in  iron  and  simple  steel  castings,  should  be  avoided  because  of 
the  local  increase  of  the  mass  they  cause.  The  trouble  is  that  a  heavy  part  incom- 
pletely fed  will  be  unsound  in  its  central  parts.  A  hole  or  recess  cored  in,  if  permis- 
sible, may  prevent  the  central  cavity,  or  an  iron  or  soft  steel  core  may  be  imbedded 
in  the  thick  part,  which,  by  hastening  the  solidification  of  the  metal,  may  prevent 
the  formation  of  holes  or  loose  metal  there. 

Uses. — Manganese  steel  resists  admirably  abrasion  under  slow  speeds  of  impact, 
as  in  Blake  crushers,  rolls,  gyratory  crushers,  and  similar  machines;  but  results  in 
high-speed  grinders,  such  as  the  various  centrifugal  mills,  are,  if  not  poor,  at  least 
such  as  will  not  often  warrant  the  expense  of  manganese-steel  wearing  parts,  especially 
if  such  parts  require  some  finishing,  which  must  be  done  by  slow  and  expensive 
grinding. 

For  railway-track  work,  manganese-steel  cast  frogs,  switches,  curved  rails,  and 
other  special  work  are  most  excellent,  and  they  are  extensively  used. 

The  properties  of  the  metal  were  early  seen  to  make  it  an  ideal  material  of  which 
to  make  burglar-proof  safes  and  vaults;  that  is,  it  is  too  hard  to  be  cut  and  too  strong 
to  be  broken  even  by  considerable  charges  of  dynamite  and  nitroglycerin. 

The  non-magnetic  property  of  manganese  steel  has  found  an  important  use  in  the 
cover  plates  of  lifting  magnets  for  handling  heavy  iron  and  steel  articles  where  it  is 
subjected  to  hard  blows  from  the  pieces  jumping  to  meet  the  magnets.  It  offers  little 
or  no  obstruction  to  the  passage  of  the  magnetic  attraction.  It  is  also  used  in  the 
structure  about  the  compasses  on  some  ships  because  it  does  not  affect  the  compass 
needle. 

Hot  Working. — Manganese  «teel  is,  like  simple  steel,  or  even  more  so,  improved 
in  its  physical  properties  by  forging  or  rolling.  Cast  test  pieces  usually  give  mislead- 
ing results  because  of  imperfections  due  to  casting.  A  steel  that,  cast  and  heat-treated, 
may  show  a  tensile  strength  of  80,000  pounds  per  square  inch  with  20%  elongation 
may  have,  when  well  worked  by  forging  and  rolling  and  then  heat  treated,  a  tensile 
strength  of  140,000  pounds  per  square  inch  and  50%  of  elongation  in  8  inches. 

Cold  working,  such  as  stretching  or  cold  rolling,  rapidly  raises  its  tensile  strength 
and  elastic  limit  but  destroys  most  of  its  ductility.  Cold-rolled  manganese  steel  on 
test  has  shown  a  tensile  strength  of  250,000  pounds  per  square  inch  and  an  elastic 
limit  of  230,000  pounds. 

The  largest  demand  for  hot-worked  manganese  steel  is  in  rails  for  railroads.  The 
rails  are  rolled  on  ordinary  rail  mills  and  are  heat  treated  by  being  quenched  imme- 
diately after  rolling.  The  service  rendered  by  the  rails  is  excellent  and  their  use  is 
extending.  Some  railroad  men  think  their  durability  at  least  five  times  that  of  ordi- 
nary rails. 

SIMPLE  NICKEL  STEELS 

Nickel  steel  was  chronologically  the  fourth  alloy  steel  to  be  introduced;  the  useful 
nickel-iron  alloys  range,  with  large  intervals,  from  2  to  46%  of  nickel,  a  greater  com- 
pass than  is  covered  by  any  other  element  alloyed  with  iron. 

Nickel  in  untreated  ordinary  nickel  steel  raises  the  tensile  strength  and,  in  a  greater 
proportion,  the  elastic  limit  for  a  given  content  of  carbon  without  decreasing  the  ductility. 

Nickel  steels  with  the  different  percentages  of  nickel  present  about  the  same  range 
of  internal  microscopic  structures  as  do  manganese-iron  alloys.  With  low  nickel  content, 
as  in  the  great  bulk  of  nickel  steels  made,  the  unhardened  steel  is  pearlitic.  Higher 
nickel  content  gives  martensitic  structure,  and  still  higher  austenitic. 

[250] 


SIMPLE  NICKEL  STEEL 

Manufacture. — Nickel  steel  is  made  by  any  of  the  steel-making  processes,  but  most 
of  it  is  produced  in  the  open-hearth  furnace.  The  operations  are  similar  to  those 
followed  in  the  production  of  simple  steels,  the  nickel  being  either  in  the  materials 
of  the  original  charge  or  added  in  the  metallic  form  at  any  time  long  enough  before 
the  heat  is  cast  for  the  nickel  to  be  melted  and  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  metal  of 
the  charge.  Nickel  is  negative  to  iron  at  steel-melting  temperatures,  and  the  iron 
protects  it  from  oxidation  and  even  reduces  it  from  its  oxide,  so  that  it  is  not  wasted 
to  any  considerable  extent  in  melting  or  working  even  when  iron  ore  is  added  to  the 
bath.  On  the  other  hand,  it  does  not  deoxidize  the  metal  or  decompose  carbonic  oxide 
or  keep  the  hydrogen  and  other  gases  in  solution.  It  is  not  added,  therefore,  for  cura- 
tive purposes,  as  it  gives  no  aid  in  rendering  steel  sound  or  free  from  holes.  In  fact, 
nickel  steel  is  prone  to  have  seams  and  surface  defects  after  it  has  been  rolled,  which 
is  one  reason  against  its  wider  use.  The  service  of  nickel  is  merely  as  an  alloying 
element,  to  improve  the  physical  properties  of  the  finished  steel  either  in  its  natural 
or  heat-treated  condition. 

Hot  Working. — Ordinary  simple  nickel  steel  (3  to  4%  nickel)  is  worked  hot  by  the 
usual  forging  and  rolling  operations  much  as  simple  steel  is  worked.  The  higher  nickel 
steels  are  more  difficult  to  work,  having  narrower  ranges  of  temperature  at  which  they 
may  be  hot-worked  without  showing  signs  of  redshortness. 

Although  molten  iron  protects  molten  nickel  from  oxidation,  iron  can  not  protect 
nickel  from  oxidation  in  scale  formed  on  nickel  steel,  as  in  the  heating  furnace.  The 
scale  formed  sticks  much  more  firmly  to  the  metal  than  that  of  simple  steel,  both  hot 
and  cold,  and  requires  particular  measures  for  its  removal. 

Steels  containing  useful  quantities  of  nickel  are  liable  to  contain  seams  that  appear 
as  dark-colored  lines  in  the  metal.  The  seams  doubtless  come,  sometimes  at  least, 
from  "  skin "  gas  holes  which  become  oxidized  on  their  walls.  It  is  held  by  some 
persons  that  seams  develop  in  rolling  without  being  caused  by  gas  holes,  and  that  this 
tendency  is  lessened  by  rolling  at  a  high  temperature,  about  1,300°  C.  (2,372°  F.). 

Structural  Steel. — The  great  bulk  of  simple  nickel  steels  contains  from  2  to  4% 
of  nickel,  a  proportion  that  affords  the  most  suitable  physical  properties  for  nearly 
all  structural  purposes,  and  the  nickel  content  usually  aimed  at  in  steels  for  structural 
purposes  is  3.25%.^  This  grade  might  be  called  ordinary  nickel  steel,  as  it  is  usually 
meant  when  nickel  steel  is  mentioned  without  further  specification.  It  has  high  value 
for  structural  purposes  such  as  bridges,  gun  forgings,  machine  parts,  engine  and  auto- 
mobile parts;  and  any  similar  line  of  service  that  is  too  severe  for  simple  steels. 

Steel  with  2%  of  nickel  is  used  in  seamless  tubes  such  as  are  used  for  bicycles.  They 
are  not  heat  treated,  but  higher  properties  than  those  of  the  steel  in  its  natural  state 
are  imparted  by  the  cold-drawing  operations  by  which  these  tubes  are  finished.  The 
ordinary  grade  with  3.5%  nickel  is  used  in  cannon,  being  always  heat  treated  for  this 
use.  It  is  also  used  in  many  automobile  parts,  the  variety  of  high  properties  obtain- 
able in  it  by  modifying  its  heat  treatment  rendering  it  fit  for  almost  any  service  de- 
manding a  strength  and  security  from  breakage  that  a  simple  steel  will  not  meet. 

In  some  large  dynamos  the  revolving  fields  are  connected  by  nickel-steel  rings  having 
3%  nickel,  the  metal  being  particularly  well  suited  for  the  purpose  both  by  its  strength 
and  its  magnetic  efficiency,  the  permeability  being  high  and  the  hysteresis  losses  low. 

PROPERTIES  OF  ORDINARY  NICKEL  STEEL 

All  the  samples  consisted  of  small  test  pieces,  and  elongations  were  measured  on 
2  inches  except  as  noted. 

One  per  cent  of  nickel  in  ordinary  nickel  steel  in  the  natural  state  raises  the  ten- 
sility about  6,000  to  8,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Castings. — The  properties  of  one  grade  of  nickel-steel  castings  made  for  special 
purposes  are  as  follows:  Composition,  C  0.20%,  Mn  0.50%,  Si  0.35%,  Ni  2.50%; 
tensile  strength,  85,000  pounds  per  square  inch;  elongation,  25%;  contraction,  40%. 
This  steel  was  not  given  treatment  involving  quenching  but  was  merely  annealed. 

Arnold  and  Read's  Alloy. — The  13%  nickel-iron  alloy  with  0.55%  carbon  discov- 
ered recently  by  Arnold  and  Read  is  noteworthy,  as  it  seems  to  possess  the  highest 

[251] 


SIMPLE  NICKEL  STEEL 


strength  of  any  of  the  nickel  steels.  It  is  so  hard  as  to  be  unmachinable,  and  investi- 
gators were  not  able  to  drill  it  even  to  get  some  drillings  for  analysis,  the  composition 
mentioned  being  what  they  aimed  at  when  making  the  steel.  It  has  a  yield  point 
of  about  134,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  a  tensile  strength  of  about  195,000  pounds, 
with  12%  of  elongation  in  2  inches. 

Hadfield's  experiments  showed  that  low-carbon  steels  with  11.4  and  15.5%  of  nickel 
each  had  a  tensility  of  210,560  pounds,  which  was  more  than  was  possessed  by  the 
steels  next  above  and  below.  The  curve  therefore  should  have  reached  a  maximum 
between  them  with  a  nickel  content  of  about  13.5%. 

Arnold  and  Read's  steel  should,  of  course,  have  a  higher  tensility,  or  about  215,000 
pounds,  to  harmonize  with  Hadfield's,  and  further  tests  are  needed  to  establish  the 


Sam- 
ft 

COMPOSITION 

Condition 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES 

C 

Mn 

Si 

S 

P 

Ni 

Tensile 
Strength 

Elastic 

Limit 

Elonga- 
tion 

Con- 
trac- 
tion 

Ball 
Hard- 
ness 

1« 

2C 

y 
¥ 

5* 
6« 

r 

S* 
9* 
10' 
11* 
12* 

% 
0.28 
.40 
.40 
.20 
.20 
.20 
.30 
.30 
.30 
.30 
.25 
.25 

% 

0.57 
.64 
.55 
.65 
.65 
.6$ 
.65 
.65 
.65 
.65 
.74 
.74 

% 

0.21 
.21 

% 
0.03 
.02 
.03 
.04 
.04 
.04 
.04 
.04 
.04 
.04 
.01 
.01 

% 
0.02 
.01 
.01 
.04 
.04 
.04 
.04 
.04 
.04 
.04 
.01 
.01 

% 
3.44 
3.43 
3.70 
3.5 
3.5 
3.5 
3.5 
3.5 
3.5 
3.5 
3.55 
3.55 

Natural  state.  .  . 
Annealed  

Lbs. 
95,420 
98,800 
93,180 

Lbs. 

56,670 
51,400 
56,060 
43,000 
95,000 
140,000 
63,000 
87,000 
123,000 
187,000 
177,000 
117,000 

% 
*21.2 
d!2.4 
d!5.8 
27 
20 
14 
27 
25 
15 
13 
14 
20 

% 

50 
33 
40 
62 
72 
61 
63 
68 
57 
57 
60 
67 

170 

216 
330 
163 
207 
269 
405 
395 
267 

Annealed    . 

Annealed  

(/) 

(«) 

Annealed 

(h) 

(0 

U) 

(/) 

207,000 
135,000 

(»») 

a  Sample  represented  untreated  steel  for  Quebec  bridge. 
6  In  8  inches. 

c  Full  size  eyebars  for  St.  Louis  Municipal  Bridge, 
d  In  18  feet. 

e  Figures  taken  from  Fourth  report  of  Iron  and  Steel  Division:  Bull.  Soc.  Automobile  Eng.,  vol.  4, 1913, 
p.  168. 


lenched  in  water  at  850°  C. 
;hed  in  water  at  800°  C. 
inched  in  water  at  800°  C. 
iched  in  water  at  800°  C. 
)uenched  in  water  at  800°  C. 


gures  furnished  by  Halcomb  Steel  Co. 


I  Quenched  in  water  at  843°  C. 
TO  Quenched  in  water  at  843°  C. 


hardness  drawn  in  air  at  538°  C. 
hardness  drawn  in  air  at  316°  C. 
hardness  drawn  in  air  at  593°  C. 
hardness  drawn  in  air  at  399°  C. 
hardness  drawn  in  air  at  316°  C. 


hardness  drawn  in  air  at  316°  C. 
hardness  drawn  in  air  at  538°  C. 


exact  path  of  the  curve.  Arnold  and  Read  note  that  the  composition  of  this  steel 
nearly  corresponds  with  the  formula  Fe?Ni. 

Properties  of  Nickel  Steels. — Before  Arnold  and  Read's  discovery  of  the  13% 
grade,  15%  nickel  steel  was  thought  to  have  the  greatest  strength  of  all  the  nickel 
steels — that  is,  hi  the  natural  state.  It  is  hard  to  machine,  and  heating  followed  by 
slow  cooling  does  not  soften  it,  though  heating  and  quenching  do  enough  to  allow 
it  to  be  machined  slowly.  It  has  a  tensility  of  about  170,000  pounds  and  an  elastic 
limit  of  150,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  according  to  one  observer,  though,  as  stated 
above,  Hadfield  obtained  210,560  pounds  tensility,  with  little  ductility. 

Eighteen  per  cent  nickel-iron  alloy,  although  not  useful,  is  worthy  of  note  here 
because  of  its  anomalous  action  when  cooled  from  200°  C.  (392°  F.).  At  first  it  con- 
tracts uniformly  until  its  temperature  falls  to  130°  C.  (266°  F.).  Then  it  expands 
while  cooling  to  60°  C.  (140°  F.),  when  it  again  contracts  as  the  temperature  falls 
farther. 

Twenty-two  per  cent  nickel  steel  is  used  when  resistance  to  rusting  or  corrosion 

[252] 


NICKEL-CHROMIUM  STEEI/ 

is  desired.  It  is  also  used  sometimes  for  the  spark  poles  in  the  spark  plugs  of  internal- 
combustion  engines,  including  automobiles,  though  commercial  nickel  wire  is  more 
commonly  used. 

High-nickel  steels  having  25%  or  more  of  nickel  and  low  carbon  content  (about  3%) 
are  austenitic  in  structure  and  in  the  natural  state  are  softer  and  tougher  than  the 
medium-nickel  martensitic  steels. 

Steels  containing  more  than  24%  of  nickel  are  practically  non-magnetic  in  their 
ordinary  condition,  a  rather  remarkable  fact  when  the  high  magnetic  susceptibility 
of  both  iron  and  nickel  alone  is  considered.  The  explanation  that  the  critical  point 
marking  the  change  from  the  non-magnetic  to  the  magnetic  state  of  iron  is  lowered 
by  the  nickel  from  about  700°  C.  (1,292°  F.)  to  below  ordinary  atmospheric  tempera- 
tures is,  no  doubt,  sound  as  far  as  it  goes.  When  25%  nickel  steel  is  cooled  to  —  40°  C. 
(— 40°  F.)  it  becomes  magnetic,  and  retains  its  magnetism  at  ordinary  atmospheric 
temperatures.  On  being  heated  to  580°  C.  (1,076°  F.),  however,  the  alloy  reverts  to 
the  non-magnetic  state.  This  separation  of  620°  C.  between  the  critical  points  marking 
the  magnetic  states  in  heating  and  cooling  is  great  in  comparison  with  the  25°  to  50°  C. 
of  simple  steels,  and  because  of  it  this  steel  is  classed  as  irreversible. 

Boiler  Tubes. — Nickel  steel  with  30%  of  nickel  is  used  in  boiler  tubes,  particularly 
in  marine  boilers,  for  which  it  is  admirable.  These  tubes  are  in  the  natural,  not  heat- 
treated  state.  They  resist  corrosion  better  than  simple  steel  tubes  and  last  three  times 
as  long.  Hence  their  use  is  sometimes  economical  in  spite  of  the  much  higher  cost. 

Invar. — The  36%  nickel  steel  known  as  invar  is  used  to  the  extent  of  perhaps  a 
few  hundred  pounds  a  year  in  clock  pendulums,  rods  for  measuring  instruments,  and 
such  parts  for  which  its  exceedingly  slight  expansion  and  contraction  when  heated  and 
cooled  within  the  atmospheric  range  give  it  a  particular  value.  Nevertheless,  its  co- 
efficient of  expansion,  even  though  small,  is  not  negligible,  and  compensating  means 
must  be  used  in  invar  clock  pendulums  and  in  the  invar  balance-wheels  of  watches. 

Some  invar  has  as  low  a  coefficient  of  expansion  as  0.0000008  per  degree  centigrade, 
and  samples  have  been  made  that  contracted  slightly  when  warmed.  The  coefficient 
given  indicates  an  expansion  of  0.05  inch  in  a  mile  per  degree  C. 

When  invar  is  heated  to  about  300°  C.  (572°  F.)  and  higher  its  coefficient  of  expan- 
sion is  greatly  increased  and  its  lack  of  expansion  at  ordinary  temperatures  appears  to 
be  merely  a  belated  and  not  destroyed  function.  With  excessive  cold  there  is  likewise, 
a  resumption  of  contraction. 

Platinite. — Forty-six  per  cent  nickel  steel  with  0.15%  carbon,  known  as  platinite, 
has  about  the  same  coefficient  of  expansion  as  platinum  and  glass,  and  for  that  reasoij 
may  be  imbedded  in  glass  without  breaking  the  latter  by  a  difference  in  expansion. 
It  has  been  used  in  leading  wires  in  the  glass  bases  of  electric  incandescent  lamp  bulbs 
as  a  substitute  for  platinum,  which  was  formerly  held  to  be  indispensable.  In  those 
lamp  bulbs  the  preservation  of  the  vacuum  is  necessary  and  the  joint  between  the 
wire  and  glass  must  be  kept  tight.  Platinite  has  not  been  found  wholly  suitable  for 
this  purpose,  and  is  not  now  so  used,  a  compound  wire  with  a  38%  nickel-steel  core 
encased  in  copper  and  sometimes  coated  with  platinum  being  now  generally  employed. 
The  nickel-steel  core  if  free  will  expand  less  than  the  glass  and  the  copper  more,  so 
that  each  resists  the  other  and  the  wire  as  a  whole  will  have  the  desired  rate  of  expansion. 

NICKEL-CHROMIUM  STEELS 

Nickel-chromium  steels,  known  in  the  trade  as  chrome-nickel  steels,  are  perhaps 
the  most  important  of  the  structural  alloy  steels.  Their  field  of  usefulness  is  contin- 
ually being  enlarged  by  their  application  for  new  purposes  and  also  by  encroachment 
on  the  premises  of  some  of  the  other  alloy  steels,  notably  of  simple  nickel  steel,  and  they 
have  almost  wholly  displaced  nickel-vanadium  and  nickel-chromium-vanadium  steels, 
which  several  years  ago  were  in  some  considerable  demand. 

Nickel-chromium  steels  are  seldom  used  in  any  but  a  heat-treated  condition.  By 
suitable  treatment  pieces  of  small  mass  can  be  made  to  have  as  high  physical  prop- 
erties as  any  steels  known,  accompanied  by  ductility  that  is  high  as  compared  with  its 
strength,  as  the  ductility  naturally  lessens  as  the  elastic  limit  increases. 

[253] 


NICKEL-CHROMIUM  STEEL 


Nickel-chromium  steels  can  be  made  somewhat  more  cheaply  than  simple  nickel 
steel  of  the  same  strength  and  ductility  containing  a  smaller  total  of  the  alloying  ele- 
ments, and  chromium  is  less  costly  than  nickel. 

Composition  and  Properties. — The  upper  limit  of  nickel  in  useful  chrome-nickel 
steels  is  about  3.5%,  and  all  useful  steels  of  this  class  are  pearlitic.  When  a  chrome- 
nickel  steel  is  case-hardened,  the  case  is  harder  than  that  of  a  simple  nickel  steel. 

COMPOSITION  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  NICKEL-CHROMIUM  STEELS  IN  NATURAL  OR 

UNTREATED  STATE 


COMPOSITION 

TENSILE  PROPERTIES 

Sample 
No. 

C 

Mn 

Si 

s 

P 

Ni 

Cr 

Tensile 
Strength 

Elastic 

Limit 

Con- 
trac- 
tion 
of 

Elon- 

tion 
in  2 

Ball 
hard- 
ness 

Remarks 

Area 

Ins. 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

% 

% 

1  

0.55 

0.41 

0.22 

0.03 

0.02 

1.53 

1.14 

96,000 

75,000 

66 

31 

185 

Annealed 

2  

.18 

.27 

.05 

.04 

.02 

1.28 

1.59 

72,000 

51,000 

71 

37 

134 

Annealed 

3 

1R 

34 

13 

0? 

01 

1   ?8 

37 

59,000 

42,000 

64 

38 

115 

Annealed 

4  

.29 

.42 

.07 

.06 

.02 

3.86 

1.48 

Natural 

5  

.25 

.32 

.10 

.03 

.02 

1.45 

1.20 

96,500 

81,500 

68 

25 

Test  piece 

6  

.25 

.32 

.10 

.03 

.02 

1.45 

1.20 

97,100 

80,900 

49 

°7 



Eyebar; 

full  size 

In  21  feet. 


It 


Sample  4  is  from  a  plate  similar  to  that  used  in  the  mast  of  the  yacht  Vanitie. 
was  not  heat  treated,  but  was  used  as  rolled. 

Samples  5  and  6  represent  the  same  steel  and  show  the  relative  properties  of  the 
small  test  piece  and  the  full-size  eyebar  for  a  bridge  the  section  of  which  was  14  X  2 
inches.  The  difference  in  elongation  is  particularly  noticeable,  the  great  local  stretch 
near  the  point  of  rupture  being  only  a  small  part  of  the  total  length  of  the  bar. 

COMPOSITION   AND   PROPERTIES   OF   NICKEL-CHROMIUM   STEELS   IN    HEAT-TREATED 

CONDITION 


COMPOSITION 

TENSILE  PROPERTIES 

HEAT  TREATMENT 

Sample 
No. 

C 

Mn 

Si 

S 

P 

Ni 

Cr 

Ten- 
sility 

Elastic 
Limit 

Con- 
trac- 
tion 
of 
Area 

Elon- 

tion 
in  2 
Ins. 

Ball 
hard- 
ness 

Temper- 
ature at 
Which 
Steel  Was 
Quenched 
in  Water 

Temper- 
ature at 
Which 

Twffr 

Drawn 
in  Air 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

% 

% 

°c. 

°C. 

1  

0.40 

0.74 

0.24 

0.03 

0.02 

3.45 

1.20 

187,000 

175,000 

43 

10 

352 

830 

371 

2  

.36 

.53 

.11 

.04 

.01 

1.55 

.70 

145,000 

125,000 

65 

20 

233 

830 

566 

3.... 

.21 

.41 

.22 

.03 

.02 

3.52 

1.11 

110,000 

75,000 

66 

24 

215 

830 

682 

4  

.48 

.44 

.16 

.01 

.01 

2.02 

.98 

212,000 

186,000 

46 

10 

445 

843 

427 

5  

.48 

.44 

.16 

.01 

.01 

2.02 

.98 

140,000 

120,000 

61 

18 

287 

843 

649 

6.... 

.38 

.28 

.27 

.02 

.01 

3.01 

.65 

114,000 

90,000 

69 

25 

266 

843 

649 

Any  one  of  the  first  three  samples  could  be  given  substantially  the  properties  of 
either  of  the  other  two  by  varying  the  temperature  of  the  second  heating. 

[254] 


NICKEL-CHROMIUM  STEEL 

For  Automobiles — and  the  practice  might  be  advantageously  extended  to  other 
fields — three  grades  of  nickel-chromium  steel  are  used.  They  are  called  low,  medium, 
or  high  according  to  their  contents  of  nickel  and  chromium.  The  carbon  content  may 
be  varied  for  each  grade  within  the  limits  shown  in  the  following  table: 


COMPOSITION  OP  NICKEL-CHROMIUM  AUTOMOBILE  STEELS 


Grade 

C 

Mn 

Si 

s 

P 

Ni 

Cr 

Low..  . 

0.20  to  0.40 

0.65 

Low 

0.045 

0.04 

1.25 

0.6 

Med... 

.20  to    .40 

.65 

Low 

.045 

.04 

1.75 

1.10 

High  .  . 

.20  to    .40 

.65 

Low 

.045 

.04 

3.50 

1.50 

These  steels  are  almost  invariably  heat-treated  for  use  in  automobiles,  a  wide  range 
of  properties  being  attainable  by  varying  the  heat  treatment  with  each  steel.  The 
properties  overlap  those  of  steels  of  both  harder  and  softer  grades,  so  that  a  wide  choice 
of  properties  is  afforded  as  well  as  a  choice  of  steels  for  the  set  of  properties 
desired. 

Armor  Plate. — An  important  use  .for  chrome-nickel  steel  is  in  both  thick  and  medium 
armor  plate  for  war-vessels.  The  thick,  heavy  side  armor,  6  to  14  inches  thick,  is 
face-hardened.  A  recent  analysis  of  the  body  of  a  plate  gave:  C  0.33%,  Mn  0.32%, 
Si  0.06%,  S  0.03%,  P  0.014%,  Ni  4%,  Cr  2%,  and  its  tensile  properties  after  treatment 

Tensile  strength,  pounds  per  square  inch 101,000 

Elastic  limit,  pounds  per  square  inch 77,500 

Elongation  in  2  inches,  per  cent 24 

Contraction  of  area,  per  cent 60 


The  results  from  such  a  great  mass  of  metal  were  excellent. 

Medium  armor,  between  3  to  5  inches  thick,  is  rather  similar  in  composition.  It  is 
not  face-hardened,  but  is  given  high  properties  as  a  whole  by  the  heat  treatment  to 
which  it  is  subjected.  An  analysis  lately  made  gave:  C  0.30%,  Mn  0.34%,  Si  0.13%, 
S  0.03%,  P  0.03%,  Ni  3.66%,  Cr  1.45%. 

Its  physical  properties  were  those  given  below  as  Sample  1.  Sample  2  represented 
another  chrome-nickel  steel  made  for  the  same  purpose,  containing  3|%  of  nickel. 

Sample  1  Sample  2 

Tensile  strength,  pounds  per  square  inch 119,000  138,000 

Elastic  limit,  pounds  per  square  inch 106,000  119,000 

Elongation  in  2  inches,  per  cent 22  22 

Contraction  of  area,  per  cent 61  49 


Such  steel  is  most  excellent  for  use  on  war-ships  to  form  protective  decks  and  bar- 
riers to  protect  from  secondary  battery  fire.  Chrome-nickel-vanadium  steel  is  also 
used  for  this  purpose. 

Projectiles. — Nickel-chromium  steel  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  most  armor- 
piercing  projectiles. 

Cubillo  cites  a  steel  for  projectiles  having  0.48%  C,  0.58%  Mn,  0.75%  Cr,  2.55% 
Ni,  0.40%  Si,  0.04%  P.  A  test  piece  quenched  in  oil  and  tempered  "had  an  elastic 
limit  of  129,400  pounds  per  square  inch,  a  tensile  strength  of  150,300  pounds  per  square 
inch,  and  an  elongation  of  19%. 

For  large  projectiles  Girod  prefers  chromium-tungsten  steel  having  0.50%  C,  4% 
Ni,  0  to  1.5%  Cr,  and  0.25%  W. 

It  is  curious  that  nickel  is  considered  to  improve  the  quality  of  shot  although  gen- 

[255] 


NICKEL-CHROMIUM  STEEL 

erally  held  to  injure  the  quality  of  high-speed  tool  steels.  In  use  there  seems  to  be  a 
parallel  between  the  requirements  of  the  two,  except  for  the  important  and  vital  dif- 
ference as  to  the  required  speed  at  which  they  respectively  meet  the  metal  to  be  pene- 
trated. The  speed  of  impact  of  the  shot  enables  it  to  enter  when  no  amount  of  pressure 
will  effect  the  same  result. 

Hollow  Shaft. — Following  is  a  description  of  the  manufacture  of  a  large  shaft  of 
mild  chrome-nickel  steel  for  marine  purposes.  A  corrugated  35-ton  ingot  45  inches 
in  diameter  was  made  of  basic  open-hearth  steel  having  0.24%  C,  0.70%  Mn,  0.013% 
P,  0.015%  S,  0.18%  Si,  1.60%  Ni,  and  0.32%  Cr.  A  few  hundredths  per  cent  of  ti- 
tanium was  added  in  the  ladle,  but  did  not  appear  in  the  steel.  The  shaft  when  fin- 
ished was  14^  inches  in  diameter,  with  an  8-inch  hole  through  the  center  line. 

The  steel  was  melted  without  the  addition  of  ore  late  in  the  heat,  a  method  that 
favored  soundness  and  tended  to  allow  the  steel  to  clean  itself  of  insoluble  impuritiea 
such  as  oxides  and  silicates.  The  ingot  was  forged,  annealed  at  866°  C.  (1,590°  F.), 
bored,  rough-turned,  heated  to  750°  C.  (1,382°  F.),  quenched  in  oil,  and  drawn  at 
593°  C.  (1,100°  F.). 

The  shaft  was  merely  raised  to  the  drawing  temperature,  593°  C.,  when  firing 
at  once  ceased,  the  furnace  was  closed,  and  the  shaft  allowed  to  cool  with  the  furnace. 

The  averages  of  the  tests,  which  were  longitudinal,  were  as  follows:  Tensile  strength, 
83,300  pounds  per  square  inch;  elastic  limit,  52,500  pounds  per  square  inch;  elongation 
in  2  inches,  26%;  contraction,  60%.  The  results  were  excellent,  though  seemingly  a 
lower  drawing  temperature,  which  would  have  resulted  in  a  higher  elastic  limit,  would 
have  been  justified. 

Castings  are  made  also  of  chrome-nickel  steel  and  may  be  used  hi  the  annealed 
or  heat-treated  condition. 


COMPOSITION  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  CHROME-NICKEL  STEEL  CASTINGS 


COMPOSITION 

TENSILE  PROPERTIES 

Sample 
No. 

C 

Mn 

Si 

s 

P 

Ni 

Cr 

Tensile 
Strength 

Elastic 

Limit 

Contrac- 
tion of 
Area 

Elonga- 
tion in 
2  Ins. 

Condition 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

% 

% 

1  

0.30 

0.41 

.... 

0.04 

0.03 

3.64 

1.49 

91,500 

45,500 

24 

16.5 

Annealed 

2  

.33 

,39 

.04 

.03 

3.58 

1.61 

90,500 

46,500 

27 

18.5 

Annealed 

3  

.30 

.20 

0.35 

2.50 

.50 

110,000 

80,000 

30 

20 

Heat-treated 

Mayari  Steel. — A  so-called  natural  chrome-nickel  steel  is  now  made  from  certain 
ores  mined  at  Mayari,  Cuba.  The  ores  carry  enough  nickel  to  give  1.3  to  1.5%  of 
nickel,  and  enough  chromium  to  give  2  £  to  3%  of  chromium  in  the  crude  iron  smelted 
therefrom.  When  the  iron  is  converted  into  steel  by  the  pneumatic  or  open-hearth 
processes,  the  nickel  is  practically  all  present  in  the  steel,  but  the  chromium  is  of  neces- 
sity largely  wasted  by  being  oxidized. 

Steel  made  in  part  of  Mayari  iron  is  giving  good  service  in  rails,  and  particularly 
in  track  bolts,  which  are  heat-treated  to  give  the  metal  an  elastic  limit  of  75,000  pounds 
per  square  inch. 

Why  these  rails  are  satisfactory  when  other  chrome-nickel  steels  were  not  has  not 
been  explained.  The  chief  differences  seem  to  be  (1)  that  these  Mayari  steel  rails 
have  less  of  the  alloying  elements  because  Mayari  iron  is  used  only  in  part  in  them, 
and  (2)  that  the  steel  is  made  in  the  open-hearth  furnace. 

The  use  of  steel  containing  Mayari  iron  is  increasing,  and  the  demand  is  enough 
to  induce  the  production  synthetically  of  steels  of  the  same  composition  by  adding 
nickel  and  chromium  to  simple  steels  in  the  Mayari  proportions. 

[256] 


SILICON  STEEL 


SILICON  STEELS 

Silicon  steels  are  generally  made  in  the  open-hearth  furnace,  preferably  on  an 
acid  hearth,  as  the  acid  slag  does  not  waste  the  silicon  in  the  final  additions  as  rapidly 
as  does  a  basic  slag  that  contains  free  oxide  of  iron,  and  therefore  the  final  content  of 
silicon  desired  may  be  more  closely  controlled. 

Silicon  in  true  silicon  steels  must  be  added  to  the  charge  only  a  short  time  before 
teeming,  as  any  oxygen  that  reaches  the  metal  will  largely  be  taken  up  by  the  silicon 
which  will  be  wasted  by  burning  to  silicic  acid  (SiO2).  When  so  added  to  a  bath  in 
proper  condition  as  to  temperature  and  amount  of  dissolved  oxygen  or  oxides  the  silicon 
will  overwhelm  the  gases  in  solution,  and  the  steel  as  cast  will  be  free  from  blow-holes 
and  with  a  maximum  tendency  to  pipe. 

Because  of  the  large  proportion  of  silicon  in  silicon  steels  and  because  of  the  short 
time  allowable  after  the  silicon  has  been  added  to  the  bath,  it  should  be  added  in  the 
heated  or  molten  state. 

Properties. — Silicon  steel  containing  0.20%  of  carbon  may  be  rolled  if  the  silicon 
content  is  less  than  7%.  With  0.90%  carbon  it  may  be  rolled  if  the  silicon  is  less  than 
5%.  With  a  silicon  content  higher  than  5%  the  metal  is  useless.  In  structural  steels  the 
effect  of  the  silicon  is  to  raise  the  elastic  limit  to  a  moderate  degree.  Silicon  lowers 
the  coefficient  of  expansion  of  steel  somewhat  as  nickel  does. 


COMPOSITION  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  STRUCTURAL  SILICON  ("SILICO-MANGANESE")  STEELS 


Sample 
No. 

1  

Description 

C 

Si 

Mn 

s 

P 

Tensile 
Strength 

Elastic 

Limit 

Elon- 
tion 

Con- 
trac- 
tion 

Ball 
Hard- 
ness 

Automobile  springs.  .  . 
Springs  treated  

% 
0.50 
.47 
.50 

.48 
.48 
.50 
.36 
.36 
.31 

% 
2.00 
1.83 
1.90 

1.40 
1.40 
1.75 
1.27 
1.27 
2.39 

% 
0.70 
.70 
.70 

.45 
.45 
.65 

.57 
.57 

.48 

% 
0.04 
.01 
.04 

.03 
.03 
.03 

% 
0.03 
.01 
.04 

.02 
.02 
.05 

Lbs. 
254,000 

113,760 
177,750 

94,500 
182,200 
134,750 

Lbs. 
230,000 

71,100 
149,310 
198,700 
59,750 
160,850 
104,700 

% 
9*' 

17 
14 

8.5 
25 
12.5 

22 

% 

40 

... 

2  

3    .  .     . 

Carriage  axles  
Test    piece,    natural 
condition  
Test  piece,  treated  .  .  . 
Test,  treated  
Annealed 

4  

5  

6  

21 
48 
34 
55 

418 

7 

8  

Drawn  at  427°  C  
Drawn  at  427°  C  

9  

The  treated  test  piece  comprising  sample  5  was  heated  to  954°  C.  (1,750°  F.), 
quenched  in  water,  and  drawn  at  427°  C.  (800°  F.).  The  hardening  temperature  of 
samples  8  and  9  was  probably  about  the  same  as  that  of  sample  5. 

Uses. — The  chief  structural  use  of  silicon-alloy  steel  is  in  springs  of  the  leaf  type 
for  automobiles  and  other  vehicles.  The  silicon  is  considered  to  make  the  springs 
somewhat  tougher  so  that  they  are  less  liable  to  break  in  service  than  springs  of  simple 
steel.  In  the  trade  this  steel  is  called  silico-manganese  steel,  though  its  content  of 
manganese  is  usually  no  more  than  is  common  in  simple  steels. 

In  electricity,  an  important  use  for  silicon-alloy  steel  is  in  the  cores  of  static  trans- 
formers. With  the  exception  of  manganese,  most  of  the  elements  employed  in  making 
alloy  steels,  although  not  greatly  decreasing  the  magnetic  susceptibility  of  the  iron 
that  contains  them,  lower  its  hysteresis  loss.  Silicon  is  the  element  most  used  for 
that  purpose  because  it  is  the  cheapest,  but  aluminium,  phosphorus,  nickel 
and  tungsten  have  a  similar  effect. 

The  silicon  content  in  silicon  transformer  metal  is  usually  between  3|  and 
or,  more  exactly,  4  to  4£  %.      The  steel  is  rolled  into  thin  sheets  which,  for  one  large 

[257] 


HIGH-SPEED  TOOL  STEEL 

user,  are  0.014  inch  thick;  the  transformer  cores  are  built  up  of  these  sheets,  which 
are  cut  to  shape  separately  by  stamping.  For  low  induction  the  permeability  of  this 
steel  is  nearly  as  great  if  not  greater  than  that  of  any  other  variety  of  iron  or  iron  alloy 
known,  and  its  hysteresis  loss  is  less  than  that  of  any  other  of  nearly  as  low  cost. 

The  results  of  an  analysis  of  a  transformer  core  made  of  silicon-alloy  steel  are  as 
follows:  C,  0.08%;  Si,  4.18%;  Mn,  0.11%;  S,  0.06%;  P,  0.01%;  Al,  0.01%. 

Case-hardening. — Silicon  steels  can  not  be  case-hardened,  as  the  silicon  retards  the 
absorption  of  carbon;  the  silicon  content  must  therefore  be  low,  not  over  0.04%,  in 
steel  intended  to  be  so  treated. 

HIGH-SPEED  TOOL  STEELS 

High-speed  tool  steels,  also  called  rapid  steels,  have  worked  a  revolution  in  the 
machine-shop  business  of  the  whole  world,  affording  largely  increased  outputs  and 
commensurate  lower  costs.  The  revolutionary  feature  wherein  tools  made  of  these 
steels  differ  from  and  exceed  in  service  the  tools  formerly  used  is  their  ability  to  main- 
tain a  sharp  strong  cutting  edge  while  heated  to  a  temperature  far  above  that  which 
would  at  once  destroy  the  cutting  ability  of  a  simple  steel  tool.  Because  of  this  prop- 
erty a  tool  made  of  high-speed  tool  steel  can  be  made  to  cut  continuously  at  speeds 
three  to  five  times  as  great  as  that  practicable  with  other  tools,  and  when,  as  the  result 
of  the  friction  of  the  chip  on  the  tool,  it  may  be  red-hot  at  the  point  on  top  where  the 
chip  rubs  hardest,  and  the  chip  itself  may,  by  its  friction  on  the  tool  and  the  internal 
work  done  on  it  by  upsetting  it,  be  heated  to  a  blue  heat  of  296°  C.  (565°  F.)  or  even 
hotter,  to  perhaps  340°  C.  (644°  F.). 

Manufacture. — High-speed  tool  steels  are  all  made  by  the  crucible  or  electric-fur- 
nace process.  The  crucibles  or  pots  are  made  of  graphite.  The  average  Hie  of  the 
crucibles  or  pots  varies  hi  different  works  from  six  to  nine  melts.  In  packing  a  pot 
with  a  charge  for  rapid  steel  the  tungsten  must  be  placed  on  top  of  the  charge — as 
with  simple  tungsten  steel — to  guard  as  far  as  possible  against  the  tendency  of  the 
tungsten  to  settle  because  of  its  high  specific  gravity.  That  tendency  seems  to  be 
less  with  the  rapid  steels  than  with  the  simple  tungsten  steels. 

High-speed  tool  steel  as  cast  has  a  coarse  structure  and  dark  color  as  compared 
with  the  structure  and  color  of  simple  steels  of  the  same  carbon  content.  A  corner 
is  broken  from  the  top  of  each  ingot,  to  show  the  grain,  and  the  ingots  when  hand- 
poured  directly  from  the  pots  are  classified  by  the  eye  as  in  the  production  of  simple 
crucible  steels.  If  the  ingots  are  cast  from  the  large  ladle  a  test  is  taken  for  analysis 
which  determines  the  disposition  of  the  whole  ladleful  of  steel. 

The  ingots  run  from  3|  by  3£  niches  to  16  by  16  inches,  but  most  of  them  are  from 
5  by  5  inches  to  9  by  9  inches.  For  hot-working  they  are  heated  in  a  furnace  chamber 
having  a  temperature  of  about  1,180°  C.  (2,156°  F.).  At  this  high  heat  the  steel  may 
be  worked  satisfactorily  under  the  hammer  or  press  and  may  be  quickly  worked  down 
to  the  dimension  desired. 

Composition. — The  tendency  of  the  makers  is  toward  a  somewhat  uniform  com- 
position as  regards  the  contents  of  the  alloying  elements,  whose  benefits  have  become 
fairly  well  known,  and  whose  use  as  a  consequence  may  be  considered  as  established. 
Specifically,  these  alloying  elements  are  tungsten  and  chromium.  The  addition  of 
vanadium  and  cobalt  in  important  proportions  is  considered  by  some  makers  to  give 
distinct  improvement  to  high-speed  steel,  and  some  vanadium  is  almost  always  present. 

The  analyses  on  following  page  are  of  steels  recently  made,  most  of  which  are 
considered  to  be  good  commercial  steels. 

Samples  D — 1  and  E — 1  gave  excellent  results  in  a  competitive  test,  whereas  sam- 
ples D — 2,  D — 3,  E — 2,  and  E — 3,  manufactured  by  the  same  makers,  gave  distinctly 
inferior  results  in  the  same  shop. 

The  occurrence  of  nickel  hi  four  of  the  samples  may  have  been  accidental,  having 
been  due  to  nickel  in  some  of  the  scrap  steel  used  in  the  charge.  Most  makers  now 
put  in  vanadium,  and  steel  like  that  represented  by  sample  G,  which  had  the  highest 
vanadium  content  of  all  the  samples  represented  in  the  table,  was  the  winner  in  a 
recent  competitive  test. 

[258] 


HIGH-SPEED  TOOL  STEEL 


The  average  specific  gravity  of  the  steels  represented  in  the  table  was  about  8.8, 
the  increase  over  the  specific  gravity  of  iron  being  due  chiefly  to  the  tungsten  content. 

There  are  so  many  factors  besides  the  ultimate  composition  that  affect  the  value 
of  rapid  tool  steels  that  no  conclusion  can  be  drawn  from  the  analysis  alone. 

Carbon. — The  proportion  of  carbon  aimed  at  in  high-speed  tool  steels  is  about 
0.65%,  which  in  a  simple  steel  would  not  be  enough  to  give  the  maximum  hardness 
even  if  the  steel  were  heated  above  the  critical  point  and  quenched  in  water,  and  still 

RESULTS  OF  ANALYSES  OP  HIGH-SPEED  STEELS  MADE  IN  1913  OK  1914 


Sample  o 

C 

Mn 

Si 

8 

P 

Cr 

W 

V 

Co 

Ni 

Mo 

Remarks 

A  

% 
0.65 

% 
0.15 

% 
0.20 

% 
0.02 

% 
0.03 

% 
4.75 

% 
17.50 

% 
0.90 

% 

% 

% 

B—  1.... 
B—  2.... 

.66 

.74 

.27 
.31 

.14 
.13 

.04 
.04 

.05 
.02 

4.51 
4.20 

17.48 
15  63 

.70 
.67 

4.22 
2  70 

0.17 

•    K. 

B—  3.... 
B—  4.... 

.63 
69 

.14 
34 

.07 
.14 

.04 
.03 

.05 
.04 

4.26 
5.28 

17.16 
16.35 

.45 
.64 

3.80 

5.28 

.20 



C—  1.... 

.66 

.22 

.17 

.03 

.02 

3.44 

16.51 

.73 

C—  2.... 

.64 

.21 

.16 

.03 

.03 

3.30 

16  06 

.66 

4  02 

C—  3.... 

67 

.33 

.25 

.02 

.02 

3.85 

16.06 

.70 

D—  1... 
D—  2... 

.75 
.68 

.28 
.38 

.36 
.40 

.03 
.03 

4.10 
4.65 

19.00 
17  85 

.75 
53 

Good 
Inferior 

D—  3... 

.69 

.36 

.38 

.04 

4.67 

17.90 

.50 

Inferior 

D—  4... 

57 

20 

.26 

.02 

.03 

4.82 

15.38 

.50 

Inferior 

E—  1.... 

.61 

.23 

.35 

.04 

4  10 

17  20 

1  00 

Good 

E—  2.... 

.68 

.45 

.40 

.04 

4.00 

14  26 

1.09 

Inferior 

E—  3.... 

70 

.50 

.39 

.05 

4.08 

14.50 

1.07 

Inferior 

E—  4.... 

,60 

23 

.12 

.03 

.02 

3.90 

17.27 

.90 

Inferior 

F.   ..    . 

64 

2  29 

12 

02 

01 

4  39 

16  09 

59 

28 

G  

79. 

.37 

.18 

.03 

.02 

4.50 

13.30 

2!50 

H—  1.... 

.77 

,16 

21 

.02 

.02 

4.05 

18.64 

1.35 

H—  2.... 

.67 

.16 

.20 

02 

.02 

4.66 

13.86 

1.08 

I  

.64 

.23 

.29 

.02 

.02 

4.57 

19.10 

54 

J—  1.... 

.64 

,30 

26 

.02 

.01 

2.93 

18.71 

1.22 

J—  2.... 

.71 

.14 

.26 

.03 

.03 

2.97 

18.21 

.97 

K—  1.... 
K—  2.... 
K—  3.... 

.55 
.70 

.74 

Tr. 
Tr. 
.31 

.23 

.18 
.13 

.02 
.01 
.04 

.04 
.02 
.02 

4.46 
4.25 
4.20 

16.05 
15.50 
15.63 

.80 
.88 
.67 

4.72 
4.72 
2.70 

!l8 

0.72 
.67 

a  Samples  A  to  I  represented  American  steels,  the  numerals  indicating  different  samples  from  the  same 
maker;  sample  J  represented  an  English  steel;  sample  K  represented  a  German  steel. 

less  so  when  the  steel  is  cooled  as  slowly  as  these  steels  are  in  their  treatment.  This 
shows  that  the  carbon  acts  in  a  different  way  from  what  it  does  in  simple  steels. 

Tungsten  is  well  established  as  a  most  important  if  not  indispensable  ingredient 
of  commercial  tool  steels,  being  almost  or  quite  universally  used  in  quantity  therein. 
The  best  proportion  of  tungsten,  all  things  considered,  seems  to  lie  between  16  and 
20%,  the  tungsten  content  in  95%  of  all  the  American  steels  coming  within  these 
limits.  Some  published  analyses  of  European  high-epeed  tool  steels  show  a  higher 
content  of  tungsten  than  this,  but  American  makers  generally  agree  that  any  tungsten 
in  excess  of  20%  adds  nothing  to  the  usefulness  of  the  steel,  and  they  therefore  make 
that  proportion  the  upper  limit  of  the  amount  added.  One  effect  of  the  tungsten  is  that 
the  best  percentage  of  carbon  in  rapid  steel  is  but  about  half  that  required  in  simple 
tool  steels  intended  for  the  same  kind  of  service. 

Chromium. — The  effect  of  chromium  in  high-speed  tool  steel,  as  in  other  steels,  is  un- 
doubtedly, as  a  hardener,  entering  into  the  double  carbide  of  tungsten  and  chromium  which 
gives  or  causes  the  proper  cutting  edge.  Although  the  proportion  of  this  element  present 

[259] 


HIGH-SPEED  TOOL  STEEL 

in  these  steels  varies  considerably,  it  is  always  large,  perhaps  never  less  than  2%  or 
more  than  6%  in  American  steels,  and  in  European  steels  the  upper  limit  is  at  least  9%. 

Molybdenum. — The  use  of  molybdenum  in  high-speed  tool  steels  is  being  generally 
discontinued.  Some  makers  for  years  manufactured  molybdenum  tool  steels,  but  as 
a  rule  they  have  either  wholly  discontinued  its  use  or  use  a  much  smaller  proportion 
than  formerly,  employing  it  as  an  auxiliary  rather  than  a  major  constituent. 

The  effect  of  molybdenum  is  similar  to  that  of  tungsten,  but  is  more  intense  in  that 
1%  molybdenum  is  currently  considered  to  give  about  the  same  or  greater  hardening 
effect  than  2%  of  tungsten.  It  gives  a  fine  cutting  edge. 

Various  reasons  are  assigned  for-^Ke  discontinuance  of  the  use  of  molybdenum 
in  these  steels.  Taylor  found  that  molybdenum  in  rapid  steels  caused  irregular  per- 
formance; that  steels  of  nearly  the  same  composition  and  having  had  seemingly  the 
same  treatment  gave  large  variations  in  the  cutting  speeds  tKey  would  stand.  One 
user  specifies  no  molybdenum  because  it  causes  the  tools  to  crack  in  quenching.  A 
maker  objected  to  molybdenum  because  molybdenum  steel  was  apt  to  be  seamy  and 
to  contain  physical  imperfections. 

Vanadium  is  used  for  high-speed  tool  steel  in  varying  amounts,  most  makers  using 
at  least  0.5%,  although  some  run  the  vanadium  content  up  to  1|  or  lf%,  or  even 
more,  considering  that  such  an  addition  increases  in  an  important  degree  the  value 
of  the  steel  for  tools. 

The  effect  of  vanadium  is  considered  to  resemble  in  some  ways  that  of  chromium 
in  increasing  the  hardness  or  red-hardness  of  the  cutting  edge. 

High-speed  steels  containing  vanadium  are  generally  classed  as  "  superior  "  steels, 
and  many,  though  not  all,  makers  and  users  consider  them  distinctly  better  than  the 
"  standard  "  steels  containing  no  vanadium,  both  on  account  of  their  actual  cutting 
qualities  at  high  speeds  and  on  account  of  the  length  of  time  a  tool  will  cut  before 
it  needs  regrinding.  The  true  value  of  vanadium  in  rapid  steels  must  probably  be 
held  as  not  yet  fully  determined. 

Cobalt  now  threatens  to  change  tool-steel  manufacture  because  of  the  properties 
it  imparts.  The  recent  great  decline  in  price  following  the  increase  of  the  supply 
from  the  silver  ores  of  the  cobalt  district  in  Ontario  naturally  led  to  its  trial  as  a  steel- 
alloying  element,  and  some  most  excellent  high-speed  steels  containing,  in  addition 
to  the  usual  ingredients,  about  4%  of  cobalt,  have  been  obtained.  This  result  was 
hardly  to  have  been  expected  in  view  of  the  experience  with  nickel,  which  cobalt  much 
resembles,  as  nickel  has  been  condemned  by  nearly  every  manufacturer  as  not  being 
a  desirable  ingredient  of  high-speed  tool  steels,  because  of  the  effect  it  has  of  making 
the  edge  soft  or  "  leady."  The  cobalt  steel,  however,  has  shown,  in  some  products 
at  least,  increased  ability  to  hold  its  edge  in  work. 

One  user  of  cobalt  steel  found  it  better  suited  for  turning  manganese  steel  than  any 
other  steel  he  tried,  his  success  being  so  marked  as  to  make  it  practically  a  commercial 
operation.  Manganese  steel,  as  noted  elsewhere,  is  so  hard  as  to  be  considered  practically 
unmachinable,  the  usual  practice  having  been  to  finish  it  by  grinding  when  necessary. 

The  valuable  effect  of  cobalt  is  claimed  to  be  that  it  increases  the  red-hardness  of 
high-speed  tool  steel,  enabling  the  steel  to  cut  at  a  higher  speed. 

Copper  has  been  considered  to  be  highly  injurious  in  high-speed  tool  steel,  even 
as  little  as  0.05%  being  inadmissible;  and  it  is  thought  to  be  particularly  harmful 
if  much  sulphur  is  present  in  the  steel;  also  the  higher  the  carbon  content  the  more 
harmful  is  the  copper. 

Sulphur  and  phosphorus,  which  are  so  deleterious  in  simple  tool  steels,  are  consid- 
ered to  be  somewhat  less  so  in  high-speed  steels,  in  which  the  effect  is  either  modified 
or  else  masked  by  the  large  quantities  of  other  ingredients.  Some  commercial  brands 
of  high-speed  steels  have  as  much  as  0.05%  of  each  of  these  impurities,  to  which  no 
inferior  quality  is  attributable. 

STELLITE 

Stellite,  though  a  competitor  of  high-speed  steels,  is  not  within  the  scope  of  our 
subject,  but  a  recent  analysis  is  given  of  a  sample  for  such  interest  as  it  may  have 
in  relation  to  cutting  steels. 

[2601 


CHROMIUM-VANADIUM  STEEL 

ANALYSIS  OF  STELLITE 
Constituent  Per  cent 

Cobalt 59.50 

Chromium 10.77 

Molybdenum 22.50 

Carbon 87 

Silicon 77 

Manganese 2.04 

Sulphur.  .  . . 084 

Phosphorus .- 040 

Iron 3.11 

Tungsten 0 

Nickel..  0 


99.684 


CHROMIUM-VANADIUM   STEELS 


Chromium-vanadium  steels,  usually  called  in  the  trade  chrome-vanadium  steels, 
are  the  latest  development  in  structural  alloy  steels  that  have  gained  an  extensive 
market.  These  steels  are  almost  all  made  in  the  open-hearth  furnace,  the  chromium 
and  vanadium  alloys  being  added  shortly  before  casting. 

The  hot  working  of  chrome-vanadium  steels  presents  no  especial  difficulties.  The 
total  amount  of  alloying  elements  is  not  large  in  the  commercial  grades,  and  the  steel 
acts  in  the  press  and  rolls  much  like  simple  steels  with  somewhat  higher  carbon  contents. 

Chrome-vanadium  steels  are  in  their  physical  properties  much  like  chrome-nickel 
steels,  but  they  have  a  greater  contraction  of  area  for  a  given  elastic  limit  than  the 
latter. 

This  higher  contraction  of  area  in  the  pulling  test  seems  in  some  way  to  be  asso- 
ciated with  machinability,  as  chrome-vanadium  steel  with  an  elastic  limit  of  150,000 
pounds  per  square  inch  may  be  machined  rapidly,  whereas  a  chrome-nickel  steel  having 
such  an  elastic  limit  would  quickly  dull  the  cutting  tool  if  cut  at  the  same  speed. 

COMPOSITION  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  CHROME-VANADIUM  STEELS    IN  NATURAL  STATE 


COMPOSITION 

TENSILE  PROPERTIES 

Sample 

No. 

C 

Mn 

Si 

s 

p 

V 

Cr 

Tensile 
Strength 

Elastic 
Limit 

Con- 
traction 
of   Area 

Elonga- 
tion in 
2  Ins. 

Ball 
Hard- 
ness 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

% 

% 

1  

0.57 

0.84 

0.27 

0.03 

0.01 

0.31 

1.36 

98,000 

75,750 

68.5 

28.1 

175 

2 

.46 

.48 

.20 

.02 

.01 

.14 

1.17 

82,250 

52,500 

71.0 

34.0 

160 

3..... 

.18 

.32 

.18 

.02 

.01 

.20 

.74 

60,500 

42,900 

75.0 

43.0 

133 

4  

.30 

.65 

.10 

.04 

.04 

.18 

.90 



45,000 

69.0 

35.0 

°155 

°  Annealed. 

The  greater  part  of  the  chrome- vanadium  steels  made  goes  into  automobiles.  They 
are  preferred  by  some  because  of  their  greater  freedom  from  surface  imperfections, 
notably  seams,  which  steels  containing  nickel  are  prone  to  have  if  the  ingots  are  at 
all  unsound.  Vanadium  is  a  deoxidizer,  whereas  nickel  is  not,  so  that  vanadium,  when 
present,  favors  quality,  and  the  smaller  proportion  required  enables  it  to  compete 
with  nickel  even  though  its  cost  is  five  or  six  times  as  great. 

Chrome-vanadium  steels  are  nearly  always  used  in  the  heat-treated  condition,  but 
there  are  exceptions  even  in  automobiles,  as  some  frames,  forgings,  and  shafts  are 
made  of  the  steel  in  its  natural  state.  When  heat  treated  these  steels  are  both  hardened 
and  drawn  at  slightly  higher  temperatures  than  are  used  with  nickel-chromium  steels 

[261] 


CHROMIUM- VANADIUM  STEEL 


to  get  similar  properties.     These  temperatures  are  given  in  the  table  of  heat-treated 
chrome-vanadium  steels.. 

Some  chrome-vanadium  steel  is  said  to  be  used  in  armor  plate  of  medium  thickness 
(4  inches),  which  is  not  face-hardened  but  has  high  properties  imparted  by  heat  treat- 
ment. Some  such  steel  is  used  in  high-duty  forgings  and  structural  parts  of  machines. 

COMPOSITION  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  CHROME- VANADIUM  STEELS  IN  HEAT-TREATED  STATE 


COMPOSITION 

TENSILE  PROPERTIES 

6 

fc 

"ft 

Con- 

Elon- 

1 

C 

Mn 

Si 

S 

P 

Cr 

V 

Tensile 
Strength 

Elastic 
Limit 

trac- 
tion 
of 

ga- 
tion 
in  2 

BaH 
Hard- 
ness 

Treatment  ° 

Area 

Ins. 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

% 

% 

1 

0.30 

0.65 

0.10 

0.04 

0.04 

0.90 

0.18 

101,000 

64 

20 

255 

899°  W;  704°  A. 

2 

.30 

.65 

.10 

.04 

.04 

.90 

.18 



180,400 

43 

10 

430 

899°  W;  454°  A. 

3 

.30 

.65 

.10 

.04 

.04 

.90 

.18 

200,000 

52 

10 

429 

899°  W;  315°  A. 

4 

.28 

.45 

.26 

.02 

.01 

1.00 

.18 

96,500 

79,000 

75 

34 

187 

899°  O;  676°  A. 

5 

.40 

.75 

.26 

.01 

.01 

1.00 

.17 

148,000 

120,000 

53 

20 

270 

926°  O;  676°  A. 

6 

.40 

.75 

.26 

.01 

.01 

1.00 

.17 

221,000 

200,000 

48 

11 

435 

926°  O;  426°  A. 

7 

.57 

.37 

.20 

.02 

.01 

.69 

.22 

188,200 

177,500 

57 

14 

330 

;  426°  A. 

8 

1.06 

.36 

.22 

.02 

.02 

.95 

.11 

135,550 

126,750 

49 

21 

248 

;  648°  A. 

9 

.41 

.49 

.12 

.03 

.03 

1.09 

.11 

86,900 

77,250 

70 

33 

152 

;754°A. 

10 

.25 

.50 

.10 

.03 

.02 

.95 

.75 

131,700 

113,100 

56 

18 

°  The  first  temperature  given  for  each  sample  is  that  at  which  the  steel  .was  quenched,  and  the  second 
the  drawing  temperature;  W,  O,  and  A  represent  water,  oil,  and  air,  the  three  cooling  media  used. 
Samples  8,  9,  and  10  were  hardened  before  being  drawn  at  the  temperatures  given. 

EXAMPLE  OF  SATISFACTORY  USE  OF  CHROME- VANADIUM  STEEL 

A  hydroelectric  plant  had  shafts  6£  inches  in  diameter,  which  transmitted  3,000 
kilowatts  each  at  480  revolutions  per  minute,  and  all  broke  in  service.  The  shafts 
were  made  of  untreated  nickel  steel  having  an  elastic  limit  of  about  40,000  pounds 
per  square  inch.  To  make  stronger  shafts  by  increasing  their  size  not  being  practicable, 
other  shafts  were  made  under  the  specification  that  the  elastic  limit  of  the  steel  should 
be  at  least  105,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  its  contraction  of  area  40%,  and  its  ball 
hardness  uniform  within  5%.  Shafts  to  meet  such  qualifications  were  made  of  chro- 
mium-vanadium steel  containing  0.33%  C,  0.54%  Mn,  0.022%  P,  0.030%  S,  0.89%  Cr, 
and  0.24%  V.  The  ingot,  which  was  30  by  25  inches  in  section,  was  rolled  to  an  18  by 
18  inch  bloom  or  billet,  and  the  shafts  were  forged  therefrom.  The  shafts  were  heat- 
treated,  and  a  test  from  one  of  them,  about  the  average  of  all  those  made,  pulled  at 
Watertown  Arsenal  on  a  2-inch  by  0.505  diameter  section,  gave  results  as  follows: 

RESULTS  OF  TESTS  OF  HEAT-TREATED  CHROME-VANADIUM  STEEL  SHAFT 


Elastic 
Limit 

Tensile 
Strength 

Elonga- 
tion 

Contrac- 
tion 

Ball 
Hardness 

Pounds 
105,260 

Pounds 
127,310 

Per  Cent 
15 

Per  Cent 
46.2 

278 

283 

278 

These  shafts  met  the  specifications  and  proved  satisfactory  in  service. 

[262] 


HEAT  TREATMENT  OF  STEEL 


HEAT  TREATMENT  OF  ALLOY  STEELS 

With  few  exceptions  all  alloy  steels  are  heat  treated  for  use,  the  treatment  devel- 
oping in  them  the  high  physical  properties  they  are  capable  of  possessing.  No  general 
law  regarding  the  effects  of  heat  treatment  of  alloy  steels  can  be  laid  down.  Some 
steels  when  quenched  from  a  high  heat  are  hardened  and  others  are  softened,  the  latter 
being  generally  those  with  the  higher  contents  of  certain  of  the  alloying  elements. 
In  respect  to  the  effects  of  heat  treatment  each  steel  is  considered  by  itself. 

For  making  small  parts  that  must  be  true  and  well  finished  the  structural  alloy 
steels  are  generally  heat-treated  before  they  are  machined,  and  this  requirement  pre- 
vents the  use  in  such  parts  of  steel  of  the  highest  strength  attainable  because  steel 
having  that  strength  is  not  commercially  machinable.  Generally  speaking,  any  part 
that  is  to  have  an  elastic  limit  of  more  than  100,000  pounds  per  square  inch  must  be 
treated  after  having  been  machined,  not  before,  because  most  steels  having  a  higher 
elastic  limit  than  that  are  too  hard  to  allow  machining  by  commercial  processes,  though 
chromium-vanadium  steels  with  an  elastic  limit  of  150,000  pounds  per  square  inch 
are  claimed  to  be  machinable,  that  is,  they  may  be  cut  with  high-speed  steels  at  a 
profitable  rate.  An  elastic  limit  of  100,000  pounds  or  more  per  square  inch  can  be 
imparted  to  steel  only  by  heat  treatment,  as  no  untreated  steel  of  a  commercial  grade 
will  have  so  high  a  limit. 

The  modulus  of  elasticity  of  many,  if  not  all,  structural  alloy  steels  in  common 
with  other  steels  is  not  changed  much  by  heat  treatment  or  variations  in  composition, 
and  is  usually  between  28,000,000  and  30,000,000  pounds  per  square  inch;  that  is, 
the  modulus  of  the  steel  in  its  annealed,  hardened,  and  tempered  condition  remains 
practically  unchanged.  The  following  table  was  compiled  from  data  given  by  Landau:0 

MODULI  OF  ELASTICITY  OP  SOME  ALLOY  STEELS 


C 

IOMPOSITIO 

*  OP  STEE. 

L 

c 

Si 

Mn 

P 

s 

Cr 

Ni 

V 

Modulus 

0.50 

0.13 

0.82 

0.01 

0.02 

1.25 

;* 

0.14 

29,240,000 

.47 

1.83 

.70 

.01 

.01 

28950000 

.48 

.16 

.44 

.01 

.01 

.98 

2.02 



28,840,000 

.30 

.19 

.64 

.01 

.01 

.... 

3.25 

.18 

28,260,000 

.25 

.21 

.74 

.01 

.01 

.... 

3.55 

.... 

28,170,000 

.24 

.21 

.46 

.01 

.02 

.96 

2.02 

.... 

28,200,000 

.25 

.16 

.50 

.01 



1.05 



.16 

30,158,000 

Because  of  the  unchangeability  of  the  modulus  of  elasticity  the  stiffness  or  rigidity 
of  steel  within  the  elastic  limit  is  not  changed  either  by  heat  treatment  or  the  presence 
of  any  of  the  alloying  elements,  except  perhaps  manganese  in  manganese  steel  and 
nickel  in  high-nickel  steels. 

Heat  treatment  does  increase  the  elasticity,  however,  so  that  a  piece  of  heat-treated 
steel  may  return  to  its  original  form  after  having  endured  a  stress  that  would  have 
permanently  deformed  it  in  its  untreated  condition;  that  is,  it  is  given  some  of  the 
springiness  of  heat-treated  springs. 

HEAT  TREATMENT  OF  HIGH-SPEED  TOOLS 

The  heat  treatment  given  to  high-speed  steels  for  the  commoner  uses,  as  lathe  and 
planer  tools,  has  generally  been  simplified  to  heating  to  incipient  fusion  and  quenching 

«  Landau,  David,  Influences  affecting  the  fundamental  deflection  of  leaf  springs:  Bull.  Soc.  Automobile 
Eng.,  vol.  5,  March,  1914,  p.  430. 

[263] 


HEAT  TREATMENT  OF  STEEL 

in  oil.  Cooling  by  an  air  blast  and  double  treatment,  which  were  formerly  recom- 
mended, are  now  not  common,  except  that  a  second  (drawing)  heating  is  given  to 
milling  cutters  and  similar  tools,  the  temperature  imparted  to  the  tool  depending 
on  the  material  to  be  cut. 

The  treatment  is  usually  done  by  the  blacksmith  who  heats  the  tool  in  his  forge 
fire  and  then  immerses  it  in  a  tank  containing  enough  oil  so  that  its  temperature  does 
not  rise  materially.  Ten  gallons  of  oil  is  a  common  quantity  to  use  when  the  size 
and  number  of  the  tools  are  moderate,  as  hi  most  shops.  The  fire  is  a  deep  compact 
coal  fire,  the  coal  in  the  center  where  the  tool  is  heated  being  pretty  thoroughly  coked, 
that  is,  most  of  its  volatile  matter  distilled  out.  This  manner  of  heating  has  the  advan- 
tage that  free  oxygen  does  not  get  at  the  tool  to  oxidize  it,  but  its  environment  is  non- 
oxidizing  or  even  reducing,  owing  to  the  presence  of  an  excess  of  burning  carbon  sur- 
rounding the  tool.  Any  flame  is  more  or  less  oxidizing,  at  least  unless  heavily  charged 
with  smoke  or  free  carbon,  and  a  piece  of  steel  heated  directly  by  a  flame  as  in  the 
ordinary  heating  chamber  of  a  furnace  is  likely  to  be  somewhat  oxidized  on  its  surface, 
the  depth  to  which  the  oxygen  penetrates  varying  according  to  the  conditions,  particu- 
larly the  temperature,  the  access  of  air,  and  the  length  of  time.  Heating  in  a  muffle 
will  also  result  in  oxidizing  the  steel  unless  extraordinary  precautions  are  taken  to 
keep  out  oxygen  or  to  consume  all  that  enters.  The  temperature  of  quenching,  usually 
about  1,260°  C.  (2,300°  F.),  is  determined  by  the  fusion  of  the  scale  and  its  visible 
collection  into  drops  or  beads  on  the  surface  of  the  tool. 

Quenching  is  done  by  quickly  plunging  the  heated  tool  into  the  oil  as  soon  as  it 
has  reached  the  desired  temperature  and  moving  it  about  in  the  oil  until  cold.  Cooling 
in  oil  is  thought  by  some  to  give  a  better  tool  than  cooling  in  the  air  blast,  one  reason 
seemingly  being  the  protection  of  the  steel  from  free  oxygen  while  it  is  hot  enough 
to  be  oxidized  thereby.  The  oxygen  of  the  air  blast  forms  a  scale  of  oxide  on  the  hot 
steel  and  the  oxygen  probably  penetrates  the  metal  below  the  scale  to  some  extent, 
injuring  the  quality  as  deep  as  it  goes.  A  tool  on  its  second  grinding,  when  the  oxi- 
dized metal  is  removed,  may  then  give  better  service  than  on  the  first,  unless  the  first 
grinding  has  for  that  reason  been  heavy  enough  to  remove  the  oxidized  metal. 

In  some  shops,  however,  the  original  treatment  recommended  by  Taylor  and  White 
is  given,  the  cutting  edge  of  the  tool  being  heated  to  incipient  fusion  and  then  im- 
mersed in  a  bath  of  melted  lead  at  about  565°  C.  (1,050°  F.).  The  heating  is  done 
in  a  small  furnace  over  a  deep  coke  fire,  blown  by  an  air  blast,  so  that  the  environ- 
ment of  the  tool  while  being  heated  is  substantially  non-oxidizing.  Flames  of  carbonic 
oxide  play  out  of  the  openings  through  which  the  tools  are  inserted,  indicating  little, 
if  any,  free  oxygen  within.  In  these  shops,  however,  milling  cutters  and  other  tools 
that  are  machined  to  a  particular  form  are  treated  by  heating  them  to  a  slightly  lower 
temperature,  in  order  not  to  damage  the  cutting  edges,  and  then  plunging  them  into 
cold  oil. 

When  cooled  to  the  temperature  of  the  lead  it  is  taken  out  and  placed  in  an  air 
blast  to  complete  the  cooling.  Some  tools  desired  to  be  especially  tough  so  as  not 
to  break  in  service  are  given  a  second  heating  to  565°  C.  and  then  cooled  in  the  open 
air  or  air  blast  if  saving  time  is  important. 

Rapid  steel  when  well  annealed  will  bend  considerably  without  breaking,  even 
in  as  large  a  section  as  2|  by  1J  inches,  the  bending  being  edgewise,  as  in  a  tool 
at  work. 

Whether  a  rapid  steel  is  made  harder  by  the  heat  treatment  given  it  depends  some- 
what on  the  condition  of  the  bar  before  treatment.  If  it  has  previously  been  annealed, 
the  treatment  hardens  it,  whereas  heat  treatment  may  not  harden  a  piece  in  the  nat- 
ural state.  Taylor  found  that  some  tools  having  useful  red-hardness  could  be  filed 
rather  readily.  Edwards,  on  the  other  hand,  found  treated  high-speed  steels  to  be 
exceedingly  hard — as  hard  as  any  steel  could  be  made  by  quenching.  Gledhill  found 
that  high-speed  steel  was  good  for  turning  chilled  rolls,  which  are  extremely  hard  and 
require  the  hardest  kind  of  tool  to  cut  them. 

The  hardness  of  the  steel  when  cold  is  not  the  determining  factor  of  usefulness 
in  any  case.  It  is  the  hardness  when  heated  under  conditions  of  work. 

The  cutting  edge  of  a  rapid-steel  tool  at  work  is  probably  never  as  hot  as  the  metal 

[264] 


THEORY  OF  HIGH-SPEED  STEEL 

just  back  of  it,  where  the  heating  caused  by  the  friction  of  the  chip,  as  it  is  deflected 
and  rubs  hard  on  the  tool,  is  most  intense.  The  edge  itself  is  kept  relatively  cool  by 
the  cold  metal  flowing  upon  it. 

THEORY  OF  HIGH-SPEED  STEELS 

The  researches  of  Carpenter  and  Edwards  on  the  heating  and  cooling  of  high-speed 
steels  have  shown  that  such  steels  have  an  extraordinary  stability  of  composition  after 
they  have  been  heated  to  1,200°  C.  (2,192°  F.)  or  more,  and  that  a  second  heating 
of  550°  C.  (1,022°  F.)  has  no  softening  or  drawing  effect.  It  seems  fairly  evident 
that  red-hardness  depends  on  or  is  the  natural  result  of  these  facts. 

At  a  temperature  higher  than  1,200°  C.  (2,192°  F.)  a  double  carbide  of  chromium 
and  tungsten  is  formed,  which  persists  largely  even  when  the  steel  is  cooled  slowly  as 
in  the  open  air,  and  more  so  when  cooling  is  accelerated.  This  double  carbide  imparts 
to  the  steel  a  high  degree  of  hardness  and  is  stable  at  all  temperatures  up  to  550°  C. 
(1,022°  F.)  or  somewhat  higher.  At  550°  C.  the  steel  has  a  low  red  color  visible  in  the 
dark. 

If  the  above  theory  be  true,  then  at  a  temperature  of  1,200°  C.  (2,192°  F.)  the  chro- 
mium and  tungsten  must  have  a  stronger  affinity  for  carbon  than  iron  has,  whereas 
at  lower  temperatures,  say  from  around  930°  C.  down  to  the  critical  point,  the  affinity 
of  carbon  for  iron  is  slightly  stronger  than  that  of  either  chromium  or  tungsten  or 
both,  and  the  carbon  then  exists  who.lly  or  in  part  as  carbide  of  iron,  or  a  complex 
carbide  of  iron  with  one  or  both  of  the  other  elements. 

Carbide  of  iron,  or  hardening  carbon  which  causes  the  hard  condition  of  iron  in 
simple  steel  that  has  been  quenched  from  a  temperature  higher  than  the  critical  point, 
is  unstable  at  even  slight  elevations  of  temperature  above  atmospheric  temperature, 
its  unstableness  increasing  with  the  degree  of  heat,  though  not  being  proportional 
thereto.  Boynton  has  shown  that  between  400°  C.  (752°  F.)  and  500°  C.  (952°  F.) 
the  amount  of  change  and  consequent  softening  is  much  greater  than  at  other  tem- 
peratures, either  lower  or  higher. 

The  proportion  of  carbon  in  rapid  steel  should  perhaps  be  only  as  much  as  will 
combine  with  the  chromium  and  tungsten  at  1,200°  C.  (2,192°  F.)  and  leave  none  to 
exist  as  unstable  hardening  carbon  of  hardened  simple  steel. 

Testing. — A  reliable  and  inexpensive  method  of  quickly  testing  high-speed  steels 
to  show  their  value  is  much  needed,  as  Taylor  has  explained.  Herbert  and  Edwards 
have  used  and  recommended  machines  and  methods  that  lessen  the  time  and  trouble 
of  testing,  but  no  test  seems  to  take  the  place  of  a  trial  at  actual  work  because  the 
performance  of  a  tool  in  one  line  of  work  with  certain  conditions  may  not  be  foretold 
positively  by  its  performance  in  another  with  different  conditions.  Among  the  reasons 
are  that  (1)  sometimes  greater  durability  is  obtained  by  changing,  that  is,  increasing 
or  lessening,  the  speed  of  the  cut,  thus  changing  also  the  temperature  of  the  tool,  or 
(2)  a  given  tool  when  used  at  its  best  speed  may  be  excellent  for  cutting  a  certain  ma- 
terial, yet  prove  inferior  to  another  tool  for  cutting  a  different  material.  Thus  if  se- 
lected as  the  best  by  trial  for  cutting  a  0.20%  carbon  steel  it  may  be  surpassed  by' 
others  in  cutting  a  0.70%  carbon  steel. 

Physical  tests  of  rapid  steels  at  different  temperatures  up  to  800°  C.  (1,472°  F.) 
are  needed  to  show  the  effect  of  heat  on  the  physical  properties  of  those  steels.  New 
uses  would  probably  be  suggested  by  the  results  of  such  a  series  of  tests. 

A  rapid-steel  tool  does  not  finish  the  piece  being  cut  as  nicely  as  does  a  simple  steel 
tool,  as  the  rapid  steel  does  not  keep  a  fine  edge  with  a  light  cut  and  slow  speed  of,  say, 
20  feet  per  minute.  The  durability  of  such  a  tool  taking  a  light  cut  is  much  greater 
at  a  higher  cutting  speed,  at  which  the  tool  is  hotter,  showing  that  the  strength  or  the 
toughness  of  the  steel  or  both  are  augmented  by  the  higher  temperature.  Unhardened 
simple  steels  with  0.6  to  0.7%  carbon  get  stronger  but  less  ductile  with  a  rise  of  tem- 
perature up  to  about  300°  C.  (572°  F.).  If,  as  the  temperature  rises,  high-speed  steels 
get  stronger  without  loss  of  ductility  but  perhaps  with  an  increase,  within  limits  of 
course,  a  physical  reason  for  their  great  durability  is  provided. 

In  1910,  Herbert  announced  the  discovery  that  any  rapid-steel  tool  and  some  simple 

[265] 


THEORY  OF  HIGH-SPEED  STEEL 

steel  tools  may  have  two  rather  widely  separated  cutting  speeds  at  which  the  tool 
is  more  durable  than  at  speeds  above,  below,  or  between.  Thus  out  of  many  cases 
described,  one  tool  cooled  in  an  air  jet  had  nearly  equal  maximum  durability  at  two 
speeds — 50  and  90  feet  per  minute,  whereas  at  65  feet  the  durability  was  less  than 
one-half  of  that  at  either  of  the  other  speeds.  This  discovery  no  doubt  accounts  for 
some  of  the  anomalies  encountered  in  tool  steels  as  well  as  other  steels,  the  properties 
or  performances  of  which  are  not  what  would  be  expected  from  their  composition  and 
other  attributes.  Thus  a  tool  may  be  condemned  when  an  increase  of  its  cutting 
speed  would  cause  it  to  give  satisfactory  service  and  durability. 

Rapid  steel  will  do  its  best  cutting  when  hot.    A  desirable  practice  followed  in 
some  shops,  is  to  heat  a  tool  to  near  redness  before  putting  it  to  work. 


[266] 


MILL  AND  FOUNDRY  PRODUCTS 


MILL  AND  FOUNDRY  PRODUCTS 

Covering  Structural  Steel,   Reinforcement  Steel  for  Concrete,   Boiler  Plating,   Hull 
Plating,  Wrought  Iron,  Steel  Castings,  Steel  Forgings,  Cast-iron  and  Malleable 

Castings. 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  Mill  Orders. — The  contractor  shall  furnish  the  Bureau  of  Yards  and  Docks, 
Navy  Department,  with  complete  copies  of  mill  orders  in  triplicate.     When  so  specified, 
the  contractor  shall  arrange  with  the  mill  that  no  material  shall  be  made  or  rolled  until 
the  inspection  is  arranged. 

2.  Steel  shall  be  made  by  the  open-hearth  process. 

3.  Chemical  qualities  and  physical  properties  shall  conform  to  the  following  table: 


ELEMENTS  CONSIDERED 

Phosphorus, 
Maximum 

Elongation 

Sul- 

Maximum 

Basic 

(per 
Cent) 

Acid 

(per 
Cent) 

phur, 

Maxi- 
mum 

(SS) 

Tensile 
Strength 
(Pounds 
perSauare 

Mini- 
mum 

Cent 
in  8 

Mini- 
mum 

Cent 
in  2 

Character  of 
Fracture 

Cold  Bends  Without 
Fracture 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Plates,     shapes, 
and  bars 

0.04 
.04 

0.06 
.04 

0.05 
.04 

/  55,000 
1  65,000 
/  46,000- 
\  54,000 

}- 

J30 

•• 

Silky....! 
Do.     j 

180°  flat   without 
fracture   on  out- 
side of  bend. 

Rivet  steel  

Steel  castings.  .  . 

.05 

.08 

.05 

1  65,  000 

15 

Silky  or  fine 

90°  d  =  3t. 

granular. 

Wrought  iron 

148,000 

15 

90  per  cent 

fibrous  

135°  d  =  2t. 

Steel  forgings  .  .  . 

.04 

.06 

.05 

/  60,000- 
170,000 

}20 

Silky....  f 

180°  around  a  bar 
of  the  same  diam- 

1 

eter. 

Reinforcement 

,_ 

steel  for  con- 

crete: 
Medium  

.04 
.04 

.06 
.06 

.05 
.05 

f  55,000- 
165,000 
/  80,000- 
\  90,000 

1" 

}io 

•  • 

Do. 
Dov     | 

Do. 
135°  around  a  bar 
of  the  same  diam- 
eter. 

High  carbon.  . 

Cast  iron  .  .  . 

1  18,000 

Gray  cranu- 

ular. 

( 

180°  flat  on  itself 

Hull  plating  .... 

.04 

.06 

.04 

/  55,000- 
\  65,000 

}25 

Silky....  1 

without    fracture 
on  outside  of  bent 

Boiler  plating..  . 

.04 

.06 

.04 

/  55,000- 
\  65,000 

}25 

•• 

I 
Do. 

portion. 
Do. 

*  Minimum. 

Rivet  steel,  when  nicked  slightly  on  one  side  and  bent  around  a  bar  of  the  same 
diameter  as  the  rivet  rod,  shall  give  a  uniform  fracture.  Wrought  iron,  when  nicked 
all  around  and  bent,  shall  show  a  fracture  at  least  90  per  cent  of  which  is  fibrous. 

4.  Allowable  Variation  in  Physical  Properties. — If  first  test  shows  maximum  strength 
for  plates,  shapes,  bars,  or  rivet  steel  to'  be  outside  of  prescribed  limits,  two  additional 
tests  shall  be  made  from  material  of  the  same  gauge,  and  if  both  comply  with  the  specified 
requirements  the  material  will  be  accepted. 

[267] 


MILL  AND  FOUNDRY  PRODUCTS 


5.  Allowable  Variation  in  Weight. — A  variation  of  more  than  2£  per  cent  from 
the  specified  cross-section  or  weight  of  any  piece  of  rolled  steel  shall  be  sufficient  cause 
for  rejection,  except  in  case  of  sheared  plates,  which  shall  be  governed  by  the  following 
permissible  variations  applying  to  single  plates :  Plates  will  be  accepted  if  they  measure 
not  more  than  0.01  inch  below  the  ordered  thickness;  an  excess  over  the  nominal  weight, 
corresponding  to  the  dimensions  as  shown  in  the  following  table*: 


WIDTH  c 

F  PLATE 

Thickness  Ordered 

Nominal 
Weights 

Up  to  75 
Inches 

75 
Inches 
and  Up 
to  100 
Inches 

100 
Inches 
and  Up 
to  115 
Inches 

Over  115 
Inches 

j-inch 

Pounds 
10  20 

Per  Ct. 
10 

Per  Ct. 
14 

Per  Ci. 

1C 

PerCL 

i^r-inch.  . 

12  75 

8 

12 

16 

f  -inch  

15  30 

7 

10 

13 

17 

i^-inch 

17  85 

6 

8 

10 

13 

|-inch  

20  40 

5 

7 

9 

12 

A-inch 

22  95 

4i 

fit 

81 

11 

f-inch.  .             .  .-•;  .  . 

25  50 

4 

6 

°2 

8 

10 

Over  f-inch  

31 

5 

Qi 

9 

6.  Finish. — Finished  material  shall  be  free  from  injurious  seams,  flaws,   cracks, 
defective  edges,  or  other  defects  and  have  a  smooth,  uniform,  and  workmanlike  finish. 
Plates  36  inches  in  width  and  under  shall  have  rolled  edges  unless  otherwise  specified 
by  the  bureau. 

7.  Steel  Castings. — All  steel  castings  shall  be  true  to  drawing  and  shall  be  annealed 
to  remove  all  internal  stresses.     Castings  shall  be  free  from  cold  shuts,  sand  holes, 
blow-holes,  and  any  other  defects  which  would  tend  to  make  them  unsuitable  for  the 
service  contemplated. 

8.  Wrought  Iron. — Wrought  iron  shall  be  double-rolled,  tough,  fibrous,  uniform 
in  character,  entirely  free  from  steel  scrap,  thoroughly  welded  in  rolling,  and  free  from 
surface  defects. 

9.  Malleable  Castings. — Castings  shall  be  true  to  drawing,  free  from  blemishes, 
scale,  or  shrinkage  cracks.     They  shall  be  Well  decarbonized  without  being  burned  or 
overheated.     Test  specimens  shall  bend  90°  around  three  times  their  least  diameter 
without  fracture.     In  case  of  important  castings,  tension  tests  shall  be  furnished  when 
required. 

10.  Steel  Forgings. — Fo  gings  shall  be  free  from  cracks,  flaws,  seams,  or  other 
injurious  imperfections,  and  shall  conform  to  dimensions  shown  on  drawings  and  be 
made  and  finished  in  a  workmanlike  manner. 

11.  Cast  Iron. — Cast  iron  shall  be  of  tough,  gray  iron,  free  from  cold  shuts  and  blow- 
holes.    A  hammer  blow  on  a  sharp  edge  of  the  casting  shall  produce  an  indentation 
without  flaking  the  metal. 

12.  Stamping. — Every  finished  piece  of  steel  shall  have  the  melt  number  and  the 
name  of  the  manufacturer  stamped  or  rolled  upon  it.     Steel  and  pins  for  rollers  shall 
be  stamped  on  the  end.     Rivet  and  lattice  steel  and  other  small  parts  may  be  bundled 
with  the  above  marks  on  an  attached  metal  tag. 

13.  Rules  Governing  Physical  Tests. — (a)  Specimens  for  tensile  and  bending  tests 
for  plates,  shapes,  and  bars  shall  be  cut  from  the  finished  product,  and  shall  have  both 
faces  rolled  and  both  edges  milled  to  the  form  shown  by  Fig.  1,  or  have  both  edges 
parallel  throughout;  or  they  may  be  turned  to  a  diameter  of  f  inch  for  a  length  of  at 
least  9  inches,  with  enlarged  ends. 

(b)  Test  specimens  of  rivet  steel  shall  be  of  the  full  size  of  the  rod. 

[268] 


MILL  AND  FOUNDRY  PRODUCTS 

(c)  For  pins  and  rollers  test  specimens  shall  be  cut  from  the  finished  bar,  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  center  of  the  specimen  will  be  one-fourth  of  the  diameter  from  the 
surface  of  the  bar.     The  specimens  for  tensile  tests  shall  be  turned  to  the  form  shown  by 
Fig.  2.     The  specimens  for  bending  tests  shall  be  1  inch  by  \  inch  in  section.    Specimens 
taken  from  pins  and  rollers  over  \\  inches  in  diameter  shall  be  taken  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  center  of  the  specimen  shall  be  one-fourth  of  the  diameter  of  the  bar  from  the 
surface.     For  bars  under  \\  inches  in  diameter,  the  specimen  shall  be  taken  from  as 
near  the  surface  as  possible. 

(d)  Specimens  representing  steel  castings  shall  be  made  from  coupons  which  are 
molded,  cast,  and  annealed  as  integral  parts  of  the  castings  and  which  are  not  cut  from 
the  castings  until  after  the  completion  of  the  annealing  process. 

Individual  coupon  tests  and  reports  will  be  made  for  each  heat  unless  otherwise 
elsewhere  specified. 

14.  Tests  and  Test  Reports. — -Chemical  determinations  of  the  percentages  of  carbon, 
phosphorus,  sulphur,  and  manganese  shall  be  made  by  the  manufacturer  and  certified 
copies  in  triplicate  of  such  analysis  shall  be  furnished  the  inspector  (or  the  "Bureau  of 
Yards  and  Docks  in  case  no  inspector  has  been  detailed). 

The  manufacturer  shall  also  make  at  least  one  set  of  physical  tests  from  each  melt 
of  steel  and  each  lot  of  iron  as  rolled  or  cast.  In  case  steel  differing  f  inch  and  more  in 
thickness  is  rolled  from  one  melt,  a  test  shall  be  made  from  the  thickest  and  thinnest 
material  rolled.  Each  set  of  tests  will  include  the  determination  of  maximum  tensile 
strength,  elongation,  character  of  fracture,  cold  bending,  and  yield  point  as  indicated 
by  drop  of  beam. 

In  case  the  Government  may  desire  check  analyses  at  any  time,  such  analyses  shall 
be  made  at  the  expense  of  the  Government,  and  an  excess  of  25  per  cent  will  be  allowed 
for  such  results,  as  compared  with  the  limits  prescribed  in  the  table. 

15.  Mill  Tests  and  Inspections. — Mill  analyses,  tests,  inspections,  and  reports  shall 
be  made  entirely  by  the  manufacturer,  or  by  the  manufacturer  subject  to  the  super- 
vision and  direction  of  a  Government  inspector,  as  may  be  elected  by  the  Bureau  of 
Yards  and  Docks. 

The  contractor  shall  ascertain  from  the  Bureau  of  Yards  and  Docks  if  the  presence 
of  a  Government  inspector  is  desired  and  arrange  with  the  mill  accordingly. 

The  manufacturer,  at  his  own  expense,  shall  furnish  all  facilities  for  inspecting  and 
testing  the  weight  and  quality  of  all  material  at  place  of  manufacture,  and  shall  furnish 
suitable  laboratory  and  testing  machines  and  prepare  samples  and  specimens  for  testing. 

The  inspector  shall  have  free  access  at  all  times  to  all  parts  of  the  mill  where  material 
to  be  inspected  by  him  is  being  manufactured  or  tested. 

Analyses,  tests,  and  inspections  shall  be  made  in  accordance  with  recognized  standard 
methods. 

The  manufacturer  shall  prepare  and  furnish  the  inspector,  in  triplicate  (or  the 
Bureau  of  Yards  and  Docks  in  case  no  inspector  has  been  detailed),  with  complete 
certified  copies  of  reports  of  tests.  The  manufacturer  shall  guarantee  and  be  held 
responsible  for  the  accuracy  of  all  analyses,  tests,  inspections,  and  reports. 

16.  Defective  Material. — Material  which,  subsequent  to  the  prescribed  tests  at  the 
mills  and  its  acceptance  there,  develops  weak  spots,  brittleness,  cracks,  or  other  imper- 
fections, or  is  found  to  have  injurious  defects,  will  be  rejected  and  shall  be  replaced  by 
the  manufacturer  at  his  own  epqpense. 

17.  Shipping  Invoices. — Complete  copies,  in  triplicate,  of  shipping  invoices  for  each 
shipment  shall  be  furnished  the  inspector,  or  be  forwarded  to  the  Bureau  of  Yards  and 
Docks  in  case  there  has  been  no  inspector  detailed. 

SHOPWORK 

18.  Shop  Orders. — The  contractor  shall  furnish  the  Bureau  of  Yards  and  Docks 
with  complete  copies  of  the  shop  orders,  in  triplicate,  and  shall  also  notify  the  bureau 
at  least  10  days  before  shopwork  is  to  be  commenced,  in  order  that  proper  arrangements 
may  be  made  for  shop  inspection. 

19.  General  Requirements. — All  members  forming  a  structure  shall  be  built  in 

[269] 


MILL  AND  FOUNDRY  PRODUCTS 

accordance  with  approved  drawings.  Workmanship  and  finish  shall  be  equal  to  the 
best  practice  in  modern  bridge  work. 

No  material  less  than  TS  inch  in  thickness  shall  be  used,  except  for  fillers,  beams, 
and  channels,  unless  specifically  required  by  contract. 

Lattice  bars  shall  have  neatly  rounded  ends,  unless  otherwise  specified. 

Stiff eners  shall  fit  neatly  between  flanges  of  girders,  and  where  tight  fits  are  called 
for  the  end  of  stiffener  shall  be  faced  and  be  brought  to  a  true  contact  bearing  with 
flange  angles. 

Web  splice,  plates,  and  fillers  under  stiffeners  shall  be  cut  to  fit  within  |-  inch  of 


The  clearance  between  ends  of  spliced  web  plates  shall  not  exceed  £  inch. 

Finished  members  shall  be  free  from  twists,  bends,  of  open  joints. 

Compression  joints,  depending  upon  contact  bearing,  shall  have  surfaces  truly 
faced,  so  as  to  have  full  contact  bearing  when  perfectly  aligned  and  riveted  up  com- 
plete. All  faces  and  surfaces  shall  be  truly  planed  when  so  required  by  the  contract. 

The  abutting  ends  and  the  bases  of  all  columns  shall  be  milled. 

Pinholes  shall  be  bored  after  members  are  riveted;  they  shall  be  true  to  gauge, 
smooth,  straight,  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  member,  parallel  to  each  other,  and 
unless  otherwise  specified  shall  be  accurately  spaced  to  within  -^  inch. 

Pins  and  rollers  shall  be  accurately  turned  to  gauge,  and  shall  be  straight,  smooth, 
and  entirely  free  from  flaws.  Diameter  of  pinholes  shall  not  exceed  diameter  of  pins 
by  more  than  ^  inch.  Screw  threads  shall  make  tight  fits  in  the  nuts  and  shall  be 
United  States  standard,  except  above  the  diameter  of  If  inches,  when  they  shall  be 
made  with  six  threads  per  inch. 

Steel,  except  in  minor  details,  which  has  been  partially  heated,  shall  be  annealed. 

Welds  in  steel  will  not  be  allowed. 

Expansion  bedplates  shall  be  planed,  true  and  smooth.  Cast  wall  plates  shall  be 
planed  on  top.  Cut  of  planing  tool  shall  correspond  with  the  direction  of  the  expansion. 

Pins,  nuts,  bolts,  rivets,  and  other  small  details  shall  be  boxed  or  crated.  The 
weight  of  every  piece  and  vox  shall  be  marked  on  it  in  plain  figures.  In  the  case  of 
boxed  material  both  gross  and  net  weight  shall  be  marked. 

20.  Preparation  of  Material  Before  Assembling. — Material  shall  be  thoroughly 
straightened  in  the  shop  by  methods  which  will  not  injure  it,  and  be  cleaned  of  rust 
and  dirt,  if  such  exist,  before  being  laid  off  o*r  worked  in  any  way. 

Shearing  shall  be  neatly  done,  and  all  portions  of  the  work  which  will  be  exposed 
to  view  after  completion  shall  be  neatly  finished. 

Sheared  edges  of  material  over  f  inch  in  thickness  shall  be  planed  to  a  depth  of 
ik  inch. 

Surfaces  in  contact  after  assembling  shall  be  painted  before  being  assembled. 

21.  Rivets,  Rivet  Holes,  Riveting,  and  Bolts. — Size  of  rivets  as  designated  on  plans 
shall  be  understood,  to  mean  the  actual  size  of  the  cold  rivet  before  heating. 

Pitch  of  rivets  shall  not  be  less  than  three  times  the  diameter  of  the  rivet,  nor  greater 
than  6  inches  or  16  times  the  thickness  of  the  thinnest  outside  section.  All  punching 
shall  be  accurately  done.  Drifting  to  enlarge  unfair  holes  will  not  be  allowed.  If  the 
'holes  must  be  enlarged  to  admit  the  rivet,  they  shall  be  reamed.  Poor  matching  up  of 
holes  will  be  cause  for  rejection. 

When  general  reaming  is  not  required  the  diameter  of  the  punch  shall  not  be  more 
than  t*&  inch  greater  than  the  diameter  of  the  rivet,  nor  the  diameter  of  the  die  more  than 
|  inch  greater  than  the  diameter  of  the  punch.  Material  more  than  £  inch  thick  shall 
be  subpunched  and  reamed,  or  drilled  from  the  solid.  Riveted  members  shall  have 
all  parts  well  pinned  up  and  firmly  drawn  together  with  bolts  before  riveting  is  com- 
menced. Rivets  shall  be  given  by  pressure  tools  whenever  possible,  and  pneumatic 
hammers  shall  be  used  in  preference  to  hand  driving. 

Completed  rivets  shall  look  neat  and  finished,  with  heads  of  approved  shape,  full, 
and  of  equal  size.  They  shall  be  central  on  shank  and  grip  the  assembled  pieces  firmly. 
Recupping  and  calking  will  not  be  allowed.  Loose,  burned,  or  otherwise  defective 
rivets  shall  be  cut  out  and  replaced.  In  cutting  out  rivets  great  pare  shall  be  taken  not 
to  injure  the  adjacent  metal.  If  necessary,  they  shall  be  drilled  out. 

[270] 


MILL  AND  FOUNDRY  PRODUCTS 

Whenever  bolts  are  used  in  place  of  rivets  which  transmit  shear  or  when  used  in 
compression  members,  the  holes  shall  be  reamed  parallel  and  the  bolts  turned  to  a 
driving  fit.  A  washer  not  less  than  &  inch  thick  shall  be  used  under  nut. 

22.  Reamed   Work.  —  When  reaming  is   required   by   the   contract,   the  punch 
used  shall  have  a  diameter  not  less  than  &  inch  smaller  than  the  nominal  diameter 
of  the  rivet.     Reaming  shall  be  done  after  the  pieces  forming  one  built  member  are 
assembled  and  firmly  bolted  together,  using  twist  drills   having  diameter  &  inch 
larger  than  the  nominal  diameter  of  the  rivet.    Outside  burrs  on  reamed  holes  shall 
be  removed. 

23.  Eye-bars. — Eye-bars  shall  be  straight  and  true  to  size,  and  shall  be  free  from 
twists,  folds  in  the  neck  or  head,  or  any  other  defect.    Heads  shall  be  made  by  upsetting, 
rolling,  or  forging.     Welding  will  not  be  allowed.    The  form  of  heads  will  be  determined 
by  dies  in  use  at  the  works  where  the  eye-bars  are  made,  if  satisfactory  to  the  inspector; 
but  the  manufacturer  shall  guarantee  the  bars  to  break  in  the  body  when  tested  to 
rupture.     The  thickness  of  head  and  neck  shall  not  vary  more  than  &  inch  from  that 
specified. 

Before  boring,  each  eye-bar  shall  be  properly  annealed  and  carefully  straightened. 
Pinholes  shall  be  in  the  center  line  of  bars  and  in  the  center  of  the  heads.  Bars  of 
the  same  length  shall  be  bored  so  accurately  that,  when  placed  together,  pins  ^  inch 
smaller  in  diameter  than  the  pinholes  can  be  passed  through  the  holes  at  both  ends  of 
the  bars  at  the  same  time  without  forcing. 

24.  Shop  Paint  and  Painting. — All  steel  work,  except  reinforcement  steel  for  con- 
crete, shall  be  given  one  coat  of  paint  before  leaving  the  shop. 

It  shall  be  cleaned  of  all  moisture,  scale,  rust,  grease,  dirt,  chips,  and  other  foreign 
matter  before  being  painted. 

Surfaces  coming  in  contact  shall  be  cleaned  and  given  one  coat  of  paint  on  each 
surface  before  assembling. 

Parts  not  accessible  for  painting  after  erection,  but  not  in  riveted  contact,  shall 
be  given  a  second  coat  of.  paint  at  the  shop.  The  first  coat  must  be  dry  before  the 
second  coat  is  applied. 

No  painting  shall  be  done  in  wet  or  freezing  weather  except  under  cover. 

Machine-finished  surfaces  shall  be  coated  with  white  lead  and  tallow  before  being 
exposed  to  the  weather. 

Paint  for  shop  coats  shall  be  composed  of  red  lead,  white  zinc,  raw  Unseed  oil,  and 
turpentine  Japan  drier,  mixed  in  proportions  of  100  pounds  of  lead,  20  pounds  of  zinc, 
5  gallons  of  oil,  and  3f  pints  of  drier. 

Paint  shall  be  freshly  mixed  in  small  quantities  and  be  well  stirred  before  using. 

The  Navy  standard  specifications  for  paint  material  shall  be  adhered  to  so  far  as 
applicable. 

25.  Shop   Inspection. — The  manufacturer  shall  furnish  all  facilities  for  inspecting 
and  testing  the  weight  and  quality  of  workmanship  at  the  shop  where  material  is 
manufactured. 

Shop  inspection  will  be  made  by  an  inspector  assigned  by  the  Bureau  of  Yards  and 
Docks,  unless  such  inspection  shall  not  be  considered  warranted  by  the  bureau  because 
of  the  location,  magnitude,  or  the  character  of  the  work,  in  which  case  inspection  for 
workmanship  will  be  made  by  the  officer  in  charge  at  the  place  of  erection. 

The  inspector  shall  have  full  access  at  all  times  to  all  parts  of  the  shop  where  material 
under  his  inspection  is  being  manufactured. 

The  inspector  may  stamp  each  piece  which  is  accepted  with  a  private  mark. 

It  shall  be  distinctly  understood  that  shop  inspection  shall  not  operate  in  any  manner 
to  relieve  the  manufacturer  from  full  responsibility  for  the  accuracy  and  character  of 
the  work  in  all  of  its  details,  and  that  errors  or  faults  which  may  be  discovered  after 
delivery  or  during  erection  shall  be  satisfactorily  corrected  by  the  manufacturer  in 
accordance  with  the  requirements  of  the  contract  and  without  any  increase  in  the 
contract  price. 

26.  Loading  and  Shipping  Invoices. — Material  shall  be  so  prepared  for  shipment 
and  be  so  loaded  that  it  will  suffer  no  distortion  or  damage  during   transportation. 
Complete  copies  of  shipping  invoices  for  each  shipment  in  triplicate  shall  be  furnished 

[271] 


MILL  AND  FOUNDRY  PRODUCTS 

the  inspector  or  be  forwarded  to  the  Bureau  of  Yards  and  Docks  in  case  there  has  been 
no  inspector  detailed. 

FIELD  WORK 

27.  Unloading,  Storing,  and   Handling. — Material  shall  be  unloaded,  stored,  and 
handled  in  such  manner  and  with  such  appliances  and  care  as  to  prevent  distortion  and 
injury  of  the  members.     Material  which  is  injured  shall  be  replaced  if  necessary,  as 
may  be  required  by  the  officer  in  charge,  and  at  the  expense  of  the  contractor. 

28.  Erecting. — All  field  connections  shall  be  riveted.     The  various  members  form- 
ing part  of  a  completed  frame  or  structure  after  being  assembled  shall  be  accurately 
aligned  and  adjusted  before  riveting  is  begun.     All  requirements  specified  for  shop- 
work  which  are  applicable  shall  apply  to  field  work. 

29.  Painting  Steel  Work  After  Erection.— Steel  for  reinforcing  concrete  shall  not 
be  painted. 

Surfaces  which  are  to  remain  in  free  contact  with  air,  but  which  are  to  be  covered 
in  or  incased  by  brickwork,  fireproofing,  or  framing,  shall  be  given  two  coats  of  paint. 

All  surfaces  which  are  to  remain  exposed  upon  the  completion  of  the  structure, 
both  exterior  and  interior,  shall  be  given  two  coats  of  paint. 

Surfaces  which  have  been  chafed  or  imperfectly  covered  shall  be  properly  retouched 
and  allowed  to  dry  before  applying  any  final  coat  of  paint. 

Freshly  painted  surfaces  shall  be  allowed  to  dry  before  being  enclosed. 

After  erection,  the  heads  of  field  rivets  and  parts  where  the  paint  has  been  rubbed 
off  in  transportation  or  during  erection  shall  be  repainted.  The  painting  of  the  field 
rivet  heads  shall  be  done  promptly  after  their  acceptance..  The  rivets  shall  be  cleaned 
of  all  mill  scale  before  painting. 

Both  coats  of  paint  used  for  finishing  exposed  surfaces  shall  be  composed  of  white 
lead,  white  zinc  not  greater  than  50  per  cent,  and  boiled  linseed  oil,  which  conform 
to  the  requirements  of  the  latest  specifications  for  the  same  issued  by  the  Navy  Depart- 
ment, mixed  in  proportions  and  colored  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  officer  in  charge. 

Paint  used  for  enclosed  surfaces  shall  be  the  same  as  required  for  shop  coat. 

Painting  shall  be  done  only  at  such  times  as  may  be  approved  by  the  officer  in 
charge  and  subject  to  the  same  restrictions  as  to  weather  and  preparation  of  surfaces 
as  specified  for  shop  coats. 

Succeeding  coats  of  paint  shall  be  mixed  so  as  to  vary  somewhat  in  color  in  order 
that  there  may  be  no  confusion  as  to  the  surfaces  which  have  been  painted. 

30.  Steel  Reinforcement  for  Concrete. — Steel  shall  be  stored  under  shelter.     It 
shall  be  cleaned  of  all  loose  scale,  oil,  grease,  and  dirt  before  being  embedded  and  shall 
be  secured  in  place  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  officer  in  charge. 


[272 


SPECIAL  TREATMENT  STEEL  PLATES 


SPECIAL-TREATMENT  STEEL  PLATES  FOR  PROTECTIVE  HULL 

PLATING 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General  Test. — "Specifications  for  the  Inspection  of  Steel  and  Iron  Material 
(General  Specifications,  Appendix  I),"  issued  by  the  Navy  Department  (C.  and  R.), 
June,  1912,  form  a  part  of  these  specifications  and  must  be  complied  with  in  all  respects. 

2.  Requirements  for  Protective  Deck  Plates. — Plates  for  protective  decks  and  for 
similar  uses  shall  be  furnished  in  accordance  with  the  following  requirements. 

3.  Heat  Treatment. — All  tests  are  to  be  made  after  heat  treatment. 

4.  Statement  as  to  Heat  Temperature. — The  manufacturer  shall  furnish  a  state- 
ment showing  to  what  temperature  each  plate  may  be  subjected  in  working  without 
risk  of  diminishing  its  ballistic  qualities. 

5.  Test  Pieces. — (a)  WHEN  ROLLED. — From  each  plate  there  shall  be  taken  two 
specimens  cut  in  the  direction  of  rolling — one  for  tensile  and  one  for  bending.     Location 
of  the  test  pieces  shall  be  determined  by  the  inspector,  but  shall  not  be  such  as  to  inter- 
fere with  cutting  the  plate  to  its  proper  size. 

(b)  WHEN  FORGED. — From  each  plate  there  shall  be  taken  three  specimens  cut 
in  a  longitudinal  direction,  two  of  these  to  be  for  tensile  tests  and  one  for  bending. 
One  tensile  test  specimen  shall  be  taken  from  each  end  of  the  plate. 
Tensile  specimens  shall  be  standard  2-inch  type. 
Bending  test  specimens  shall  be  \  inch  square. 

6.  Tensile  Test. — The  tensile  test  for  plates  under  120  pounds  shall  show  a  yield 
point  of  not  less  than  105,000  pounds  per  square  inch;  an  ultimate  tensile  strength 
not  less  than  120,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  an  elongation  in  2  inches  of  not  less 
than  17  per  cent.     For  plates  120  pounds  and  above,  the  tensile  test  shall  show  a  yield 
point  of  not  less  than  95,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  an  ultimate  tensile  strength  not 
less  than  112,000  pounds  per  square  inch,,  an  elongation  in  2  inches  of  not  less  than 
20  per  cent. 

7.  Bending  Test. — The  specimens  for  bending  test  shall  be  bent  cold  through  an 
angle  of  180°  over  a  diameter  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  specimen  without  fracture. 

8.  Chemical  Analysis. — The  chemical  composition  shall  be  determined  from  time 
to  tune,  and  shall  show  reasonable  uniformity. 

9.  Ballistic  Tests. — The  inspector  shall  select  at  least  one  plate  for  each  250  tons 
of  material  manufactured,  the  plates  to  be  selected  with  a  view  to  representing  the 
various  gauges  that  may  be  ordered,  and  these  shall  be  subjected  to  ballistic  test  at 
the  Naval  Proving  Ground,  Indian  Head,  Md.     Where  small  or  miscellaneous  orders 
for  protective  material  are  involved,  one  plate  may  be  selected  or  ballistic  test  waived  at 
the  option  of  the  bureau.     Such  plates  as  may  be  required  for  ballistic  test  shall  be 
delivered  at  the  Proving  Ground  without  expense  to  the  Government,  -and  these  plates 
shall  become  the  property  of  the  Government  if  they  pass  the  test.     Plates  that  fail 
remain  the  property  of  the  manufacturer. 

Test  plates  must  be  at  least  54  inches  wide,  and  will  be  attacked  at  the  angle  specified 
below.  They  wiU  be  supported  on  edge  by  clamps  securing  them  to  two  horizontal 
backing  pieces  whose  nearest  edges  will  not  be  less  than  36  inches  apart. 

10.  Shell  Tests. — One  round  of  uncapped  shell  will  be  fired  at  each  plate  using  the 
following  caliber  and  estimate  striking  velocity  of  projectile: 


Weight 
of  Plate 
per  Square 
Foot 

Caliber 

Estimated 
Striking 
Velocity 

Angle 
of 
Attack 

Weight 
of  Plate 
per  Square 
Foot 

Caliber 

Estimated 
Striking 
Velocity 

Angle 
of 

Attack 

Feet- 

Feet- 

Pounds 

Inches 

Seconds 

Pounds 

Inches 

Seconds 

40 

6 

1,330 

9 

120 

8 

2,020 

15 

60 

6 

1,910 

9 

160 

12 

1,490 

15 

80 

8 

1,695 

9 

200 

12 

1,875 

15 

100 

8 

2,170 

9 

200 

14 

1,480 

15 

273 


DRILL  ROD  STEEL 

Plates  up  to  and  including  those  weighing  70  pounds  per  square  foot  will  be  tested 
with  a  6-inch  projectile;  plates  above  70  pounds  up  to  140  pounds  will  be  tested  with  an 
8-inch  projectile;  plates  above  140  pounds  up  to  200  pounds  will  be  tested  with  a  12-inch 
projectile. 

For  thickness  of  plates  other  than  the  above,  the  square  of  the  test  velocity  is  to  be 
obtained  by  interpolating  between  the  squares  of  the  velocities  given  in  the  table. 

If  the  plate  is  not  pierced  and  develops  no  through  cracks,  the  test  will  be  considered 
satisfactory.  If  the  plate  is  not  pierced  but  develops  a  small  amount  of  through  cracks, 
the  Bureau  of  Construction  and  Repair  will  then  consider  the  characteristics  of  the 
plate,  as  shown  by  the  several  tests  to  which  it  has  been  subjected,  and  after  such 
consideration  may  accept  or  reject  the  material  represented  by  the  plate  or  make  such 
additional  tests  as  may  be  deemed  necessary. 

For  thickness  of  plates  other  than  the  above,  the  square  of  the  test  velocity  is  to 
be  obtained  by  interpolating  between  the  squares  of  the  velocities  given  in  the  table. 

If  the  plate  is  not  pierced  and  develops  no  through  cracks,  the  test  will  be  con- 
sidered satisfactory.  If  the  plate  is  not  pierced  but  develops  a  small  amount  of  through 
cracks,  the  Bureau  of  Construction  and  Repair  will  then  consider  the  characteristics 
of  the  plate,  as  shown  by  the  several  tests  to  which  it  has  been  subjected  and,  after  such 
consideration,  may  accept  or  reject  the  material  represented  by  the  plate  or  make  such 
additional  tests  as  may  be  deemed  necessary. 

11.  Weight  Tolerance. — Plates  of  special-treatment  steel  may  be  accepted: 

(a)  WHEN  ROLLED,  if  they  vary  between  the  specified  weights  and  2  per  cent  above 
or  3  per  cent  below  the  weights  as  estimated  from  the  ordered  dimensions. 

(b)  WHEN  FORGED,  if  thickness  at  edges  does  not  vary  more  than  £  inch  above  or 
£  inch  below  the  nominal  thickness  ordered,  and  if  thickness  inside  the  edges  is  in  no 
place  less  than  £  inch  below  or  |  inch  above  the  thickness  ordered.     Edges  whose  upper 
limits  exceed  the  amount  allowed  shall  be  ground  down  to  the  nominal  thickness  ordered, 
for  a  distance  extending  not  less  than  3  inches  back  from  edges,  when  directed  by  the 
inspector. 

E3 

DRILL  ROD  STEEL 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

The  material  shall  be  known  as  "Drill  Rod  Steel,"  and  shall  conform  to  the  following 
analysis: 

Per  Cent  Limit 

Carbon 1.25    to  1.15 

Chromium Optional. 

Manganese 35    to    .15 

Phosphorus 015  to    .00 

Silicon..; 40    to    .10 

Sulphur 02    to    .00 

Vanadium Optional. 

Iron Remainder. 

The  rods  shall  be  smooth  and  polished,  or  unpolished,  as  specified,  and  cut  to  lengths 
as  ordered,  and  shall  have  smooth  ends  and  be  in  strict  accordance  with  the  sizes  called 
for."  A  variation  of  more  than  0.0005  inch  on  sizes  -fa  inch  in  diameter  or  less  and  0.001 
inch  on  sizes  larger  than  ^  inch  shall  be  sufficient  cause  for  rejection  of  the  rods  showing 
such  variation.  * 

A  sample  rod  will  be  selected  at  random  from  each  of  the  sizes  ordered,  and  after 
proper  treatment  shall  be  given  a  thorough  practical  test,  and  must  prove  equal  in  all 
respects  to  rods  of  similar  analysis  in  Government  stock. 


[274J 


HOT-ROLLED  OR  FORGED  CARBON  STEEL 


HOT-ROLLED  OR  FORGED  CARBON  STEEL 

(For  Use  by  the  Naval  Gun  Factory) 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General  Instructions. — The  general  specifications  for  the  inspection  of  material, 
issued  by  the  Navy  Department,  and  the  requisitions  for  the  material  shall  form  a  part 
of  these  specifications. 

2.  Method  of  Manufacture. — Carbon  steel  bought  under  this  specification  must  be 
manufactured  by  the  crucible  or  open-hearth  process,  depending  on  which  process  is 
specified  in  the  requisition.     This  material  shall  be  delivered  in  the  annealed  condition. 

3.  Slabs,  Blooms,  and  Billets. — Contractors  must  satisfy  the  Government  that  all 
slabs,  blooms,  billets,  or  other  forgings  of  carbon  steel  have  been  rolled  or  forged  from 
ingots  whose  cross-section  is  at  least  four  times  that  of  the  finished  slab,  bloom,  or 
billet,  and  from  ingots  from  which  a  discard  of  at  least  5  per  cent  of  the  total  weight  has 
been  taken  from  the  bottom  and  30  per  cent  from  the  top,  if  top  poured;  and  5  per  cent 
from  the  bottom  and  20  per  cent  from  the  top,  if  the  ingot  has  been  bottom  poured  or 
fluid  compressed. 

4.  Surface  Inspection. — All  slabs,  blooms,  billets,  or  forgings  of  any  kind  bought 
under  this  specification  must  be  free  from  cracks,  seams,  slivers,  flaws,  or  other  injurious 
imperfections  and  must  have  a  workmanlike  finish  and  must  conform  with  the  dimensions 
given  on  the  drawing  or  in  the  requisition,  to  within  the  tolerance  specified. 

5.  Rejection  of  Defective  Material. — Material  may  be  rejected  at  the  place  of 
delivery  for  defects  which  were  not  manifest  upon  original  inspection,  but  develop 
during  the  process  of  forging  or  machining.     In  such  cases  the  manufacturer  must 
make  good  any  material  rejected.     This  liability  on  the  part  of  the  contractor  to  expire 
six  months  after  the  delivery  of  the  material  in  question,  except  in  special  cases  where 
certain  material  has  been  provisionally  accepted  with  the  understanding  that  its  final 
acceptance  depends  on  certain  conditions  which  have  been  mutually  agreed  upon  by 
the  contractor  and  the  Government. 

6.  Chemical  Composition. — The  various  classes  of  carbon  steel  are  to  conform 
to  the  chemical  composition  given  in  the  following  table: 


IDENTIFICATION 
(Class) 

CARBON 

MANGANESE 

PHOS- 
PHORUS 

SULPHUR 

Limits 

Desired 

Limits 

Desired 

Not  to 
Exceed  — 

Not  to 
Exceed— 

C-10 

Per  Cent 
1.05  to  0.90 
.90  to    .75 
.65  to    .55 
.55  to    .45 
.45  to    .35 
.35  to    .25 
.25  to    .15 

.15  to    .05 

Per  Ct. 
0.95 
.80 
.60 
.50 
.40 
.30 
.20 

.10 

Per  Cent 
0.50  to  0.25 
.50  to    .25 
.80  to    .50 
.80  to    .50 
.80  to    .50 
.80  to    .50 
.80  to    .50 
f  Not  to  ex-  \ 
\ceed   0.60  / 

Per  Ct. 
0.35 
.35 
.65 
.65 
.65 
.65 
.65 

Per  Ct. 
0.025 
.025 
.04 
.04 
.04 
.04 
.04 

.04 

Per  Ct. 
0.025 
.025 
.04 
.04 
.04 
.04 
.04 

.04 

C-8     . 

C-6  

C-5 

C-4.  .  

C-3 

C-2 

C-l 

[275] 


COLD-ROLLED  OR  COLD-DRAWN  STEEL 


COLD-ROLLED    OR    COLD-DRAWN   MACHINERY   STEEL   RODS 

AND  BARS 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General  Instructions. — The  "General  Specifications  for  Inspection  of  Steel  and 
Iron  Material,  General  Specifications,  Appendix  I,"  issued  by  the  Navy  Department 
(C.  and  R.),  June,  1912,  shall  form  a  part  of  these  specifications,  and  must  be  complied 
with  as  to  material,  method  of  inspection,  and  all  other  requirements  therein. 

2.  Physical  and  Chemical  Requirements.— '(a)  All  material  shall  be  free  from  in- 
jurious defects  and  have  a  smooth  and  workmanlike  finish. 

(b)  The  physical  and  chemical  requirements  of  oold-rolled  or  cold-drawn  steel 
shall  be  in  accordance  with  the  following  table: 


Ultimate 
Tensile 
Strength 

Minimum 
Elastic 
Limit 

Types 
of  Test 
Pieces 

Minimum 
Elonga- 
tion 

Under  |  inch  in  diameter  or  thick- 
ness    

Pounds  per 
Square  Inch 

Per  Ct. 

Per  Ct. 

|  inch  to  |  inch  inclusive,  in  diame- 
ter or  thickness 

80000-110000 

75  Ult 

3 

8  in  8" 

Over  %  inch  to  1|  inches,  inclusive, 
in  diameter  or  thickness  

Over  1|  inches  in  diameter  or 
thickness  . 

75,000-100,000 
70,000-  90,000 

75  Ult. 
70  Ult. 

3 
3 

1 

3 

12  in  2" 
10 
16 

14 

1 

18 

-  r;-""tv-.-   •:.--—-               •    .—-:--  .;_.-..  _::-__-      ... 

MAXIMUM 
AMOUNT  OF  — 

Cold  Bend 

P 

s 

Under  j  inch  in  diameter  or  thickness  

Per  Ct. 
0.06 

.06 

.06 
.06 

Per  Ct. 
0.06 

.06 

.06 

.06 

180°  to  3  diam. 
180°  to  3  diam. 

180°  to  3  diam. 
180°  to  3  diam. 

i  inch  to  £  inch  inclusive,   in  diameter  or 
thickness  ,  

Over  ^  inch  to  1|  inches,  inclusive,  in  diameter 
or  thickness                                          .  '.  

Over  1  5  inches  in  diameter  or  thickness  

Elongation:  For  type  3  test  pieces,  measure  in  8  inches  except  for  sizes 
elongation  may  be  measured  in  2  inches. 
For  type  1  test  pieces,  measure  in  2  inches. 


inch  and  less,  for  which 


3^  Tests.  —  For  test  purposes  each  melt  of  material  submitted  shall  be  grouped  into 
lots  conforming  to  the  sizes  specified  in  the  above  table.  For  material  TJ  inches  diameter 
and  under,  two  test  specimens,  one  for  tensile  and  one  for  bending,  shall  be  taken, 
both  from  the  smallest  and  from  the  largest  sizes  in  each  lot  submitted.  Over  1|  inches 
diameter,  tensile  and  bending  test  specimens  shall  be  taken  from  each  size  of  each  melt 
submitted  for  inspection.  Type  1  test  pieces  and  bending  test  specimens  shall  be  taken 
as  nearly  as  possible  at  a  distance  from  the  longitudinal  axis  of  the  bar  equal  to  one- 
quarter  of  the  diameter. 

4.  Steel  Cold-Rolled  or  Cold-Drawn,  —  Steel  may  be  cold-rolled  or  cold-drawn  at 

[276] 


SOFT  STEEL  AS  A  WROUGHT  IRON  SUBSTITUTE 

the  option  of  the  manufacturer,  and  rods  or  bars  shall  be  reduced  from  the  hot-rolled 
state,  by  either  process,  about  -^  inch  in  diameter  or  thickness  and  width  for  rods  or  bars 
up  to  a  finished  diameter  or  thickness  of  ^  inch.  For  rods  or  bars  greater  in  finished 
diameter  or  thickness  than  k  inch,  a  reduction  in  diameter  or  thickness  and  width  of  not 
less  than  ^  inch  shall  be  required.  The  following  variation  in  the  finished  diameter 
or  thickness  and  width  is  permissible: 


Allowable 
Variation 


Up  to  and  including  1  inch 

Above  1  inch  and  including  2£  inches 
Above  2  £  inches 


Inch 

0.003 

.004 

.005 


EXTRA  SOFT  STEEL  FOR  USE  AS  A  WROUGHT-IRON  SUBSTITUTE 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  Quality. — The  material  shall  be  known  as  extra  soft  steel  and  shall  be  used 
wherever  in  the  opinion  of  the  officer  concerned  it  can  be  used  to  greater  advantage 
than  wrought  iron.     This  material  should  not  contain  more  than  T£7  of  1  per  cent  of 
phosphorus,  not  more  than  T$7  of  1  per  cent  of  sulphur,  and  not  more  than  ^^  of  1 
per  cent  of  carbon. 

2.  Test  Pieces. — Two  test  specimens,  one  for  tensile  and  one  for  bending  test,  shall 
be  taken  as  specified  below,  the  classification  being  based  on  size  (diameter  or  thickness) 
of  material. 

(a)  Up  to  and  including  £  inch. 

(b)  From  J  inch  up  to  and  including  %  inch. 

(c)  From  £  inch  up  to  and  including  1£  inches. 

(d)  For  all  sizes  over  1£-  inches,  two  test  pieces  shall  be  taken  for  each  size. 
Whenever  the  material  offered  represents  more  than  one  heat,  the  material  from 

each  heat  shall  for  test  purposes  be  considered  a  separate  lot,  and  shall  be  so  tested. 
The  two  test  specimens  provided  for  shall  be  taken,  if  possible,  from  different  sizes  in- 
cluded in  the  class;  not  more  than  one  test  specimen  shall  be  taken  from  any  one  bar. 

3.  Tensile   Strength,  Elastic   Limit,   Elongation,   Contraction   of  Area. — The  test 
specimens  must  show  a  tensile  strength  of  not  less  than  45,000  pounds  nor  more  than 
55,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  an  elongation  of  not  less  than  28  per  cent,  a  con- 
traction in  area  of  not  less  than  48  per  cent,  and  an  elastic  limit  of  not  less  than  one-half 
the  ultimate  strength.     The  elongation  for  rods  or  bars  \  inch  or  less  in  diameter  or 
thickness  will  be  measured  on  a  length  equal  to  8  times  the  diameter  or  thickness  of 
section  tested;  for  sections  over  \  inch  and  less  than  f  inch  in  diameter  or  thickness 
the  elongation  will  be  measured  on  a  length  of  6  inches;  above  £  inch  in  diameter  or 
thickness  the  elongation  will  be  taken  on  a.  length  of  8  inches. 

4.  Bending  at  the  Weld. — Each  class  of  material  (size,  classification  paragraph  2) 
in  each  heat  shall  be  tested  for  bending  at  the  weld  as  follows:  The  bending  specimen 
provided  for  in  paragraph  2  shall  be  cut  in  two  pieces  which  shall,  then,  be  scarf  welded 
together.     After  welding  and  subjecting  to  cold-bending  tests  at  the  center  of  the  weld, 
the  specimen  shall  show  no  cracks  or  flaws  on  the  outer  curves  of  the  bends  upon  being 
bent  flat  to  180°. 


[277] 


STEEL  RODS  AND  BARS  FOR  STANCHIONS,   DAVITS,  ETC. 


STEEL  RODS  AND  BARS  FOR  STANCHIONS,  DAVITS,  AND  DROP 
AND  MISCELLANEOUS  FORCINGS 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General  Instructions.— "Specifications  for    the  Inspection  of    Steel  and  Iron 
Material,  General  Specifications,  Appendix  I,"  issued  June,  1912,  shall  form  a  part 
of  these  specifications  and  must  be  complied  with  in  all  respects. 

2.  Physical  and  Chemical  Requirements.— The  material  shall  be  free  from  injurious 
defects  and  shall  have  a  workmanlike  finish. 

The  physical  and  chemical  requirements  are  to  be  in  accordance  with  the  following 
table: 


MAXIMUM 

Class 

Material 

Size 

Minimum 
Tensile 
Strength 

Minimum 
Elongation 

AMOUNT  OF  — 

P 

S 

Pounds  per 

Per 

Per 

Square  Inch 

Cent 

Cent 

Med.  steel.  . 

Open-hearth 

1$    inches    di- 

58,000 

28  per  cent  in 

0.04 

0.045 

carbon  steel 

ameter         or 

8  inches  (Type 

thickness     or 

3  test  piece  to 

less. 

be  used). 

Above    1£    in- 

60,000 

30  per  cent  in 

.04 

.045 

ches    in    dia- 

^ 

2  niches  (Type 

meter    or 

1  test  piece  to 

thickness. 

be  used). 

(a)  ELONGATION. — For  rounds,  squares,  or  hexagons  £  inch  or  less  in  thickness  or 
diameter,  the  elongation  will  be  measured  on  a  length  equal  to  eight  times  the  thickness 
or  diameter  of  section  tested;  for  sections  over  \  inch  and  less  than  f  inch  in  thickness  or 
diameter  the  elongation  will  be  taken  on  a  length  of  6  inches.  For  flat  bars  less  than 
\  inch  in  thickness,  the  elongation  will  be  measured  on  a  length  equal  to  24  times  the 
thickness.  In  the  preceding  cases  the  required  percentage  of  elongation  shall  be  that 
specified  for  the  Type  No.  3  test  piece. 

3.  Finished  Material. — The  material  shall  be  free  from  all  injurious  defects  and  shall 
have  a  workmanlike  finish.     All  bars  must  be  true  to  section;  round  bars  must  have 
practically  perfect  circular  section  and  any  considerable  difference  in  the  largest  and 
smallest  diameter  of  a  bar  will  be  sufficient  cause  for  rejection.     All  bars  must  be 
straight  and  out  of  wind. 

4.  Tensile  Tests. — From  each  melt  and  size  and  (if  annealed)  from  each  furnace 
charge  there  shall  be  taken  from  different  objects,  if  practicable,  and  from  material 
uppermost  in  the  ingot,  two  specimens  for  tensile  test.     In  case  it  is  not  practicable 
to  identify  in  the  finished  object  the  material  uppermost  in  the  ingot,  the  inspector  will 
take  a  sufficient  number  of  additional  tests  to  satisfy  himself  fully  as  to  the  uniformity  of 
the  material. 

5.  Bending  Tests. — Two  specimens  for  making  cold-bending  tests  shall  be  selected 
in  the  same  manner  as  prescribed  for  the  specimens  selected  for  tensile  tests.     These 
cold-bend  specimens  shall  be  bent  over  flat  on  themselves  without  showing  any  cracks 
or  flaws  on  the  convex  surface  of  the  bend. 

[278] 


STEEL  RODS  AND  BARS  FOR  STANCHIONS,   DAVITS,  ETC. 
6.  Tolerances. — 

STANDARD  ALLOWABLE  VARIATIONS  IN  THE  SIZES  OF  HOT-ROLLED  BARS 
(a)  Rounds,  squares,  and  hexagons 


Variation  in  Size 

Under 

Over 

Up  to  and  including  i  inch 

Inch 
0  007 

Inch 
0  007 

Over  5  inch  up  to  and  including  1  inch 

010 

010 

Over  1  inch  up  to  and  including  2  inches              

016 

031 

Over  2  inches  up  to  and  including  3  inches  

.031 

.047 

Over  3  inches  up  to  and  including  5  inches 

031 

094 

Over  5  inches  up  to  and  including  8  inches            

.063 

.125 

(b)  Flats 


Width  of  Plata 

VARIATION  m 
WIDTH 

VARIATION  IN  THICKNESS,  UNDER 
AND  OVER  THICKNESS  OF  FLATS 

Under 

Over 

A  Inch 
and 
Under 

Over 
A  Inch 
up  to 
i  Inch 

Over 
J  Inch 
up  to 
llnch 

Over 
1  Inch 
up  to  2 
Inches 

Up  to  and  including  1  inch  

Inch 
0.016 

.031 
.047 
.063 

Inch 
0.031 

.047 
.063 
.094 

Inch 
0.006 

.008 
.010 
.010 

Inch 
0.008 

.012 
.015 
.015 

Inch 
0.010 

.016 
.020 
.020 

Inch 
0.031 

.031 
.031 
.031 

For  1  inch  up  to  and  including  2 
inches        .          

For  2  inches  up  to  and  including  4 
inches 

For  4  inches  up  to  and  including  6 
inches 

[279] 


SPRING  STEEL 


SPRING  STEEL 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General  Instructions. — The  "General  Specifications  for  Inspection  of  Steel  and 
Iron  Material,  General  Specifications,  Appendix  I,"  issued  by  the  Navy  Department 
(C.  &  R.)  June,  1912,  shall  form  a  part  of  these  specifications,  and  must  be  complied 
with  as  to  material,  method  of  inspection,  and  all  other  requirements  therein. 

2.  Process  of  Manufacture. — Spring  steel  shall  be  manufactured  by  either  the 
open-hearth  or  crucible  process. 

3.  Chemical  Requirements. — Chemical  properties  of  spring  steel  shall  be  in  accord- 
ance with  the  following  table: 


Carbon,  per 
Cent 

Manganese, 
per  Cent 

Silicon,  per 
Cent 

Other  Alloys 

Phosphorus, 
per  Cent 

Sulphur-,  per 
Cent 

Not    less     than 
0.70;  not  more 
than  1.10 

Not    less    than 
0.25;  not  more 
than  0.50 

Not      over 
0.25 

(See  note) 

Not  over 
0.05 

Not      over 
0.05 

NOTE. — Vanadium  or  other  elements  may  be  used  to  obtain  the  necessary  physical  characteristics. 

4.  Physical  Requirements. — From  each  lot  of  twenty  bars,  or  fraction  thereof  of 
the  same  size,  made  from  the  same  open-hearth  melt  or  crucible  furnace  charge,  three 
bars  will  be  selected  at  random  and  subjected  to  tests  as  described  below.     Bars  that 
do  not  vary  in  their  cross-sectional  dimensions  more  than  £  inch  will  be  considered  of 
one  size.     The  nick  test  and  deflection  test  will  be  made  with  the  full-size  specimen. 
Tensile  tests  will  be  made  with  the  full-size  specimen  when  practicable;  when  not 
practicable  "Type  No.  1"  test  piece  will  be  allowed.     Each  test  specimen  will  be 
taken  from  a  different  bar. 

(a)  TENSILE  TESTS. — A  specimen  bar  after  being  tempered  shall  have  an  ultimate 
tensile  strength  of  at  least  180,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  with  an  elastic  limit  of  at 
least  75  per  cent  of  the  ultimate  tensile  strength. 

(b)  NICK  TEST. — A  specimen  when  nicked  and  broken  shall  present  a  fine,  uniform 
grain. 

(c)  DEFLECTION  TEST. — A  specimen  bar  after  being  tempered,  resting  upon  supports 
24  inches  between  centers,  shall  not  take  a  permanent  set  of  more  than  0.05  inch  after 
the  first  application  of  a  load  corresponding  to  a  fiber  stress  of  135,000  pounds  per 
square  inch,  nor  a  permanent  set  of  more  than  7.5  per  cent  of  the  total  deflection  under 
a  load  producing  a  fiber  stress  of  160,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  nor  any  further  set 
after  five  additional  applications  of  a  load  giving  a  fiber  stress  of  150,000  pounds  per 
square  inch. 

5.  Surface  Defects. — Spring  steel  shall  be  free  from  all  injurious  defects.     The  bars 
shall  be  thoroughly  cleaned  by  pickling  or  other  approved  method. 

6.  Tolerances. — In  the  case  of  round  bars  a  variation  of  0.02  inch  in  diameter  is 
allowable.     In  the  case  of  rectangular  bars  an  allowance  of  0.02  inch  in  thickness  and 
0.03  inch  in  width  from  the  sizes  ordered  will  be  allowed. 


[280] 


TOOL  STEEL 


TOOL  STEEL 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 
CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION 


.  _—  

CLASS  1,  PER 

CENT  LIMIT 

CLASS  2,  PER 

CENT  LIMIT 

TUNGSTEN  TOOL  STEEL 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Carbon                           

0.75 

0.55 

1.50 

1.35 

Chromium            ...»  

5.00 

2.50 

.00 

.00 

IVlanganese                           

.30 

.05 

.20 

.10 

Phosphorus                     

.015 

.00 

.015 

.00 

Silicon                   

.30 

.00 

.20 

.00 

Sulphur                                

.02 

.00 

.02 

.00 

Tungsten               

20.00 

16.00 

3.50 

2.00 

Vanadium                                   

1.50 

.35 

(2) 

(2) 

Iron                                   

C) 

0) 

0) 

C) 

CLASS  1,  PER 

CENT  LIMIT 

CLASS  2,  PER 

CENT  LIMIT 

CARBON  TOOL  STEEL 

-                                                                                                     r               • 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Carbon                .  .  •.  

1.25 

1.15 

1.15 

1.05 

IVlanganese                                

.35 

.15 

.35 

.15 

Nickel                        

.10 

.00 

.00 

Phosphorus                                 ........ 

.015 

.00 

.015 

.00 

Silicon                                  

.40 

.10 

.40 

.10 

Sulphur                 .    ;  •  • 

.02 

.00 

.02 

.00 

Tungsten       

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

Iron                                          

(i) 

(i) 

(l) 

0) 

CLASS  3,  PEB 

CENT  LIMIT 

CLASS  4,  PEB 

CENT  LIMIT 

CARBON  TOOL  STEEL 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Carbon                     

0  95 

0.85 

0.85 

0.75 

M  anganese 

35 

15 

35 

.15 

Nickel                             

00 

00 

.00 

.00 

Phosphorus  

.02 

.00 

.02 

.00 

Silicon 

40 

10 

40 

.10 

Sulphur                 

02 

.00 

.025 

.00 

Tungsten 

(2) 

(2) 

00 

.00 

Iron                                    .... 

(1) 

(1) 

(i) 

(*) 

1  Remainder. 


'•  Optional. 


PHYSICAL  TESTS 


1.  Tungsten  Tool  Steel. — CLASS  1. — The  sample  bar  will  be  forged  into  five  tools, 
treated  and  ground  to  the  No.  30  form  of  the  Sellers  system  of  lathe  tool  forms.  Each 
tool  will  be  tested  on  a  nickel-steel  forging  of  about  100,000  pounds  tensile  strength, 
with  a  cut  &  inch  deep,  0.044  inch  feed,  and  a  cutting  speed  of  65  feet  per  minute. 
Each  tool  will  be  twice  reground  and  retested.  A  record  will  be  made  of  the  length 
of  time  each  tool  cuts  without  a  lubricant  or  cutting  compound  before  it  is  ruined. 

[281] 


TOOL  STEEL 

2.  CLASS  2. — Five  flinch  diameter  4-tooth  facing  mills  will  be  made  from  the 
sample  rod  and  tested  on  a  piece  of  f-inch  ship's  plate  without  lubricant.     Each  mill 
will  be  run  until  it  is  so  dull  that  it  breaks  either  in  the  teeth  or  in  the  shank.     The 
depth  of  cut  will  be  0.08  inch,  the  revolutions  per  minute  of  the  mill  will  be  370  and  the 
feed  of  material  20  inches  per  minute.     A  record  will  be  made  of  the  length  of  time  each 
mill  operates. 

3.  Carbon  Tool  Steel. — CLASS  1. — Five  &-inch  diameter  4-tooth  facing  mills  will 
be  made  from  the  sample  rod  and  tested  on  a  piece  of  f-inch  ship's  plate  without  lubri- 
cant.   Each  mill  will  be  run  until  it  is  so  dull  that  it  breaks  either  in  the  teeth  or  in 
the  shank.     The  depth  of  cut  will  be  0.08  inch,  the  revolutions  per  minute  of  the  mill 
will  be  370  and  the  feed  of  material  20  inches  per  minute.    A  record  will  be  made  of 
the  length  of  time  each  mill  operates. 

4.  CLASS  2. — Five  ^-inch  diameter  4-tooth  facing  mills  will  be  made  from  the 
sample  rod  and  tested  on  a  piece  of  f-inch  ship's  plate  without  lubricant.     Each  mill 
will  be  run  until  it  is  so  dull  that  it  breaks  either  in  the  teeth  or  in  the  shank.    The 
depth  of  cut  will  be  0.08  inch,  the  revolutions  per  minute  of  the  mill  will  be  370,  and  the 
feed  of  material  20  inches  per  minute.    A  record  will  be  made  of  the  length  of  time  each 
mill  operates. 

5.  CLASS  3. — Five  £-inch  pneumatic  chisels  will  be  made  from  the  sample  bar. 
Each  chisel  will  be  tested  on  a  nickel-steel  plate  with  a  cut  ^  inch  deep.     A  record 
will  be  made  of  the  distance  each  chisel  cuts  with  a  lubricant  before  it  is  ruined. 

6.  CLASS  4. — Two  |-inch  rivet  sets  will  be  made  from  the  sample  bar.    A  record 
will  be  made  of  the  condition  of  the  sets  after  a  certain  number  of  rivets  have  been 
driven.  • 

7.  Modification  of  Tests. — Any  or  all  of  the  above  tests  may  be  modified  at  the 
discretion  of  the  Engineer  officer. 

GENERAL 

8.  Method  of  Manufacture. — The  tool  steels  must  be  made  in  either  the  electric  or 
crucible  fornace,  and  must  be  of  homogeneous  composition.     The  bars  or  rods  shall 
be  forged  or  rolled  accurately  to  the  dimensions  specified,  and  must  be  free  from  seams, 
checks,  and  other  physical  defects.     They  must  be  delivered  annealed  and,  unless 
otherwise  specified,  in  commercial  lengths.     Short  pieces  will  not  be  accepted.    Drill 
rods  must  be  coated  with  a  rust  preventive. 

9.  Stamps  on  Material. — Each  bar  or  rod  of  tool  steel,  excepting  drill  rods,  whether 
sample  for  "selective  test"  or  material  delivered  under   contract,  shall  be   legibly 
stamped  with  the  manufacturer's  name,  his  trade  name,  heat  number,  and  temper 
index  of  the  tool  steel,  also  the  classification  stamps  as  given  in  these  specifications. 
The  tungsten  tool  steels,  Classes  1  and  2,  shall  be  stamped  "T-l"  and  "T-2,"  respec- 
tively, and  the  carbon  tool  steels,  Classes  1,  2,  3,  and  4,  "C-l,"  "C-2,"  "C-3,"  and 
"C-4,"  respectively.      The  letters  and  figures  of  these  classification  stamps  should 
be  about  &  inch  high.     If  the  bars  or  rods  are  longer  than  about  4  feet  and  larger 
than  f  inch  diameter,  square,  hexagon,  octagon,  etc.,  the  above  stamps  should  be 
placed  at  intervals  of  about  3  feet  along  the  bar.     On  bars  f  inch  diameter  and  smaller, 
square,  hexagon,  octagon,  etc.,  the  above  stamps  should  be  placed  on  one  end  only. 
Each  drill  rod  shall  be  stamped  with  the  tool-steel  classification  stamp  only  on  one  end, 
and  the  stamp  for  the  identification  of  heat  number  on  the  other  end. 

10.  Acceptance  Test. — Samples  for  chemical  analyses  for  "acceptance  test"  will 
be  taken  from  the  material  delivered  by  the  contractor  to  the  general  storekeeper, 
navy  yard,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  or  if  the  material  is  inspected  at  place  of  manufacture, 
the  inspector  will  forward  samples  for  chemical  analysis  to  the  general  storekeeper, 
navy  yard,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  who  will  forward  them  to  the  engineer  officer  for  him  to 
arrange  for  the  analyses  and  recommend  the  acceptance  or  rejection  of  the  material. 
If  the  analysis  proves  that  the  composition  of  the  material  does  not  correspond  to 
that  of  the  sample  bar  or  rod  submitted  for  "selective  test,"  or  if  the  sulphur  or  phos- 
phorus content  exceeds  the  specification  limits,  the  material  will  be  rejected.     Physical 
tests  similar  to  the  "selective  test"  may  also  be  made,  at  the  discretion  of  the  Engineer 

[282] 


TOOL  Sf  EEL 

officer.    The  contractor  shall  replace  the  rejected  shipment  within  two  weeks,  if  prac- 
ticable, after  receipt  of  notice  of  rejection. 

11.  Place  of  Manufacture. — Bidders  must  state  in  their  proposals,  on  the  blank 
lines  provided  under  each  class,  the  name  of  the  manufacturer,  as  well  as  the  place 
where  the  material  will  be  manufactured,  giving  the  exact  address. 

If  this  information  can  not  be  furnished  in  his  bid,  the  contractor  must,  within 
five  days  after  receipt  of  notice  of  award,  furnish  the  Bureau  of  Steam  Engineering 
with  the  foregoing  information. 

All  handling  of  material  necessary  for  purposes  of  inspection  shall  be  performed 
and  all  test  specimens  necessary  for  the  determination  of  the  qualities  of  material  used 
shall  be  prepared  and  tested  at  the  expense  of  the  contractor. 

If  inspection  is  authorized  at  the  place  of  manufacture,  shipment  made  without 
authority  from  the  Government  inspector  may  result  in  return,  at  contractor's  expense, 
of  material  to  place  of  manufacture  for  inspection. 

If  contract  is  sublet,  the  contractor  shall  furnish  the  Bureau  of  Steam  Engineering 
with  four  copies  of  his  order  to  the  subcontractor  for  comparison  with  the  specifications 
of  the  contract. 

In  connection  with  the  inspection  of  the  material,  if  incorrect  information  is  given, 
thereby  causing  one  or  more  useless  trips  by  the  inspectors,  the  Government  reserves 
the  right  to  charge  the  expense  of  such  useless  trips  to  the  contractor,  and  further 
inspection  at  the  mills  may  be  denied  the  contractor  at  the  option  of  the  bureau. 

12.  Defective  Material. — If  material,  when  being  manufactured  into  tools,  develops 
physical  defects  which  could  not  be  detected  by  inspection,  such  as  "cracks,"  "pipes," 
etc.,  the  manufacturer  of  this  steel  shall  replace,  without  cost  to  the  Government,  such 
defective  material. 

PROPOSALS 

13.  Reservation  and  Alternate  Proposals. — The  right  is  reserved  to  reject  any  or  all 
proposals. 

Bidders  may  submit  proposals  on  tool  steel  which  differs  from  the  composition  and 
method  of  manufacture  specified,  provided  this  is  clearly  stated  in  their  proposals, 
and  provided  they  furnish  the  engineer  officer  with  a  statement  of  the  exact  chemical 
composition  and  method  of  manufacture  of  the  tool  steel.  This  information  will 
be  considered  confidential  by  the  engineer  officer  if  the  bidder  requests  it.  The  tool 
steel  will  be  tested  if,  in  the  opinion  of  the  engineer  officer,  it  is  considered  suitable  for 
the  purpose  intended. 

14.  Selective  Test. — Each  bidder  shall  furnish  with  his  proposal  sample  bars  of  tool 
steel,  stamped  as  called  for  under  heading  "Stamps  on  Material,"  for  the  "selective 
test."    The  relation  of  the  results  obtained  from  the  tests  conducted  as  provided  for 
under  the  heading  "Physical  Tests"  and  the  price  of  the  material  determine    the 
selective  factor.     The  dimensions  of  the  sample  bars  shall  be  as  follows: 

Tungsten  tool  steel: 

CLASS  1. — £  by  1  inch  by  5  feet  long. 

CLASS  2. — ^-inch  diameter  rod,  1\  feet  long. 

Carbon  tool  steel: 

CLASS  1. — H-inch  diameter  rod,  2|  feet  long* 

CLASS  2. — H~mch  diameter  rod,  2£  feet  long. 

CLASS  3. — f-inch  octagon  rod,  5  feet  long. 

CLASS  4 — 2-inch  diameter  rod,  2  feet  long. 

15.  Treatment  of  Samples. — Each  bidder  will  state  hi  his  proposal,  if  he  considers 
it  necessary  to  do  so,  the  treatment  to  which  the  material  must  be  subjected  in  order 
to  get,  in  his  opinion,  the  best  results. 

16.  Delivery  of  Sample  Bars. — All  sample  bars,  stamped  as  called  for  under  the 
heading  "Stamps  on  Material,"  must  be  delivered  to  the  General  Storekeeper,  Building 
No.  4,  Navy  Yard,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  prior  to  the  time  fixed  for  opening  of  proposals. 
Sample  bars  delivered  late  will  not  be  received.     Failure  to  comply  with  the  above 
requirements  will  eliminate  the  proposal  from  consideration.    All  sample  bars  will  be 

[2831 


TOOL  STEEL 

delivered  by  the  general  storekeeper  to  the  Engineer  officer  for  him  to  conduct  the 
"selective  tests." 

17.  Award  of  Contract. — The  Engineer  officer  will,  after  the  prescribed  tests  have 
been  made,  recommend  the  award  of  contract  for  the  tool  steel  or  tool  steels  which, 
in  his  opinion,  it  is  to  the  best  interest  of  the  Government  to  purchase.     The  selective 
factor  will  be  the  basis  for  selection. 

18.  Intermediate    Sizes. — Intermediate  sizes  not  specified  when  required  will  be 
ordered  and  paid  for  at  the  price  of  the  next  higher  size. 

PURPOSE  FOR  WHICH  THE   STEEL  IS  INTENDED 

19.  Tungsten  Tool  Steel. — CLASS  1. — Drill  rods,  lathe  and  planer  tools,  milling- 
machine  tools,  and  in  general  all  tools  for  which  high-speed  steel  is  used. 

20.  CLASS  2. — Lathe  and  planer  tools  and  general  machine-shop  tools  which  require 
a  keen  and  durable"  cutting  edge, 

21.  Carbon  Tool  Steel. — CLASS  1. — Drill  rods,  lathe,  and  planer  tools,  and  tools 
requiring  keen-cutting  edge  combined  with  great  hardness,  such  as  drills,  taps,  reamers, 
and  screw-cutting  dies. 

22.  CLASS  2. — Milling  cutters,  mandrels,  trimmer  dies,  threading  dies,  and  general 
machine-shop  tools  requiring  a  keen- cutting  edge  combined  with  hardness. 

23.  CLASS  3. — Pneumatic  chisels,  punches,  shear  blades,  etc.,  and  in  general  tools 
requiring  hard  surface  with  considerable  tenacity. 

24.  CLASS  4. — Rivet  sets,  hammers,   cupping  tools,  smith  tools,  hot  drop-forge 
dies,  etc.,  and  in  general  tools  which  require  great  toughness  combined  with  the  necessary 
hardness. 


[284| 


FIRE  CLAYS  AND  FIRE  BRICKS 


FIRE  CLAYS  AND  FIRE  BRICKS 

The  testing  of  clay  refractories,  with  special  reference  to  their  load-carrying  capacity 
at  furnace  temperatures,  by  A.  V.  Bleninger  and  G.  H.  Brown,  form  the  subject  matter 
of  Technologic  Paper  No.  7  of  the  Bureau  of  Standards. 

From  the  results  of  the  work  done  by  the  above  chemists  in, the  laboratory  of  the 
Bureau,  much  valuable  information  relating  to  fire  bricks  made  from  American  clays 
is  available. 

SUGGESTED  DATA  FOR  SPECIFICATIONS  BASED  ON  RESULTS  OF  LOAD  TESTS  FOR  A 
STANDARD  BRICK  9  INCHES  LONG 


LOAD  FOR  1  INCH 

Compressive 

COMPRESSION  — 

Strength- 

Fire  Brick 

Softening 
Temperature 

BRICK  TESTED  ON  END  — 

Tested  on  End  — 
Atmospheric 
Temperature  — 

Temperature 

Pounds  per 
Square  Inch 

Pounds  per 
Square  Inch 

No.  1-A 

1690°  C. 

1350°  C. 

50 

1,000 

No.  1-B 

1690°  C. 

1350°  C. 

30 

800 

No.  2 

1630°  C. 

1300°  C. 

25 

Definition  of  Clays. — Clays  may  be  defined  as  mixtures  of  minerals  of  which  the 
representative  members  are  hydrous  silicates  of  aluminum,  iron,  the  alkalies,  and  the 
alkaline  earths,  of  which  the  most  characteristic  is  the  hydrated  aluminum  silicate 
(A12O3,  2SiO2,  2H20).  Some  quartz,  mica,  and  feldspar  are  usually  present;  the  grains 
of  these  minerals  may  show  crystal  faces  (especially  in  the  case  of  china  clays),  but 
commonly  they  are  of  irregular  shapes. 

•Upon  most  of  the  grains  of  the  constituent  minerals  there  is  an  enveloping  coating 
of  colloidal  material,  which  consists  of  silicates,  silicic  acid  with  hydroxides  of  alumi- 
nium, iron,  and  manganese,  and  usually  contains  some  organic  matter. 

Almost  any  mineral,  as  well  as  various  soluble  salts,  may  be  present  in  clays  and 
modify  the  properties  somewhat.  The  combination  of  granular  and  colloidal  material 
is,  or  should  be,  in  such  proportion  that  when  reduced  to  proper  size  (by  crushing,  sifting, 
washing,  or  other  means)  and  moistened  with  an  appropriate  amount  of  water  plasticity 
is  developed.  If  too  much  colloidal  material  is  present,  the  clay  is  considered  very 
sticky,  strong,  or  fat;  if  too  little,  the  clay  is  called  sandy,  weak,  lean,  or  non-plastic. 
The  term  " non-plastics,"  for  granular  materials,  requires  qualification,  since  most  plastic 
bodies  would  lose  plasticity  and  become  sticky  if  the  granular  constituent  were  removed. 
The  highly  colloidal  clays  are  as  non-plastic  as  the  clays  containing  little  colloidal 
material.  In  one  case,  the  clay  is  too  sticky  to  work;  in  the  other  case,  it  is  too  weak 
and  sandy.  Plasticity  depends  on  a  proper  ratio  between  colloidal  and  granular  mat^ 
ter,  but  within  limits  it  varies  with  the  amount  of  colloidal  material  present;  the 
proportion  of  colloidal  material  in  a  clay  is  usually  small  and  rarely  exceeds  1.5  per 
cent;  a  clay  containing  0.5  per  cent  is  lean. 

Origin  of  Clays. — Clays  have  been  formed  by  the  decomposition  of  feldspars,  though 
the  exact  mode  of  formation  is  not  yet  established.  That  kaolinite  (the  crystalline 
mineral  of  the  composition  A12O3,  2SiO2,  2H2O)  is  the  chief  residual .  product  of  feld- 
spathic  decay  is  the  commonly  accepted  view,  but  some  writers  hold  that  it  is  not  formed 
by  ordinary  weathering,  and,  is  only  produced  by  pneumatolytic  action — that  is,  by 
the  operation  of  thermal  waters  and  gaseous  emanations.  ,  .  .  Probably  different 
crystalline  silicates  yield  different  residues  of  this  ill-defined  class  (of  hydrous  silicates 
of  aluminium  and  iron),  and  any  or  all  of  them  may  exist  in  residuary  clays. 

Whatever  be  the  exact  process  by  which  feldspars  are  transformed  into  clays,  this 
much  is  certain,  that  the  main  agency  in  the  removal  of  the  alkalies  and  silica  is  water 

[285] 


FIRE  CLAYS  AND  FIRE  BRICKS 

(or  dilute  aqueous  solutions).  This  removal  may  be  effected  by  simple  solution  for, 
we  know  that  in  the  lapse  of  time  water  dissolves  the  constituents  of  alkaline  silicate 
out  of  feldspar;  the  process  is  probably  furthered  by  mechanical  factors. 

General  Properties  of  Clays. — Clays  exhibit  their  characteristic  properties  only  in 
presence  of  water;  indeed,  that  water  is  present  is  implicit  in  the  definition  of  clay, 
for  the  behavior  of  the  dried-out  clay  substance  differs  largely  from  that  which  we  or- 
dinarily associate  with  clays.  The  principal  properties  of  day,  besides  its  absorptive 
power,  are  plasticity,  binding  power,  and  shrinkage  on  drying  or  burning. 

The  plasticity  of  a  clay  is  due  to  the  colloidal  substance  which  it  happens  to  contain. 
When  clays  have  been  completely  dried,  plasticity  disappears  (and  with  it  the  other 
characteristic  properties);  when  the  material  is  again  wetted,  the  plasticity  is  initially 
not  so  great  as  it  was  before  drying  out,  but  in  the  lapse  of  time  increases  slowly  again. 
The  ability  of  a  clay  to  take  up  and  to  hold  relatively  large  amounts  of  foreign  material 
(such  as  sand,  powdered  minerals,  etc.)  without  destroying  its  other  properties  is  also 
to  be  attributed  to  the  presence  of  colloidal  material,  which  surrounds  the  foreign 
particles,  and  thus  binds  them  together. 

The  shrinkage  on  burning  is  closely  related  to  the  plasticity,  being  greater  as  the 
plasticity  is  greater,  for  on  drying  there  is  a  contraction  around  each  individual  grain 
due  to  the  destruction  of  the  colloidal  material  as  such  and  the  consequent  formation 
of  a  multitude  of  cracks.  It  is  practically  impossible  to  dry  a  mass  of  pure  clay  so  that 
it  shall  be  free  from  cracks.  But  by  suitable  admixture  of  sand  or  other  non-plastic 
material  with  the  clay  these  cracks  may  be  rendered  small  and  separated  one  from 
another.  In  order  to  accomplish  this,  it  is  essential  that  the  drying  process  be  uniform 
throughout  the  mass.  To  insure  uniformity,  the  drying  must  be  conducted  very  slowly, 
and  more  slowly  in  proportion  as  the  material  used  was  more  plastic. 

The  shrinkage  must  not  be  too  much  reduced  by  the  addition  of  foreign  material; 
otherwise  the  hardness  will  suffer.  Pure  clay  becomes  very  hard  on  drying,  while  sandy 
pastes  always  remain  more  or  less  friable.  This  correlation  does  not  obtain  if  the  burning 
is  performed  at  a  temperature  such  that  a  partial  fusion  of  the  material  may  occur;  but 
it  does  hold  for  bricks,  tiles,  and  other  refractory  materials,  which  are  burned  at  tem- 
peratures between  1,000°  and  1,200°  C. 

Viscosity  is  an  important  factor  in  the  behavior  of  fire  brick  and  other  clay  refractories 
under  the  load  conditions  which  prevail  in  industrial  furnaces.  While  the  loads  imposed 
may  be  slight  and  would  be  insignificant  as  far  as  the  strength  of  the  product  in  the  cold 
condition  is  concerned,  they  become  an  important  factor  at  elevated  temperatures. 
Thus,  while  a  fire  brick  may  show  a  compressive  strength  of  from  2,500  to  3,000  pounds 
per  square  inch  at  atmospheric  temperature,  it  will  possess  but  a  small  part  of  this 
strength  at  a  temperature  of,  say,  1,300°  C. 

This  decrease  in  resistance  to  deformation  has  a  more  important  bearing  upon  the 
durability  of  refractories  than  is  generally  realized.  Conditions  of  strain  prevail  in 
almost  any  part  of  a  furnace,  especially  in  crowns,  bridge  walls  and  bags,  checkerwork, 
retort  benches,  muffles,  etc.  To  these  must  be  added  the  strains  imposed  by  expansion 
and  contraction  due  to  temperature  changes  and  those  due  to  other  causes.  The  loss 
in  resistance  to  compression  is  evidently  due  to  the  lowered  viscosity,  caused  by  the 
gradual  softening  of  the  clay  due  to  vitrification  and  incipient  fusion.  This  viscous 
state  becomes  more  and  more  prominent  as  the  temperature  rises  until  the  point  is 
reached  when  the  material  can  no  longer  support  its  own  weight.  The  rate  at  which 
a  clay  approaches  this  semi-liquid  state  with  increasing  temperature  may  be  said  to  be 
roughly  proportional  to  the  rate  of  vitrification,  i.e.,  the  speed  with  which  the  pore 
space  closes  up  due  to  partial  fusion.  The  contraction  is  the  result  of  surface  forces 
tending  to  reduce  the  area  of  the  body  to  a  minimum. 

A  fire-clay  body  low  in  fluxes,  i.e.,  titanium  oxide,  ferric  or  ferrous  oxide,  lime, 
magnesia,  potash  and  soda,  showing  a  low  rate  of  vitrification  will  consequently  be 
affected  less  under  furnace  conditions  with  increasing  temperatures  than  one  higher  in 
basic  constituents. 

Nature  of  Refractory  Clays. — CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION. — The  principal  ingredient 
of  fire  clay  is  a  hydrous  silicate  of  alumina,  of  the  formula  AljOs .  2SiOz .  2H2O,  correspond- 
ing to  the  following  percentage  composition: 

[286] 


FIRE  CLAYS  AND  FIRE  BRICKS 


Hydrous 

Dehydrated 

Silica                      '.  .  .  . 

Per  Cent 
46.3 

Per  Cent 
53.8 

39.8 

46.2 

13.9 

While  this  substance,  commonly  called  kaolin,  does  not  correspond  to  the  most 
refractory  mineral  combination  of  silica  and  alumina  found  in  nature,  it  is  at  least  the 
most  commonly  distributed  material,  since  it  may  be  assumed  to  be  the  fundamental 
constituent  of  all  fire  clays.  Other  minerals,  such  as  sillimanite,  cyanite,  and  andalusite, 
corresponding  to  the  general  formula  Al2O3.SiO2,  are  far  more  infusible,  but  are  of 
comparatively  rare  occurrence  in  clays. 

The  so-called  melting  point  of  pure  clays  is  close  to  that  of  platinum;  that  is,  about 
1,755°  C.  Substances  whose  softening  temperatures  differ  too  greatly  from  that  of 
kaolin  should  not  be  considered  as  fire  clays.  Though  the  chemical  composition  of  fire 
clays  approaches  more  or  less  closely  that  of  kaolinite,  Al2Os .  2SiO2 .  2H2O,  they  differ 
widely  as  regards  their  physical  structure,  varying  through  all  stages  from  the  well- 
defined  crystalline  state  to  that  of  a  typical  colloid.  The  fusion  of  even  the  purest  clay, 
both  in  the  crystalline  and  the  amorphous  condition,  proceeds  gradually,  and  it  is 
erroneous  to  speak  of  a  definite  melting  point  for  clay.  In  technical  work  the  deforma- 
tion and  collapse  of  a  specimen  is  usually  employed  as  the  criterion  of  the  fusion  point. 
Although  this  has  no  theoretical  meaning,  it  answers  the  purposes  of  practice.  From 
the  technical  standpoint,  roughly,  three  classes  of  refractory  clays  may  be  distinguished, 
viz.,  kaolin  clays,  flint  clays,  and  plastic  clays. 

KAOLINS. — The  first  class  of  materials,  usually  of  geologically  primary  origin, 
consists,  in  the  purified  state  of  white  clayey  matter,  containing  both  the  crystalline 
and  amorphous  varieties  of  clay  base.  In  some  of  these  clays  the  crystalline  con- 
stituents predominate,  as  hi  the  North  Carolina  kaolins.  These  clays,  on  account  of 
their  whiteness,  are  used  in  the  pottery  industries. 

There  are,  however,  kaolins  which  possess  a  good  degree  of  plasticity,  as  the  Georgia 
kaolins  and  some  of  the  English  china  clays.  These,  as  long  as  they  maintain  good 
whiteness,  are  highly  valued  in  the  manufacture  of  white  ware  and  porcelain  products. 
Frequently,  however,  increased  plasticity  is  coincident  with  increased  content  of  fluxes 
and  consequent  reduction  in  refractoriness.  While  marked  plasticity  in  itself,  of 
course,  does  not  mean  reduced  refractoriness,  it  indicates -geological  conditions  which 
tend  to  incorporate  impurities  in  the  clay. 

Owing  to  their  purity  (absence  of  basic  oxides)  the  kaolins  are  the  most  refractory 
clays. 

FLINT  CLAYS. — The  so-called  flint  clays  embrace  many  materials  of  a  grade  of 
purity  corresponding  closely  in  composition  to  the  best  grade  of  kaolins.  Like  the 
latter,  they  may,  of  course,  deteriorate  into  clays  of  comparatively  low  refractory 
value.  Physically  they  are  unlike  the  soft  and  chalky  kaolins  in  possessing  a  hard,  dense 
amorphous  structure,  showing  a  peculiar  well-defined  conchoiclal  fracture.  The  color 
is  usually  gray.  The  initial  plasticity  is  exceedingly  feeble,  though  if  exposed  to  the 
weather  or  if  ground  either  dry  or  wet  the  condition  of  colloidal  "set"  may  be  partially 
overcome  and  sufficient  plasticity  developed  for  molding  purposes.  Owing  to  the  weak 
plasticity  possessed  by  flint  clays,  their  drying  shrinkage  when  ground  and  made  up 
with  water  is  very  slight.  On  the  other  hand,  in  burning  these  clays  undergo  a  con- 
siderable shrinkage.  The  volume  shrinkage  characteristic  of  these  clays  subjects 
the  structure  of  the  product  into  which  they  enter  to  a  severe  strain,  which,  owing  to 
the  low  tensile  strength,  may  cause  serious  difficulty  due  to  cracking  and  checking,  so 
that  it  may  be  necessary  either  to  calcine  the  flint  clay  before  incorporating  it  in  the 
body  or  to  replace  it  in  part  by  ground  waste  bricks  (grog). 

The  burning  shrinkage  in  the  case  of  flint  clays  cannot  be  entirely  attributed  to  the 
contraction  accompanying  vitrification.  Considering  the  purity  of  these  clays  it  is 

[287] 


FIRE  CLAYS  AND  FIRE  BRICKS 

evident  that  part  of  the  shrinkage  is  independent  of  this  factor  and  must  be  due  to  a 
molecular  change  of  another  kind,  that  peculiar  to  many  typical  amorphous  substances 
like  alumina,  magnesia,  zirconia,  etc.  We  may,  therefore,  ascribe  the  high-burning 
shrinkage  of  flint  clays  to  colloidal  volume  changes. 

HIGH-GRADE  PLASTIC  CLAYS. — Clays,  combining  good  plasticity  and  refractoriness, 
are  not  of  common  occurrence.  While  there  are  some  examples  of  this  type,  the  majority 
of  the  deposits  usually  show  plasticity  at  the  expense  of  heat-resisting  power,  and  in 
addition  show  variations  in  quality  which  render  their  use  hi  the  industries  more  or 
less  uncertain.  Some  plastic  clays  of  high  grade  are  known  as  kaolins,  such  as  the  white 
clays  from  Georgia,  Alabama,  and  Florida.  Outside  of  these  the  bulk  of  the  plastic 
fire  clays  are  of  carboniferous  and  tertiary  origin.  While  the  kaolin-like  clays  are  not 
at  present  used  to  any  extent  in  the  refractory  industries  they  could  be  made  available 
as  bond  clays  most  successfully.  Owing  to  the  higher  content  of  impurities,  the  plastic 
clays  necessarily  show  distinct  evidence  of  vitrification  at  considerably  lower  temper- 
atures than  the  pure  fire  clays. 

Pure  clays,  up  to  temperatures  approaching  the  softening  point,  should  show  no 
marked  tendency  to  become  dense,  i.e.,  the  porosity  should  remain  high.  The  lower 
the  temperature  at  which  the  porosity  of  the  clay  becomes  practically  nil,  the  more 
inferior  is  its  refractory  quality.  The  ideal  fire-clay  would  thus  be  represented  by  a 
straight  line  along  its  initial  porosity,  beyond  a  temperature  of  about  1,000°  C.,  from 
which  line  impure  materials  depart,  according  to  their  content  of  fluxes. 

Manufacture  of  Refractories. — The  simplest  case  of  fire-brick  manufacture  is  that 
in  which  a  highly  refractory  clay  of  sufficient  plasticity  can  be  molded  into  the  desired 
shape,  dried,  and  burnt.  Since,  however,  this  is  not  possible  when  the  material  is  either 
lacking  in  refractory  or  working  quality,  a  condition  which  is  the  rule  rather  than  the 
exception,  mixtures  of  different  clays  must  be  employed.  One  of  the  most  common 
cases  is  the  use  of  flint  clay  with  plastic  clay  as  the  cementing  agent,  which  produces 
the  required  working  condition.  A  very  common  proportion  is  that  of  85  per  cent  of 
flint  and  15  per  cent  of  bond  clay.  Such  a  mixture  possesses  sufficient  plasticity  to  be 
worked  by  the  so-called  slop-mold  process,  but  could  not  be  molded  by  means  of  the 
auger  machine.  There  is,  of  course,  no  difficulty  in  pressing  the  bricks  by  the  dry-press 
process. 

EFFECT  OF  THE  ACCESSORY  CONSTITUENTS  OF  FIRE  CLAYS  UPON  THE 
SOFTENING  TEMPERATURES 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  clays  may  contain  natural  admixtures  of  various  minerals 
and  rock  debris,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  the  effect  of  such  minerals  as  quartz,  SiO2; 
alumina,  rutile,  TiO2;  ferric  oxide  and  other  iron  compounds,  orthoclase,  K2O,  A12O3, 
6SiO2;  muscovite,  H2KAl3  (SiO^s;  calcite,  CaCO3;  magnesite,  MgCO3;  and  other  sub- 
stances. Finally  an  attempt  must  be  made  to  estimate  the  joint  fluxing  effect  of  at 
least  the  basic  oxides  with  sufficient  accuracy  for  technical  purposes. 

Quartz. — It  was  realized  early  in  the  study  of  fire  clays  that  any  addition  of  free 
silica  to  pure  clay  substance  lowered  the  softening  temperature.  Siliceous  clays  hence 
possess  an  inferior  ultimate  refractoriness,  per  se,  a  fact  which  must  be  recognized  in 
the  selection  of  refractories.  The  addition  of  quartz  also  brings  about  a  more  or  less 
pronounced  increase  in  volume,  which  may  show  itself  either  by  neutralizing  the  fire 
shrinkage  of  the  clay  portion  or  by  an  actual  expansion.  This  is  a  fact  well  known  in 
the  industry.  The  so-called  silica  brick  invariably  expands  upon  being  fired  in  the  kiln, 
and  usually  still  further  when  in  actual  use. 

Alumina. — As  a  general  proposition,  it  may  be  said  that  this  compound  improves 
the  refractoriness  of  fire  clays  markedly.  Bischof,  in  his  well-known  researches  upon 
European  fire  clays,  recognized  this  fact  in  his  so-called  refractory  quotient,  a  value 
intended  to  indicate  the  relative  heat-resisting  property  of  these  clays  expressed  by 
the  relation  a2  -f-  b,  where  a  =  molecular  equivalents  of  alumina  to  one  molecular 
equivalent  of  total  fluxes,  RO,  and  b  equals  the  corresponding  molecular  ratio  between 
the  silica  and  the  fluxes.  According  to  this,  the  refractoriness  of  a  clay  is  proportional 
to  the  square  of  the  alumina  content.  Richters  also  recognized  the  value  of  alumina 

[288] 


FIRE  CLAYS  AND   FIRE   BRICKS 

in  this  connection.  In  his  experiments,  additions  of  alumina  raised  the  spftening  tem- 
perature of  kaolin.  Upon  continuing  the  increase  in  alumina,  the  fusion  temperature 
of  sillimanite,  1,810°  C.,  is  reached,  and,  finally,  the  melting  point  of  alumina,  ap- 
proximately 2,000°  C. 

The  viscosity  of  silicate  fusions  is  increased  most  decidedly  by  additions  of  alumina. 
From  the  practical  standpoint,  the  addition  of  alumina,  in  the  form  of  bauxite,  to  fire- 
clay has  been  practised  for  some  years  with  satisfactory  results  as  far  as  refractoriness 
is  concerned,  but  the  continued  contraction  of  the  bauxite  upon  reheating  makes  it  a 
difficult  material  to  work.  For  high  temperature  work,  fused  alumina  (purified  bauxite) 
is  now  being  introduced  where  the  conditions  warrant  its  use. 

Titanium  Oxide. — This  compound,  which  may  be  present  as  rutile,  TiO2,  ilmenite, 
FeTiOs,  or  in  other  forms,  tends  to  lower  the  softening  temperature  of  clays  distinctly. 

Iron  Oxide. — This  substance  in  the  finely  divided  condition  is  one  of  the  most 
potent  fluxes,  and  hence  its  presence  in  fire  clays  is  very  injurious  as  regards  their 
behavior  when  subjected  to  higher  temperatures.  When  present,  in  the  form  of  coarser 
particles,  occurring  as  siderite  or  pyrite,  its  effect  is  not  so  marked,  since  evidently  the 
action  is  proportional  to  the  surface  factor,  i.e.,  the  fineness.  At  the  high  temperatures 
to  which  refractories  are  exposed,  the  ferric  oxide  of  the  clay  dissociates  to  one  of  its 
lower  forms.  According  to  Le  Chatelier,  this  dissociation  takes  place  at  1,300°;  accord- 
ing to  White  and  Taylor,  at  1,200°,  and  to  P.  T.  Walden,  at  1,350°  C.  The  last-named 
value  represents  probably  the  most  reliable  result.  At  this  temperature,  the  dissociation 
pressure  reaches  160  millimeters,  which  is  equal  to  the  oxygen  pressure  of  the  air. 
Ferric  oxide  hence  cannot  exist  above  this  temperature.  The  reduction  very  likely 
results  in  FeO,  which  at  the  temperatures  involved  would  at  once  combine  with  silica 
to  form  ferrous  silicate,  and,  owing  to  the  low  fusion  temperature  of  ferrous  silicate,  the 
resulting  slag  is  very  corrosive  and  attacks  the  clay  vigorously.  From  the  work  of 
Cramer,  it  appears  that  iron  oxide  is  an  active  flux  with  clays  of  the  formula  Al2O32.5SiO2, 
while  it  is  less  active  in  fire  clays  approaching  more  closely  the  kaolin  formula.  Ferrous 
silicate,  FeSiOs,  has  been  estimated  to  fuse  at  1,110°  C.  in  a  reducing  atmosphere;  this 
value  is  probably  too  low.  The  viscosity  of  the  ferrous  silicates  is  quite  low,  while 
ferric  oxide  acts  in  the  opposite  direction  and  increases  the  viscosity  of  silicate  fusions. 
The  softening  temperatures  given  by  Hofman  for  various  ferrous  silicates  are  as  follows: 

4FeO.SiO 1,280°  C. 

3FeO.SiO2. 1,220°  C. 

2FeO.SiO2 1,270°  C. 

3FeO.2SiO2 1,140°  C. 

4FeO.3SiO2. 1,120°  C. 

Alkalies  (Feldspar). — The  alkalies  present  in  clays  occur  predominatingly  in  the 
form  of  feldspar,  orthoclase,  or  albite,  although  materials  of  the  plastic  type  may  con- 
tain absorbed  salts  in  noticeable  amounts.  Orthoclase,  K2O.Al2O3.6Si02,  in  which  some 
of  the  potash  may  be  replaced  by  soda,  is  probably  the  most  common  feldspar.  The 
potash  feldspar  is  less  fusible  than  the  albite,  but  neither  has  a  definite  melting  point. 
Doelter  approximates  that  of  orthoclase  to  be  1,190°,  and  the  one  for  albite  at  1,120°  C. 

The  feldspars  are  so-called  neutral  fluxes,  inasmuch  as  apparently  they  do  not  react 
chemically  with  the  constituents  of  clay,  like  lime  or  magnesia.  They  seem  to  play 
the  role  of  a  .solvent,  and  reduce  the  refractoriness  of  a  fire  clay  in  a  decided  manner. 
Zoellner  states  that  at  about  1,400°  C  feldspar  may  dissolve  as  much  as  3.5  per  cent  of 
alumina,  14  per  cent  of  clay  substance,  and  60-70  per  cent  of  fine-grained  quartz.  The 
eutectic  mixture  of  orthoclase  and  quartz  consists  practically  of  75  per  cent  feldspar 
and  25  per  cent  silica.  Owing  to  the  decided  viscosity  of  feldspar  mixtures  their  softening 
point  is  very  uncertain  and  has  no  direct  connection  with  the  effect  upon  vitrification. 

The  presence  of  feldspar  in  fire  clays,  while  depressing  the  softening  point,  is  not  as 
detrimental  to  the  refractory  quality  of  the  material  as  might  appear  at  first.  Its 
influence,  however,  upon  the  load-carrying  ability  is  far  more  marked,  since  the  solution 
effect  is  great  enough  to  reduce  the  viscosity  sufficiently  to  prevent  the  body  from 
carrying  heavier  loads,  though  not  enough  to  cause  deformation  under  its  own  weight. 

[289] 


FIRE  CLAYS  AND  FIRE  BRICKS 

Mica. — This  mineral,  represented  principally  by  muscovite,  HtKAUCSiOOs,  while 
depressing  the  softening  point  of  a  pure  clay,  behaves  as  a  less  effective  flux  than  ortho- 
clase,  due  both  to  its  composition  and  to  its  physical  structure. 

Lime. — The  potency  of  lime,  as  a  fluxing  agent  in  acid  silicates,  is  well  known. 
Cramer  found  that  additions  of  calcium  carbonate,  from  0  to  10  per  cent,  to  Zettlitz 
kaolin  lowered  the  softening  temperatures  of  the  resulting  mixtures  steadily,  practically 
in  proportion  to  the  increase  in  the  lime  content. 

Rieke  found  that  the  observation  of  Cramer,  mentioned  above,  held  in  that  additions 
of  lime  to  kaolin  decrease  the  softening  temperature  according  to  a  linear  relation  up 
to  a  mixture  containing  11  per  cent  CaO  in  the  calcined  condition,  corresponding  to 
the  formula  CaO.2Al2Os.4SiO2.  Beyond  this  point,  lime  no  longer  reacts  in  a  continuous 
manner,  but  shows  maxima  and  minima,  indicating  the  existence  of  at  least  two  com- 
pounds. 

The  viscosity  of  the  calcium  silicates  of  the  more  acid  type  is  quite  low,  as  is  shown 
by  practical  experience  in  the  working  of  calcareous  clays.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that 
such  materials  deform  and  flow  when  heated  hi  the  kiln  beyond  the  vitrification  tem- 
perature more  readily  than  other  clays. 

Joint  Effect  of  Fluxes  Upon  the  Refractoriness.— RICHTERS'  LAW. — Many  attempts 
have  been  made  to  correlate  the  effect  of  the  basic  fluxes  upon  the  softening  temperature 
of  fire  clays.  Thus  Richters,  in  1868,  enunciated  the  rule  that  molecularly  equivalent 
amounts  of  the  bases  exert  the  same  effect  in  depressing  the  softening  temperature  of 
fire  clays.  According  to  this  rule,  40  parts,  by  weight,  of  magnesia  would  lower  the 
refractoriness  to  the  same  extent  as  56  parts  of  lime  or  94  of  potash.  This  statement 
is  supposed  to  apply  only  to  small  amounts  of  these  substances  added  to  the  purer 
type  of  clays. 

Bischof  s  Refractory  Quotient. — Bischof  proposed  a  so-called  refractory  quotient 
calculated  from  the  formula  obtained  from  the  chemical  analysis.  Letting  the  molecular 
equivalents  of  Al^Oa  =  a,  those  of  the  SiO2  =  b,  and  of  the  fluxing  oxide  =  c,  and 
expressing  the  ratio  a  -5-  c  by  A,  and  the  ratio  b  -j-  a  by  B,  the  refractory  quotient  is 
represented  by  the  expression. 

A          a  -r  c         a2 

B         b  -f-  a         be 

According  to  this,  the  refractoriness  would  be  proportional  to  the  square  of  the  alumina 
and  inversely  proportional  to  the  silica  and  flux  contents. 

Vitrification. — Vitrification  as  related  to  refractory  behavior  of  clays.  It  is  agreed 
by  workers  in  this  field  that  the  fluxes  bring  about  a  large  part  of  the  contraction  suffered 
by  clays  upon  being  heated  to  elevated  temperatures.  While  the  action  due  to  this  cause, 
as  measured  by  the  contraction  in  volume,  is  but  slight  at  lower  temperatures,  it  is 
accelerated  as  the  temperature  rises.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  solution  is  in  progress. 
Starting  from  the  initial  temperature  of  activity,  such  a  selective  solution  of  the  fluxes, 
alumina  and  silica,  tends  to  take  place  which  softens  at  this  point.  With  the  rise  in 
temperature,  the  composition  of  this  softened  portion  changes  by  the  incorporation 
and  solution  of  more  of  the  clay  body,  and  evidently  the  mass  of  the  softened  portion 
increases  correspondingly.  Thus  with  every  advance  in  temperature  the  softened  por- 
tion constitutes  a  larger  percentage  of  the  whole,  until  finally  it  possesses  the  composition 
of  the  body,  i.e.,  when  all  of  it  softens  and  the  so-called  melting  point  has  been  reached. 

Decrease  in  Density  During  Vitrification. — It  is  interesting  to  note  that  during  the 
solution  process  going  on  throughout  vitrification  the  density  of  the  clay  mass  itself 
decreases  proportionally  to  the  contraction  in  pore  space.  The  more  fluxes  a  clay 
contains — i.e.,  the  more  deficient  in  refractoriness  it  is — the  lower  must  be  the  tem- 
perature at  which  all  pore  space  has  been  filled  by  the  softened  matter;  in  other  words, 
the  lower  its  temperature  of  vitrification. 

LOAD  TESTS  OF  FIRE  BRICK 

In  the  course  of  the  experiments  more  than  35  brands  of  fire  brick  were  tested,  as 
well  as  specimens  made  in  the  clay-products  laboratory  from  different  fire  clays.  Samples 

[290] 


FIRE  CLAYS  AND  FIRE  BRICKS 

were  obtained  from  manufacturers  located  in  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  Ohio,  New 
Jersey,  Missouri,  Kentucky,  and  Colorado.  For  obvious  reasons,  the  names  of  the 
brands  cannot  be  given.  The  number  of  each  material  remains  the  same  for  all  of  the 
different  tests. 

Load  Test. — In  carrying  out  the  load  test,  the  beam  is  first  raised  as  the  temperature 
rises,  due  to  the  expansion  of  the  furnace  bottom  and  the  brick;  a  quiescent  stage  is  then 
reached,  after  which,  from  1,130°  to  1,290°  C.,  a  well-defined  deflection  begins,  caused 
by  the  contraction  of  the  brick.  In  some  bricks,  this  deflection  continues  at  a  very 
slow  rate  or  reaches  a  state  of  equilibrium  some  time  after  the  temperature  has  been 
raised  to  1,300°  C.  This  kind  does  not  fail  under  the  conditions  of  the  test,  and  the 
later  deflection  starts  the  more  apt  is  the  brick  to  stand  up.  The  materials  failing  under 
the  test  show  a  more  or  less  early  start  in  settling,  and  the  rate  at  which  this  takes  place 
increases  with  the  temperature,  till  finally  it  becomes  so  rapid  that  it  is  impossible 
to  keep  the  beam  level.  Failure  then  is  merely  a  matter  of  minutes  and  takes  place 
very  suddenly.  In  every  case,  softening  precedes  failure. 

Accessory  Tests. — In  addition  to  the  load  tests,  the  following  determinations  were 
made:  1,  chemical  analysis;  2,  crushing  strength  of  the  bricks  on  end  in  the  cold  con- 
dition; 3,  softening  temperature;  4,  porosity;  5,  true  density.  Twenty  bricks  of  each 
brand  were  secured  and  check  determinations  made. 

Results  of  the  Load  Test  Series,  75  Pounds  per  Square  Inch  at  1,300°  C.— The 
results  of  the  physical  tests  of  this  series  are  arranged  in  Table  III.  The  typical  failures 
show  that  where  the  bricks  were  badly  distorted  and  crushed  in  each  case  a  certain 
degree  of  softening  took  place,  as  was  clearly  indicated  by  their  curved  surfaces.  It  is 
evident  that  these  bricks  attained  a  viscous  condition,  in  which  they  were  not  able  to 
carry  the  load  imposed  upon  them,  though  the  latter  is  small  as  compared  with  the 
crushing  strength  at  the  atmospheric  temperature,  which  for  the  26  samples  tested 
averaged  1,520  pounds  per  square  inch.  Inspection  of  the  failures  showed  plainly  that 
the  more  refractory  flint  clay  had  not  softened  to  the  slightest  extent.  The  grams  had 
lost  none  of  their  original  identity.  They  seemed  to  have  slid  upon  each  other,  the 
bond  clay  behaving  analogously  to  a  lubricant.  From  this  it  follows  that  no  matter 
how  excellent  the  major  constituent  of  the  brick  may  be  as  to  refractoriness,  if  the  bond 
clay  is  too  deficient  in  this  respect  the  load-carrying  power  of  the  product  is  impaired. 

Effect  of  Chemical  Composition. — Assuming  that  the  fire  brick  body  consists  of  a 
refractory  constituent  corresponding  in  composition  to  the  kaolin  formula  and  of  a 
more  fusible  cementing  component,  the  following  method  might  be  pursued  to  show 
theoretically  the  make-up  of  the  mixture.  Taking,  for  example,  one  of  the  failures, 
say  sample  No.  4,  and  calculating  the  empirical  formula,  the  latter  is  found  to  be: 
0.019  NazO,  0.030  K2O,  0.036  MgO,  0.026  CaO,  0.14  FeO,  0.054  TiO2,  1.00  A12O3, 
2.485  SiO2.  Upon  the  assumption  that  the  alkalies  are  derived  from  orthoclase  feldspar, 
the  molecular  equivalents  of  the  latter  would  be  0.019  +  0.030  =  0.049.  Deducting 
the  alumina  belonging  to  the  feldspar  from  1,  we  obtain  0.951  equivalent  A12O3  present 
as  clay  substance,  which  corresponds  to  1.902  equivalent  of  SiO2.  Subtracting  this 
from  2.485  leaves  0.583  equivalent  silica.  Multiplying  the  equivalents  by  the  respective 
molecular  weights  and  reducing  to  the  percentage  basis  we  find  the  following  distribution 
of  clay  substance,  feldspar  and  free  silica: 

Per  Cent 

Clay  substance 77. 23 

Feldspar 10.06 

Fluxes  and  free  silica 12. 71 

This  shows  an  excessive  amount  of  fluxing  material  in  proportion  to  the  clay  base, 
but  the  case  is  still  more  striking,  since  the  composition  of  the  fluxes  and  the  free  silica 
upon  calculation  reduces  to  the  formula  (using  RO  =  1,  as  is  customary  for  slags 
and  glasses) :  RO  1.43  SiO2 .  0.267  TiO2.  This  represents  a  slag  which  is  not  saturated 
with  silica  at  the  temperatures  involved,  and  hence  it  is  certain  to  attack  the  clay  sub- 
stance, thus  bringing  into  solution  still  more  material  and  increasing  the  proportion 
of  fusible  to  refractory  constituents. 

[291J 


FIRE  CLAYS  AND  FIRE  BRICKS 

TABLE  1 
FIRE  BRICK  AND  CLAY  ANALYSES 


No. 

SiO2 

AlzOs 

PeOs 

Ti02 

CaO 

MgO 

Na2O 

K2O 

S03 

H2O 
at 
100°C 

Igni- 
tion 
Loss 

Total 

1 

81.60 

14.55 

.15 

0  49 

0.37 

0.27 

0.67 

1.08 

100   18 

2 

79.20 

17.42 

.19 

.49 

.21 

.38 

.37 

.91 

100  17 

3 

77.02 

18.35 

.32 

.52 

.48 

.28 

.67 

.49 

100  13 

4 

54.58 

37.35 

.10 

1.57 

.54 

.53 

42 

02 

100  11 

5 

54.70 

39.72 

32 

1.86 

.29 

.52 

.64 

.07 

100  12 

6 

54.69 

38.86 

.41 

1.92 

.35 

.52 

91 

.57 

100  23 

7 

54.25 

38.90 

.83 

1  92 

.41 

.78 

.78 

.26 

100  13 

8 

52.30 

41.52 

.28 

2.46 

1.02 

.45 

28 

.94 

100  25 

9 

63.89 

29.28 

2.05 

2.40 

.27 

.29 

.40 

1.71 

100  29 

10 

60.37 

34.83 

1.37 

2.05 

.39 

.31 

.20 

.67 

100  19 

11 

61.35 

32.65 

2.15 

1.98 

.46 

.50 

17 

86 

100  12 

12 

55.66 

36.52 

2.59 

2.40 

.49 

.61 

.18 

1.73 

100  18 

13 

68.73 

25.12 

2.26 

1.32 

.36 

.49 

25 

1  62 

100  15 

14 

60.77 

32.63 

2.89 

1.94 

1.12 

.26 

.26 

.46 

100  33 

15 

56.55 

36.64 

2.84 

1.90 

1.34 

.22 

32 

43 

100  25 

16 

50.76 

44.24 

1.45 

2.03 

.33 

29 

34 

60 

100  04 

17 

62.14 

32.29 

2.65 

1.42 

.71 

.50 

.13 

.38 

100  22 

18 

62.74 

31.80 

2.45 

1  53 

75 

56 

18 

18 

100  19 

19 

35.46 

57.98 

1.40 

2.70 

.29 

.29 

75 

1.30 

100  17 

20 

52.89 

43.41 

.90 

2.12 

.16 

.13 

.36 

.27 

100  24 

21 
22 

65.41 
66.53 

29.50 
28.66 

2.75 
2.35 

1.38 
1.36 

.45 
.58 

.25 
.42 

.10 

28 

.34 
19 

100.18 
100  37 

23 
24 

66.28 

77.82 

29.12 
19.00 

1.55 
1.01 

1.79 
1.65 

.59 
22 

.23 
06 

.27 
10 

.30 

28 

100.13 
100  14 

25 
26 

56.62 
54.51 

39.19 
40.42 

1.95 
1.90 

1.69 
2.46 

.36 
.35 

.08 
.17 

.18 
16 

.19 
.20 

100.26 
100  17 

27 

65.59 

28.95 

1.45 

.93 

.35 

.60 

.63 

1.21 

0.45 

100.16 

28 
29 

62.81 
68.15 

31.85 
26.30 

1.27 
1.97 

.33 
.10 

.28 
11 

tr 
23 

.53 
56 

1.72 
1  53 

tr 

0.05 

.30 
25 

100.14 
100  20 

30 

65.34 

30.01 

1.45 

.88 

.18 

.52 

.38 

1.21 

28 

100  25 

31 

72.74 

17.77 

.80 

.55 

.13 

tr 

13 

27 

18 

6  55 

100  12 

32 
33 
34 
35 

36 
37 

56.69 
53.27 
66.05 

58.88 

64.70 
85.00 

29.48 
31.72 
25.45 
26.41 

21.90 
10.55 

1.20 
1.16 
1.06 
1.35 

1.47 
FeO 

2  85 

.87 
.93 
.40 
.22 

.86 
.42 

.25 
.21 
.20 
.35 

.45 
.40 

.12 
.08 
.37 

.42 

.60 
43 

.36 
.30 
.30 
.34 

.  42 
16 

1.21 
.97 
1.05 
1.64 

2.16 

tr 
tr 
tr 
.01 

.02 

.82 
.83 
.23 

.72 

.65 

8.20 
9.72 
4.05 

8.85 

6.96 

100.20 
100.19 
100.16 
100.19 

100.19 
99.81 

38 

85.30 

11.95 

1.85 

.30 

.20 

.29 

.24 

100.13 

60  39 

52.64 

41.12 

1.28 

.74 

1.23 

.77 

.55 

.78 





1.15 

100.26 

80  A  German  fire  brick  of  good  quality. 
[292]     ' 


FIRE  CLAYS  AND  FIRE  BRICKS 

TABLE  2 
CHEMICAL  FORMULAS 


No. 

AhOs 

SiO2 

Ti02 

FeO 

CaO 

MgO 

NazO 

K20 

Total  RO 

1 

1.0 

9.180 

0.041 

0.098 

0.045 

0.046 

0.074 

0.079 

0.342 

2 

1.0 

7.732 

.036 

.087 

.022 

.056 

.035 

.057 

.257 

3 

1.0 

7.140 

.036 

.092 

.037 

.038 

.060 

.088 

.315 

4 

1.0 

2.485 

.054 

.140 

.026 

.036 

.019 

.030 

.251 

5 

1.0 

2.343 

.057 

.042 

.013 

.033 

.038 

.043 

.169 

6 

1.0 

2.386 

.064 

.046 

.016 

.034 

.038 

.044 

.178 

7 

1.0 

2.365 

.064 

.060 

.019 

.051 

.033 

.035 

.198 

8 

1.0 

2.142 

.075 

.039 

.045 

.028 

.011 

.025 

.148 

9 

1.0 

3.710 

.105 

.089 

.017 

.025 

.022 

.063 

.216 

10 

1.0 

2.947 

.075 

.050 

.020 

.023 

.009 

.021 

.123 

11 

1.0 

3.196 

.077 

.064 

.026 

.039 

.009 

.029 

.167 

12 

1.0 

2.591 

.085 

.090 

.024 

.043 

.008 

.051 

.216 

13 

.0 

4.651 

.067 

.115 

.026 

.050 

.002 

.070 

.263 

14 

.0 

3.168 

.076 

.113 

.063 

.020 

.013 

.015 

.224 

15 

.0 

2.634 

.066 

.099 

.067 

.015 

.014 

.013 

.208 

16 

.0 

1.952 

.059 

.042 

.014 

.017 

.013 

.015 

.101 

17 

.0 

3.294 

.051 

.104 

.040 

.039 

.007 

.013 

.203 

18 

.0 

3.354 

.061 

.100 

.043 

.037 

.009 

.006 

.195 

19 

.0 

1,040 

.059 

.031 

.009 

.013 

.021 

.014 

.088 

20 

.0 

2.072 

.062 

.003 

.004 

.076 

.016 

.007 

.106 

21 

1.0 

3.770 

.060 

.119 

.003 

.022 

.006 

.013 

.163 

22 

1.0 

3.930 

.060 

.104 

.037 

.037 

.016 

.007 

.201 

23 

1.0 

3.871 

.078 

.069 

.037 

.020 

.015 

.011 

.152 

24 

1.0 

6.953 

.111 

.068 

.021 

.008 

.009 

.016 

.122 

25 

1.0 

2.458 

.055 

.063 

.019 

.005 

.008 

.005 

.100 

26 

.0 

2.293 

.078 

.060 

.016 

.011 

.007 

.005 

.099 

27 

.0 

3.850 

.041 

.064 

.022 

.052 

.036 

.045 

.219 

28 

.0 

3.251 

.052 

.049 

.015 

tr 

.027 

.057 

.148 

29 

.0 

4.410 

.053 

.095 

.008 

.022 

.035 

.063 

.223 

30 

.0 

3.693 

.037 

.061 

.011 

.044 

.021 

.044 

.181 

31 

.0 

7.000 

.112 

.058 

.013 

tr 

.012 

.017 

.100 

32 

.0 

3.270 

.081 

.052 

.015 

010 

.020 

.045 

.142 

33 

.0 

2.854 

.077 

.047 

.012 

.006 

.016 

.033 

.114 

34 

.0 

4.413 

.070 

.052 

.014 

.037 

.019 

.045 

.167 

35 

.0 

3.789 

.059 

.065 

.024 

.040 

.021 

.067 

.217 

36 

.0 

4.320 

.043 

.074 

.037 

.060 

.032 

.107 

.310 

37 

.0 

13.680 

.051 

.377 

.069 

.103 

.025 

.574 

38 

.0 

12.130 

.032 

.216 

.030 

.061 

.033 

.... 

.340 

39 

.0 

2.18 

.022 

.040 

.055 

.047 

.022 

!620 

.184 

[293 


FIRE  CLAYS  AND  FIRE  BRICKS 
TABLE  3 

RESULTS  OF  PHYSICAL  TESTS  AT  1,300°  C  AND  WITH  A  LOAD  OF  75  POUNDS 

PER  SQUARE  INCH 


No. 

Dimensions,  in 
Inches,  Before 

Dimensions,  in 
Inches,  After 

Linear 
Com- 
pres- 
sion, 
in 
Inches 

Defor- 
ma- 
tion 
Started 

Cold 
Crush- 
Strength 

Per 

Cent 
Poros- 
ity 

Soft- 
ening 
Point 
in 
Cones 

Spe- 
cific 
Grav- 
ity 

°c 

1 

9  by  4|  by  2£ 

Crushed 

1213 

1464 

30.2 

28 

2.671 

2 

9  by  4f  by  2£ 

Crushed 

1247 

1289 

30.1 

28 

2.638 

3 

8|  by  41  by  2£ 

Crushed 

1210 

989 

32.4 

28 

2.635 

4 

9  by  4£  by  2£ 

Crushed 

1180 

495 

25.8 

29 

2.755 

5 

8|  by  41  by  2f 

8i  by  4£  by  2  A 

"\ 

1191 

1160 

23.0 

31| 

2.732 

6 

9  by  4£  by  2f 

81  by  4A  by  2  A 

I 

1213 

931 

22.9 

31 

2.691 

7 

9  by  4£  by  2£ 

7f  by  4  A  by  2| 

11 

1215 

674 

20.7 

31 

2.717 

8 

8|  by  41  by  2£ 

8fby41by2f 

I 

1295 

1082 

17.1 

34 

2.712 

9 

8|  by  4f  by  2f 

Crushed 

1191 

612 

29.4 

29* 

2.674 

10 

81  by  41  by  1\ 

8*  by  4  A  by  2£ 

I 

1179 

946 

27.5 

33 

2.702 

11 

9  by  4|  by  1\ 

1\  by  4f  by  2* 

ii 

1133 

480 

25.1 

28 

2.678 

12 

9  by  4|  by  2£ 

Crushed 

1142 

2614 

24.5 

24| 

2.724 

13 

8f  by  4£  by  2£ 

Crushed 

1130 

843 

22.5 

28£ 

2.664 

14 

8f  by  4|  by  2£ 

8A  by  41  by  2  A 

A 

1211 

2226 

25.5 

311 

2.725 

15 

8f  by  41  by  21 

71  by  4f  by  2  A 

1 

1234 

1638 

23.1 

31 

2.705 

16 

9  by  4|  by  1\ 

8  by  4|  by  2A 

1 

1205 

971 

24.3 

34 

2.712 

17 

8f  by  41  by  2f 

8Aby4fby2£ 

H 

1233 

2578 

23.9 

31— 

2.712 

18 

81  by  41  by  2£ 

8  A  by  4  A  by  2| 

H 

1274 

955 

21.0 

32 

2.647 

19 

9i  by  4i  by  2| 

8|  by  4  A  by  2£ 

! 

1235 

2071 

33.3 

33+ 

2.975 

20 

8iby41by2£ 

8£  by  4  A  by  2* 

1 

1213 

2005 

26.8 

31 

2.738 

21 

8|  by  4i  by  2£ 

8A  by  4|  by  2  A 

A 

1231 

3174 

22.2 

31 

2.668 

22 

81  by  41  by  2* 

81  by  4f  by  2  A 

I 

1234 

2191 

26.8 

31 

2.676 

23 

8|  by  4f  by  2£ 

8Aby4Aby2£ 

A 

1264 

4234 

23.9 

31 

2.677 

24 

9  by  4f  by  2£ 

8f  by  4|  by  2£ 

1 

0 

2551 

27.5 

29 

2.622 

25 

9  by  4i  by  2| 

8|  by  41  by  2  A 

1 

1291 

1241 

26.3 

3H 

2.702 

26 

81  by  4i  by  2* 

7|  by  4|  by  2* 

U 

1207 

1138 

22.3 

31 

2.744 

27 

8  by  3f  by  21 

Crushed 

1168 

4042 

18.1 

26 

2.682 

28 

9  by  4|  by  2f 

8|  by  4£  by  2f 

1 

1215 

2509 

27.4 

3H 

2.643 

Influence  of  the  Cold- Crushing  Strength. — A  comparison  of  the  initial,  cold,  crushing 
strength  and  the  load  behavior  shows  no  apparent  connection,  but  the  fact  is  brought 
out  that  low  initial  strength  is  a  handicap.  Bricks  Nos.  4  and  11  are  examples  of  this 
kind.  While  No.  4  would  have  failed  irrespective  of  its  cold-crushing  strength,  the 
failure  was  more  complete  on  account  of  its  weakness,  and  No.  11  in  all  probability 
would  have  shown  a  very  much  smaller  condensation;  in  fact,  it  might  have  stood  the 
test. 

The  hardness  of  burning,  in  general,  is  a  factor  worthy  of  consideration.  Although 
firing  to  a  high  temperature  cannot,  in  the  nature  of  the  case,  effect  any  fundamental 
change,  and  cannot  convert  a  low-grade  material  into  a  good  one,  the  work  of  the 

[294] 


FIRE  CLAYS  AND  FIRE  BRICKS 

bureau  has  shown  that  well-burnt  bricks  stand  up  better  than  soft-burnt  products. 
This  is  due,  not  only  to  the  greater  compactness  of  the  body,  but  also  the  change  hi 
the  composition  of  the  bonding  material  where  such  is  used.  In  other  words,  hard 
burning  will  cause  the  usually  decidedly  less  refractory,  plastic  clay  to  dissolve  some 
of  the  fine  part  of  the  better  material  (flint  clay),  thus  increasing  its  own  refractoriness, 
and  hence  its  resistance  to  load  conditions.  For  instance,  No.  26  would  have  shown 
up  better  if  it  had  been  burnt  harder. 

RESULTS  OF  THE  TESTS  AT  1,350°  C.  AND  WITH  A  LOAD  OF  50  POUNDS 

PER  SQUARE  INCH 

Comparison  with  Results  of  1,300°  Test. — The  results  of  this  series  are  compiled 
in  Table  4.  Not  all  of  the  1,300-degree  load  tests  were  repeated,  but  only  a  sufficient 
number  to  establish  the  relative  severity  of  each  condition.  In  comparing  the  data 
obtained  hi  the  two  series  it  was  found  that  the  results  were  approximately  the  same, 


TABLE  4 

RESULTS  OF  PHYSICAL  TESTS  AT  1,350°  C  AND  WITH  A  LOAD  OP  50  POUNDS 

PER  SQUARE  INCH 


No. 

Dimensions,  in 
Inches,  Before 

Dimensions,  in 
Inches,  After 

Linear 
Com- 
pres- 
sion, 
in 
Inches 

Defor- 
mation 
Started 

Cold 
Crush- 
Strength 

Per 
Cent 
Poros- 
ity 

Soft- 
ening 
Point 
in 
Cones 

Spe- 
cific 
Grav- 
ity 

°C 

2B 

9  by  4f  by  2f 

Crushed 

1220 

1289 

30.1 

28 

2.638 

4B 

81  by  4|  by  2* 

Crushed 

1175 

495 

25.8 

29 

2.755 

7B 

81  by  4f  by  2f 

8i  by  4f  by  2* 

i 

1218 

674 

20.7 

31 

2.717 

9B 

9  by  4i  by  2* 

Crushed 

1238 

612 

29.4 

29* 

2.674 

11B 

8|  by  4|  by  2| 

Crushed 

... 

1165 

480 

25.1 

28 

2.678 

12B 

9  by  4|  by  2| 

Crushed 

1175 

2614 

24.5 

24| 

2.724 

13  B 

8|  by  4*  by  2* 

Crushed 

1150 

843 

22.5 

28* 

2.664 

15  B 

81  by  4i  by  2* 

7|  by  4*  by  2* 

H 

1245 

1638 

23.1 

31 

2.705 

19  B 

9iVby4^by2^ 

8*  by  4*  by  2& 

A 

1200 

2071 

33.3 

33+ 

2.975 

20B 

81  by  4i  by  2* 

Note:  4  hours  at 

1 

.... 

2005 

26.8 

31 

2.738 

1350° 

23B 

81  by  4f  by  2| 

8|  by  4*  by  2* 

i 

4 

1290 

4234 

23.9 

31 

2.677 

26  B 

9  by  4£  by  2* 

8  by  4|  by  2* 

1 

1220 

1138 

22.3 

31 

2.744 

29 

9  by  4*  by  2* 

Crushed 

.  .  . 

1230 

4714 

22.2 

29 

2.627 

30 

8*  by  4*  by  2* 

Crushed 

1180 

1585 

27.9 

26* 

2.653 

31 

81  by  4|  by  2| 

8|  by  4*  by  2f 

Y 

1250 

1054 

30.6 

30 

2.654 

32 

8  by  3f  by  2* 

7*  by  31  by  2* 

i 

1330 

2829 

32.5 

31 

2.565 

33 

71  by  3f  by  2 

7f  by  3|  by  2 

i 

1330 

9008 

12.4 

32 

2.655 

34 

81  by  4  by  2* 

Crushed 

1180 

7819 

7.4 

25 

2.521 

35 

8^  by  4  by  2i 

7^  by  4  by  2| 

Y 

1280 

7404 

12.0 

30* 

2.618 

36 

8|  by  4  by  2* 

Crushed 

1200 

4368 

17.4 

27* 

2.649 

37 

8fby4iby2* 

Crushed 

1180 

1725 

23.8 

29 

2.490 

38 

9by4*by{^ 

\  Crushed 

... 

1150 

1910 

23.8 

29 

2.575 

39 

4*  by  2  A  by  3 

4Hby2Aby3 

^ 

33* 

•*•  3  1    **J    **  1  o    *•*  J    *•* 

3  2 

f«*3 

[295 


STRUCTURAL  TIMBER 

with  the  exception  that  the  1,350-degree  50-pound  tests  appeared  to  be  somewhat 
more  sensitive  and  differentiated  more  bharply  between  the  various  kinds  of  refractories. 

The  compression  effect  in  the  second  test  was  found  to  be  somewhat  greater  than 
in  the  first  test.  Both  tests,  however,  condemned  inferior  materials  with  practically 
equal  ceitainty.  ••  •- 

The  pressure  effect  appears  to  be  more  prominent  in  the  1,300-degree  75-pound 
series,  while  under  the  second  conditions  the  softening  due  to  heat  is  more  pronounced. 
There  is  more  deformation  in  the  sense  of  flow  in  the  50-pound  series.  In  considering 
furnace  conditions  it  is  at  once  evident  that  everywhere  pressures  are  to  be  resisted, 
and  not  only  those  due  to  loads,  but  also  the  compression  and  tension  stresses  caused 
by  thermal  expansion  and  contraction.  The  higher  the  furnace  temperature  the  more 
rapidly  is  the  load-carrying  ability  reduced  until  finally  the  refractory  is  unable  to 
support  its  own  weight. 

The  load  test,  therefore,  measures  the  viscosity  of  the  fire-clay  bodies  at  a  certain 
temperature.  Since  any  good  refractory  should  possess  sufficient  rigidity  at  the  tem- 
perature at  which  it  is  to  be  used  to  carry  the  load  or  to  resist  the  pressure  it  is  called 
upon  to  meet,  it  is,  evident  that  a  fire-brick  lacking  in  this  respect  is  as  inferior  as  a 
material  showing  a  low  softening  temperature. 


STRUCTURAL  TIMBERS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

Timber  is  a  general  term  applied  to  wood  of  suitable  size  and  quality  for  structural 
purposes;  it  is  practically  unchangeable  in  the  direction  of  its  length;  it  is  both  inex- 
tensible  and  incompressible  in  that  direction,  being  readily  wrought  and  easily  combined 
with  other  timber  as  a  valuable  structural  material,  but  it  shrinks  and  swells  in  the 
direction  of  its  thickness;  it  is  subject  to  rapid  decay  when  exposed  to  alternations  of 
moisture  and  dryness.  In  many  varieties  timber  is  durable  and  unchangeable  in  form 
if  free  from  moisture  or  always  wholly  wet.  Timber  offers  comparatively  slight  resis- 
tance to  compressing  power;  the  comparative  ease  with  which  its  fibrous  structure  is 
torn  asunder  limits  its  employment  in  that  direction,  since  it  cannot  be  grasped  or  other- 
wise held  in  any  degree  proportioned  to  its  strength;  it  readily  absorbs  moisture  by  the 
ends  of  the  fiber,  and  with  a  more  mischievous  effect  than  in  the  direction  in  which  it 
is  compressible;  hence,  timber  rots  more  rapidly  by  the  ends  than  by  the  sides.  The 
characteristics  of  some  American  woods  used  in  structural  work  are  here  given,  based 
on  the  records  of  the  United  States  Forest  Products  Laboratory. 

SOUTHERN  YELLOW  PINES 

The  term  Southern  yellow  pine  is  applied  collectively  to  practically  all  of  the  pines  of 
the  Southern  States  which  are  manufactured  into  lumber.  These  pines  are  often  roughly 
divided  into  three  classes:  Longleaf,  shortleaf,  and  loblolly  pines.  The  wood  of  all  the 
Southern  pines  is  very  much  alike  in  appearance.  The  sapwood  and  heartwood  are 
distinctly  marked,  the  sapwood  being  yellowish  white  and  the  heartwood  reddish  brown. 

The  specific  gravity  of  the  springwood  is  about  0.40,  while  that  of  the  summerwood 
is  about  0.95,  so  that  the  weight  of  the  wood  increases  with  the  larger  proportion  of 
eummerwood,  which  generally  forms  less  than  half  of  the  total  volume  of  the  whole  log. 

Summerwood  varies  somewhat  in  proportion,  according  to  age,  and"  is  generally 
greatest  in  early  middle  life  and  least  in  extreme  youth  and  old  age.  On  an  average, 
the  amount  of  summerwood  is  greater  in  longleaf  than  in  shortleaf  or  loblolly. 

The  grain  of  the  Southern  pines  is  generally  straight,  but  some  trees  have  a  spiral 
growth  which  causes  "cross-grained"  lumber;  the  fibers  or  cells  running  lengthwise 
with  the  trunk  form  about  90  per  cent  of  the  wood  by  volume,  and  the  pith  rays  placed 
at  right  angles  to  them  and  lying  radially  form  about  8  per  cent.  The  remaining 
2  per  cent  is  made  up  of  the  resin  ducts.  : 

Annual  rings,  or  layers  of  growth,  show  distinctly  in  the  wood  of  these  pines,  and  the 
width  of  the  annual  rings  generally  varies  with  the  age  period  of  the  tree,  being  great- 
est when  the  tree  is  young  and  vigorous  and  least  in  the  sapwood  of  mature  trees.  The 

[296] 


STRUCTURAL  TIMBER 

two  bands  of  dark  summerwood  and  lighter  colored  springwood  in  each  year's  growth 
are  distinct  in  the  Southern  pines. 

Sap  wood  contains  less  resinous  matter  than  does  the  heart  wood.  The  heart  wood  of 
old  logs  is  generally  heavier  than  the  sapwood  on  account  of  being  formed  when  the  tree 
was  comparatively  young  and  vigorous.  Of  the  three  principal  pines,  longleaf  has  the 
least  sapwood  and  loblolly  the  most,  while  shortleaf  occupies  an  intermediate  position. 

Shrinkage  of  Southern  pines,  as  when  a  piece  of  green  or  wet  wood  is  dried,  does  not 
change  its  dimensions  until  the  fiber-saturation  point  is  passed;  the  wood  then  begins 
to  shrink  in  cross-sectional  area  until  no  further  moisture  can  be  extracted  from  the 
cell  walls,  the  contraction  varying  uniformly  with  the  removal  of  moisture.  Generally, 
the  heaviest  wood  shrinks  the  most,  and  sapwood  shrinks  about  25  per  cent  more  than 
heartwood  of  the  same  specific  gravity. 

The  use  of  Southern  pines  is  not  confined  to  building  operations,  but  furnishes  some 
twenty  million  railroad  ties  annually;  a  considerable  portion  of  these  ties  is  treated  with 
either  creosote  oil  or  zinc  chloride.  The  average  life  of  the  untreated  sap  tie  is  about 
three  years,  while  that  of  a  properly  treated  sap  tie  is  about  fifteen  years.  Loblolly 
and  shortleaf  are  used  to  a  large  extent  in  mining  operations  as  both  round  and  sawed 
timber;  the  conditions  in  mines  are  such  as  to  cause  timber  to  decay  very  rapidly. 

Longleaf  Pine  (Pinus  palustris)  has  long  been  a  standard  construction  timber,  not 
only  on  account  of  its  strength,  hardness,  and  durability,  but  also  on  account  of  the  good 
lengths  of  heartwood  that  can  be  obtained  free  from  knots. 

Characteristics:  Longleaf  pine  has  a  fine  and  even  grain;  annual  rings  uniformly 
narrow,  generally  12  to  20  rings  per  inch.  Color  is  generally  even;  dark-reddish  yellow 
to  reddish  brown.  Sapwood  rarely  over  2  to  3  inches  of  radius  in  trees  12  inches  diameter. 
Resin  very  abundant,  pitchy  throughout. 

In  the  markets  at  present  any  heart  pine,  whether  longleaf,  shortleaf,  or  loblolly, 
which  shows  a  close-ringed,  hard  texture,  is  sold  under  the  name  of  longleaf  pine,  while 
the  wider  ringed,  more  rapid  and  sappy  growth  is  sold  as  shortleaf  pine.  The  names 
"  Georgia  pine  "  and  "  Alabama  pine  "  are  often  used  to  designate  timber  coming  from 
the  tracts  of  longleaf  pine  in  those  States. 

Specific  gravity  of  kiln-dried  longleaf  pine  has  a  possible  range  of  0.50  to  0.90; 
the  most  frequent  range  is  0.55  to  0.65;  averaging  about  37.5  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 

In  weight,  the  average  per  cubic  foot  of  dry  Georgia  pine  is  42.9  pounds  as  against 
36.2  pounds  for  the  South  Carolina  material.  The  strength  ratio  of  the  large  to  the  small 
sticks  is  0.77  for  the  fiber  stress  at  elastic  limit,  0.79  for  the  modulus  of  rupture,  and 
1.01  for  the  modulus  of  elasticity. 

Moisture  hi  longleaf  pine  timber,  10  X  12  inches  in  cross-section,  after  air-drying 
for  one  year  yet  contained  35  per  cent.  In  large  beams  air-dried  for  two  years,  the 
drying  did  not  penetrate  to  the  center. 

In  ordinary  seasoning,  the  strength  of  large  sticks  changes  very  little  for  the  range  of 
moisture  usually  met  with  in  practice.  Small  pieces  when  kiln-dried  increase  in  strength 
as  much  as  300  per  cent,  but  large  beams  can  not  be  dried  out  to  the  same  extent. 
Moreover,  the  drying  process  often  produces  checks  and  ring  shakes,  the  weakening 
effects  of  which  more  than  counterbalance  any  gain  in  strength  due  to  seasoning. 

Bending  strength:  Longleaf  pine;  South  Carolina;  size  6x8  niches;  span  15  feet; 
partially  air  dry;  averaged:  Moisture,  25  per  cent;  rings  per  inch,  14;  specific  gravity, 
dry  0.58;  weight  per  cubic  foot,  as  tested,  45.6  pounds;  oven  dry,  36.2  pounds;  fiber 
stress  at  elastic  limit,  3,800  pounds  per  square  inch;  modulus  of  rupture,  7,160  pounds 
per  square  inch;  modulus  of  elasticity,  1,560,000  pounds  per  square  inch;  elastic 
resilience,  0.53  inch-pounds  per  cubic  inch. 

The  crushing  strength  parallel  to  grain  for  longleaf  pine  is  4,800  pounds  per  square 
inch.  The  material  tested  contained  26.3  per  cent  moisture. 

The  compressive  strength  at  elastic  limit  at  right  angles  to  grain  is  572  pounds 
per  square  inch. 

The  shearing  strength  parallel  to  gram  for  small  specimens  is  973  pounds  per  square 
inch. 

Longleaf  pine  finds  a  wide  use  in  bridge,  trestle,  warehouse,  and  factory  construc- 
tion in  the  form  of  dimension  timbers,  posts,  piles,  and  joists, 

[2971 


STRUCTURAL  TIMBER 

Inspection  and  grading:  All  lumber  must  be  sound;  commercial  longleaf  yellow 
pine  shall  be  free  from:  Unsound,  loose,  and  hollow  knots,  worm-holes  and  knot-holes, 
through  shakes  or  round  shakes  that  show  on  the  surface,  and  shall  be  square  edge 
unless  otherwise  specified. 

A  through  shake  is  defined  to  be  through  or  connected  from  side  to  side,  edge  to 
edge,  or  side  to  edge. 

Where  terms  one-half  or  two-thirds  heart  are  used  they  shall  be  construed  as  refer- 
ring to  the  area  of  the  face  on  which  measured. 

Shortleaf  pine  (Pinus  echinata)  has  a  variable,  medium  coarse  grain;  rings  wide  near 
the  heart,  followed  by  zone  of  narrow  rings,  mostly  10  to  15  to  the  inch;  often  fine 
grained.  Color  whitish  to  reddish  brown.  Sapwood  is  commonly  about  4  inches  of 
radius  in  trees  12  inches  diameter.  Resin  moderately  abundant;  least  pitchy;  only 
near  stumps,  knots,  and  limbs. 

Specific  gravity  of  shortleaf  pine  has  a  possible  range  from  0.40  to  0.80  but  more 
frequently  between  0.43  to  0.53,  averaging  about  30  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 

Bending  strength:  Shortleaf  pine;  Arkansas;  size,  8X12  inch;  span,  15.0  feet; 
green;  averaged:  Moisture,  50  per  cent  rings  per  inch,  12;  specific  gravity,  dry,  0.51; 
weight  per  cubic  foot,  as  tested,  48  pounds;  oven  dry,  32  pounds;  fiber  stress  at  elastic 
limit,  3,420  pounds  per  square  inch;  modulus  of  rupture,  6,060  pounds  per  square  inch; 
modulus  of  elasticity,  1,630,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Dry  shortleaf  pine;  cross  section  8X16  inches;  span,  180  inches;  averaged:  Mois- 
ture, 17%;  rings  per  inch,  12;  fiber  stress  at  elastic  limit,  4,220  pounds  per  square  inch; 
modulus  of  rupture,  6,030  pounds  per  square  inch;  modulus  of  elasticity,  1,517,000 
pounds  per  square  inch;  calculated  shear  398  pounds  per  square  inch. 

The  effect  of  seasoning  on  the  strength  of  large  beams  is  well  shown.  Three  sets  of 
green  North  Carolina  pine  beams  were  dried  in  the  open  air  in  sunlight,  in  a  kiln,  and  in 
a  shed,  respectively.  The  wood  in  the  outer  portion  of  the  two  sets  of  beams  listed 
first  was  no  doubt  stronger  than  in  the  green  condition.  The  beams  failed  in  hori- 
zontal shear,  however,  before  the  added  strength  could  be  brought  out,  because  of  the 
presence  of  checks  and  shakes.  A  marked  increase  in  strength  was  shown  by  the  beams 
of  select  material  that  were  carefully  dried  in  a  shed. 

Loblolly  pine  (Pinus  taeda)  occurs  in  a  belt  along  the  Atlantic  coast  and  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  from  Virginia  to  eastern  Texas,  extending  inland  from  50  to  300  miles.  It 
is  commonly  sold  in  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  other  Eastern  markets  as  North 
Carolina  pine;  it  is  generally  forest  grown  timber  of  large  size,  with  a  large  proportion 
of  heartwood,  fairly  free  from  knots,  and  possessing  a  high  order  of  structural  value. 

The  gram  of  loblolly  pine  is  variable,  mostly  very  coarse,  from  3  to  12  rings  to  the 
inch  in  structural  lumber.  Color  is  yellowish  to  reddish  and  orange-brown.  Sap- 
wood  variable,  3  niches  and  upward  of  the  radius  in  trees  12  inches  or  more  in  diameter. 
Resin  abundant,  more  than  shortleaf,  less  than  longleaf. 

Specific  gravity  of  loblolly  pine  has  a  possible  range  of  0.40  to  0.80,  but  more  fre- 
quently between  0.45  to  0.55,  averaging  about  31  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 

Bending  strength  of  loblolly  pine:  cross-section,  8X16  inches;  span,  180  inches; 
green;  averaged:  Moisture,  46  per  cent;  rings  per  inch,  6;  fiber  stress  at  elastic 
limit,  3,094  pounds  per  square  inch;  modulus  of  rupture,  5,394  pounds  per  square  inch; 
modulus  of  elasticity,  1,406,000  pounds  per  square  inch;  calculated  shear,  383  pounds 
per  square  inch. 

Dry  specimens  of  loblolly  pine  in  cross-section,  8X16  inches;  span,  180  inches; 
averaged:  Moisture,  20.5  per  cent;  rings  per  inch,  7.4;  fiber  stress  at  elastic  limit, 
4,195  pounds  per  square  inch;  modulus  of  rupture,  6,734  pounds  per  square  inch; 
modulus  of  elasticity,  1,619,000  pounds  per  square  inch;  calculated  shear,  462  pounds 
per  square  inch. 

Shortleaf  and  loblolly  pines  are  used  principally  for  building  lumber,  such  as  ulterior 
finish,  flooring,  ceiling,  frames,  and  sashes,  wainscoting,  weather-boarding,  joists,  lath, 
and  shingles;  they  are  also  used  for  construction  purposes,  in  bridge  and  trestle  work, 
and  heavy  building  operations  where  the  conditions  are  not  such  as  to  require  longleaf. 
The  introduction  of  preservative  processes,  which  prevents  or  retards  decay,  has  increased 
the  use  of  shortleaf  and  loblolly  for  structural  purposes. 

[298] 


STRUCTURAL  TIMBER 

Virginia  pine  is  the  timber  cut  in  the  northern  portion  of  this  loblolly  belt;  it  is 
generally  in  small  sticks,  8  by  8  inches  or  10  by  10  inches  in  cross-section,  almost  entirely 
sapwood  and  of  so  rapid  a  growth  that  sometimes  only  four  rings  occur  in  3  inches. 
This  is  second-growth  timber,  usually  very  knotty  and  of  an  inferior  grade. 

TIMBERS  OF  THE  PACIFIC  COAST 

Douglas  fir  (Pseudotsuga  taxifolia)  is  the  most  important  timber  of  the  Northwest, 
and  is  more  extensively  used  for  structural  purposes  than  any  other  single  species.  In 
the  production  of  lumber  it  ranks  second  to  the  Southern  yellow  pines.  Dimension 
timbers  find  a  market  throughout  the  Great  Lake  region  and  as  far  east  as  the  Atlantic 
seaboard,  for  mining,  dock,  and  dredging  work,  and  for  spars.  It  is  also  known  com- 
mercially as  yellow  fir,  red  fir,  Oregon  pine,  and  Douglas  spruce. 

Its  range  extends  from  Lower  California  to  central  British  Columbia,  and  from 
the  Pacific  Ocean  to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  This  timber  reaches  its  best  development 
in  western  Washington  and  Oregon,  between  the  summit  of  the  Cascade  Mountains 
and  the  Pacific.  Almost  pure  forests  are  found  here  in  which  the  tree  will  average 
5  or  6  feet  in  diameter  at  the  butt,  with  a  height  up  to  300  feet.  It  is  possible,  there- 
fore, to  obtain  exceptionally  large  and  long  pieces  for  structural  purposes.  Sticks 
24  inches  square  and  up  to  100  feet  long  are  regularly  listed  and  obtainable  in  the 
merchantable  grades. 

Small  trees  varying  from  1  to  3  feet  in  diameter  are  unsurpassed  for  spars,  owing 
to  the  straightness  of  the  trunk,  the  small  taper,  and  the  great  length  obtainable. 
Douglas  fir  is  almost  exclusively  used  on  the  Pacific  coast  for  piling  for  docks  and  founda- 
tions for  heavy  structures  in  soft  ground.  The  standard  dimensions  for  this  purpose 
are  12  inches  in  diameter  and  from  60  to  70  feet  long. 

The  sapwood  in  green  logs  from  mature  trees  forms  a  narrow,  light-colored  ring, 
extending  usually  not  more  than  2  inches  beneath  the  bark.  In  the  seasoned  timber, 
however,  it  can  seldom  be  distinguished  by  color. 

The  color  of  the  wood  ranges  from  a  light  yellow  to  a  pronounced  red;  the  grain 
varies  from  as  few  as  4  or  5  rings  per  inch,  in  small  trees  or  in  heartwood,  to  a  fine,  even 
grain  with  upward  of  40  rings  per  inch.  The  rings  are  usually  strongly  marked,  the  sum- 
merwood  being  very  dense  and  dark,  and  the  springwood  much  softer.  The  wide-ringed 
wood  is  somewhat  spongy.  Owing  to  the  marked  difference  in  the  texture  of  the  alternate 
rings  and  to  the  long,  regular  fiber,  the  wood  splits  easily,  especially  when  dry. 

Bending  test:  From  an  average  of  216  tests  of  all  grades,  in  sizes  8X16  to  5X8  inches 
in  cross-section,  on  spans  of  7  and  16  feet;  22  per  cent  moisture;  15  rings  per  inch; 
specific  gravity,  dry,  0.45;  weight  per  cubic  foot,  as  tested,  33.8  pounds  (oven  dry  28 
pounds);  the  fiber  stress  at  elastic  limit  was  4,859  pounds  per  square  inch;  modulus 
of  rupture,  6,975  pounds  per  square  inch;  modulus  of  elasticity,  1,600,000  pounds 
per  square  inch;  elastic  resilience,  0.85  inch-pounds  per  cubic  inch.  The  calculated 
shear  is  269  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Western  hemlock  (Tsuga  heterophylla)  reaches  its  best  development  in  Washington, 
in  the  region  lying  between  the  summit  of  the  Cascade  Mountains  and  the  Pacific 
coast,  but  is  also  found  from  Alaska  to  central  California  and  as  far  east  as  Idaho  and 
Montana.  The  tree,  where  conditions  best  favor  its  development,  reaches  4  feet  in 
diameter  at  the  butt  and  200  feet  in  height.  The  trunk  is  straight  and  cylindrical,  but 
does  not  readily  clear  itself  of  branches.  This  causes  small  knots  in  the  timber  and 
makes  it  impossible  to  obtain  much  clear  lumber  except  from  large  trees. 

The  wood  of  the  mature  tree  is  hard,  straight,  and  even  grained,  and  nearly  white 
in  color.  The  wood  does  not  split  readily,  and  is  light  and  tough.  Knots  are  rather 
frequent,  often  dark  brown  to  almost  black  in  color,  but  usually  tight  and  sound.  The 
regular  and  even  structure  of  the  wood  and  the  total  absence  of  pitch  render  it  capable 
of  rapid  kiln-drying  at  high  temperature  without  injury.  For  flooring,  molding,  paneling, 
and  all  inside  finish  Western  hemlock  makes  a  superior  lumber,  not  easily  scratched, 
susceptible  of  a  high  polish,  and  of  excellent  wearing  qualities. 

Bending  strength  of  Western  hemlock  from  an  average  of  64  tests,  of  wood  grown  in 
Oregon  and  Washington:  size  8  X  16  and  6X8  inches  cross-section;  span,  7  and  16  feet; 

[2991 


STRUCTURAL  TIMBER 

partially  air-dried;  averaged:  Moisture  28  per  cent ;  rings  per  inch,  13 ;  specific  gravity, 
dry,  0.42;  weight  per  cubic  foot,  as  tested,  33.2  pounds,  oven  dry,  26  pounds;  fiber 
stress  at  elastic  limit,  3,856  pounds  per  square  inch;  modulus  of  rupture,  5,992  pounds 
per  square  inch;  modulus  of  elasticity,  1,351,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

The  crushing  strength  of  partially  air-dry  Western  hemlock  averages  3,705  pounds 
per  square  inch. 

The  compressive  strength  at  elastic  limit,  at  right  angles  to  the  grain,  partially  air- 
dry,  averaged  477  pounds  per  square  inch. 

The  shearing  strength  parallel  to  the  grain,  in  small  pieces  (3  X  1.5  inch  area) 
averaged  746  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Western  hemlock  as  a  building  material  has  met  with  much  opposition.  A  strong 
prejudice  exists  against  the  name  of  hemlock,  based  upon  the  qualities  of  the  Eastern 
species;  large  quantities  of  the  timber  are  cut  and  sold  under  false  or  fictitious  names, 
such  as  Alaska  pine  and  Washington  pine,  spruce,  or  fir. 

Western  larch  (Larix  ocddentalis)  has  not  yet  won  a  very  important  place  among 
structural  timbers.  It  has  a  limited  range  and  will  probably  not  be  able  to  compete 
with  the  yellow  pines  and  Douglas  fir  outside  of  the  region  in  which  it  grows,  principally 
Montana,  Idaho,  and  Washington. 

Bending  strength:  Western  larch;  cross-section,  8  X  16  inches;  span,  180  inches; 
green;  averaged:  Moisture,  51  per  cent;  rings  per  inch,  25;  fiber  stress  at  elastic  limit, 
3,276  pounds  per  square  inch;  modulus  of  rupture,  4,632  pounds  per  square  inch; 
modulus  of  elasticity,  1,272,000  pounds  per  square  inch;  calculated  shear,  298  pounds 
per  square  inch. 

Average  strength  values  for  compression  parallel  to  grain,  compression  perpendicular 
to  gram,  and  shearing  tests  on  green  material.  Western  larch:  cross-section,  8  X  16 
niches;  span,  180  niches;  averaged:  Moisture,  18  per  cent;  rings  per  inch,  22;  fiber  stress 
at  elastic  limit,  3,343  pounds  per  square  inch;  modulus  of  rupture,  5,440  pounds  per 
square  inch;  modulus  of  elasticity,  1,409,000  pounds  per  square  inch;  calculated 
shear,  349  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Redwood  (Sequoia  sempervirens)  is  one  of  the  most  desirable  species  from  which 
heavy  structural  timbers  may  be  secured,  and  the  wood  is  also  very  slow-burning.  The 
bulk  of  the  material  is  cut  in  Humboldt  and  Mendocino  counties,  Cal.  It  is  shipped 
in  cargo  lots  to  San  Francisco  and  Southern  California  points  and  is  distributed  through 
these  ports. 

Redwood  is  a  coniferous  tree  which  grows  to  great  size,  aside  from  the  famous 
group  known  as  the  "Mammoth  Grove  of  Calaveras,"  to  which  redwood  is  related;, 
it  attains  a  diameter  of  4  to  6  feet  and  upward,  and  a  height  of  more  than  200  feet. 
The  wood  has  an  even  grain,  of  deep  red  color,  cedar-like  in  appearance;  it  splits  readily 
and  evenly;  it  planes  and  polishes  well.  When  cut  radially  the  medullary  plates  give 
the  wood  a  fine  satiny  luster. 

Bending  strength  in  14  tests  of  redwood  in  cross-section  8  X  16  inches;  span,  180 
inches;  green;  averaged:  Moisture,  86  per  cent;  rings  per  inch,  20;  fiber  stress  at  elastic 
limit,  3,734  pounds  per  square  inch;  modulus  of  rupture,  4,492  pounds  per  square 
inch;  modulus  of  elasticity,  1,016,000  pounds  per  square  inch;  calculated  shear,  300 
pounds  per  square  inch. 

Average  strength  values  for  compression  parallel  to  grain,  compression  perpendicular 
to  grain,  and  shearing  tests  on  air-dried  redwood,  6  specimens  of  cross-section  8  X  16 
inches;  span,  180  inches;  averaged:  Moisture,  26.3  per  cent;  rings  per  inch,  22.4;  fiber 
stress  at  elastic  limit,  3,797  pounds  per  square  inch;  modulus  of  rupture,  4,428  pounds 
per  squa*  inch;  modulus  of  elasticity,  1,107,000  pounds  per  square  inch;  calculated 
shear,  294  pounds  per  square  inch. 

TIMBERS   OF  THE  NEW  ENGLAND  AND  LAKE  STATES 

Norway  pine  (Pinus  resinosa)  reaches  its  best  development  in  the  United  States 
in  the  northern  parts  of  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota,  usually  forming  groves 
of  a  few  hundred  acres  in  extent  on  light,  sandy  loam  or  dry,  rocky  ridges.  It  ordinarily 
reaches  a  height  of  75  feet  and  a  diameter  of  30  inches.  The  trunk  is  straight  and  cfear 

[300] 


STRUCTURAL  TIMBER 

of  branches.  The  wood  is  rather  close-grained,  is  pale  red  when  air-dried,  and  has 
a  thin  ring  of  sap  wood.  Norway  pine  is  cut  and  sold  with  white  pine  hi  the  Lake 
States  under  the  name  of  Northern  pine.  It  probably  makes  up  about  one-third  of 
the  present  pine  Cut  in  this  region. 

Bending  strength:  Norway  pine;  Minnesota;  size,  6  X  12  niches;  span,  13.5  feet; 
green;  averaged :  Moisture,  48  per  cent ;  rings  per  inch,  14 ;  specific  gravity,  dry,  0.41 ;  weight 
per  cubic  foot,  as  tested,  37  pounds;  oven  dry;  25  pounds;  fiber  stress  at  elastic  limit, 
2,550  pounds  per  square  inch;  modulus  of  rupture,  3,975  pounds  per  square  inch; 
modulus  of  elasticity,  1,189,000  pounds  per  square  inch;  elastic  resilience,  0.52  inch- 
pounds  per  cubic  inch. 

Tests  of  dry  Norway  pine:  cross-section,  6  X  12  inches;  span,  162  inches;  averaged: 
Moisture,  17  per  cent;  rings  per  inch,  8;  fiber  stress  at  elastic  limit,  2,968  pounds  per 
square  inch;  modulus  of  rupture,  5,204  pounds  per  square  inch;  modulus  of  elasticity, 
1,123,000  pounds  per  square  inch;  calculated  shear,  286  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Tamarack  (Larix  laricina)  reaches  its  best  development  north  of  the  United  States 
boundary,  in  Canada.  It  extends  southward  to  northern  Pennsylvania,  northern 
Indiana  and  Illinois,  and  central  Minnesota.  In  the  United  States  tamarack  occurs  hi 
cold,  deep  swamps, which  it  often  clothes  with  forests  of  densely  crowded  trees  rarely  more 
than  40  or  50  feet  in  height.  The  maximum  height  of  60  feet  and  the  maximum  diameter 
of  20  inches  are  rarely  attained  in  the  United  States.  The  trunk  is  straight  and  tapers 
rather  rapidly;  it  clears  itself  readily  of  branches  even  when  growing  in  fairly  open 
stands.  Tamarack  lumber  is  cut  principally  in  Wisconsin,  Michigan,  and  Minnesota. 

Bending  strength:  Tamarack;  Minnesota;  size,  6  X  12  inches;  span,  162  inches; 
green;  averaged:  Moisture,  50  per  cent;  rings  per  inch,  14;  specific  gravity,  dry,  0.48; 
weight  per  cubic  foot,  as  tested,  45  pounds;  oven  dry,  30  pounds;  fiber  stress  at  elastic 
limit,  2,810  pounds  per  square  inch;  modulus  of  rupture,  4,562  pounds  per  square  inch; 
modulus  of  elasticity,  1,219,000  pounds  per  square  inch;  elastic  resilience,  0.62  inch- 
pounds  per  cubic  inch. 

Air-dried  tamarack;  cross-section,  6  X  12  inches;  span,  162  inches;  averaged: 
Moisture,  23  per  cent;  rings  per  inch,  15;  fiber  stress  at  elastic  limit,  3,434  pounds  per 
square  inch;  modulus  of  rupture,  5,640  pounds  per  square  inch;  modulus  of  elasticity, 
1,330,000  pounds  per  square  inch;  calculated  shear,  318  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Tamarack  is  at  present  a  structural  timber  of  minor  importance  and  is  used  only 
locally  in  the  Northern  States. 

Spruce  is  one  of  the  trees  of  the  genus  Picea,  of  the  pine  family.  It  is  found  in 
British  America,  the  northern  United  States,  and  in  the  AUeghanies  to  North  Carolina. 
Its  light,  soft  wood  is  largely  made  into  lumber,  and  is  used  in  construction,  in  ship- 
building, for  piles,  etc.  Black  spruce  (Picea  nigra)  is  a  light,  straight-grained  wood  used 
for  building  lumber,  and  is  much  used  for  masts  and  spars  of  ships.  Red  spruce  (Picea 
rubens)  is  a  stunted  variety  of  black  spruce,  growing  in  swamps.  White  spruce  (Picea 
alba  or  canadensis)  is  the  commonest  native  spruce  of  the  United  States,  having  an 
extended  range  and  utility.  It  is  abundant  in  Canada,  extending  into  northern  New 
England,  and  reputed  to  be  at  its  best  in  northern  Montana.  Its  timber  in  commerce 
is  not  distinguished  from  that  of  the  black  spruce.  It  is  used  for  joists  and  small  forms 
of  structural  timbers.  Spruce  has  a  high  value  for  paper  pulp,  and  as  a  structural 
timber  will  doubtless  never  be  of  more  than  local  importance. 

Bending  strength:  Red  spruce;  cross-section,  2X10  inches;  span,  144  inches j  green; 
averaged:  Moisture,  33  per  cent;  rings  per  inch,  22;  fiber  stress  at  elastic  limit, 
2,394  pounds  per  square  inch;  modulus  of  rupture,  3,566  pounds  per  square  inch; 
modulus  of  elasticity,  1,180,000  pounds  per  square  inch;  calculated  shear,  181  pounds 
per  square  inch. 

Bending  strength:  White  spruce;  cross-section,  2X10  inches;  span,  144  inches; 
green;  averaged:  Moisture,  41  per  cent;  rings  per  inch,  9;  fiber  stress  at  elastic  limit, 
2,239  pounds  per  square  inch;  modulus  of  rupture,  3,288  pounds  per  square  inch; 
modulus  of  elasticity,  1,081,000  pounds  per  square  inch;  calculated  shear,  166  pounds 
per  square  inch. 


[301 


STRUCTURAL  TIMBER 


TIMBER  TESTS 

In  bending  tests  the  specimens  were  supported  near  the  ends,  and  the  load  applied 
at  two  points,  each  located  at  one-third  of  the  length  of  the  span  from  the  end  sup- 
ports; a  method  which  reproduces  closely  the  conditions  to  which  a  beam  is  subjected 
in  structural  work.  Four  factors  were  calculated  from  the  data  derived,  all  in  terms 
of  pounds  per  square  inch: 

(a)  Fiber  stress  at  elastic  limit:  This  is  the  greatest  stress  that  can  occur  in  a  beam 
loaded  with  an  external  load  from  which  it  will  recover  without  permanent  deflection. 

(b)  Modulus  of  rupture:  This  is  the  greatest  computed  stress  in  a  beam  loaded  with 
a  breaking  load. 

(c)  Modulus  of  elasticity:   This  is  a  factor  computed  from  the  relation  between 
load  and  deflection  within  the  elastic  limit,  and  represents  the  stiffness  of  the  wood  fiber. 

(d)  Longitudinal  shear:    This  is  the  stress  tending  to  split  the  beam  lengthwise 
along  its  neutral  plane  when  under  maximum  load. 

Compression  Parallel  to  Grain. — The  specimens  were  set  upright  on  the  platform 
of  the  testing  machine  and  crushed  endwise.  Observations  of  amount  of  load  and 
deflection,  or  compression,  were  made  as  in  the  bending  tests. 

Compression  Perpendicular  to  Grain. — The  tests  were  made  by  laying  each  block  on 
its  side  on  the  platform  of  the  machine,  and  applying  pressure  to  an  iron  plate  resting 
on  the  block's  upper  side.  The  test  corresponds  to  the  action  of  a  rail  on  a  cross-tie,  or  a 
floor  joist  on  a  supporting  beam.  Readings  of  the  load  and  the  corresponding  deflection 
or  crushing  were  taken  up  to  and  slightly  beyond  the  elastic  limit.  From  these  data 
the  compressive  strength  at  elastic  limit  in  pounds  per  square  inch  was  calculated. 

Shearing.: — These  tests  were  made  on  small,  clear  blocks  with  a  projecting  lip  2  by 
3  inches  in  section.  The  blocks  were  held  firmly,  and  the  lip  sheared  off  parallel  to  the 
grain.  The  load  required  to  shear  off  the  lip  was  calculated  in  pounds  per  square  inch. 


[302] 


SECTION  5 
STEEL  BARS,  PLATES,  SHAPES,  BOLTS,  RIVETS 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General  Instructions. — General  instructions  or  specifications  issued  by  the  bureau 
concerned  shall  form  a  part  of  these  specifications. 

2.  Ingots. — Ingots  will  be  divided  into  three  clssses:  (a)  Top  poured;  (b)  Bottom 
poured;  (c)  Fluid  compressed. 

3.  Bored  Ingots. — If  bored  ingots  are  ordered,  the  wall  of  the  ingot  must  be  at  least 
one  and  one-half  times  the  thickness  of  the  wall  of  the  forging  to  be  made  therefrom. 

4.  Discards. — (a)  From  class  (a)  ingots  only  so  much  will  be  used  as  remains  after 
at  least  5  per  cent  of  the  total  weight  has  been  discarded  from  the  bottom,  and  at  least 
30  per  cent  of  the  total  weight  from  the  top. 

(b)  From  class  (b)  ingots  only  so  much  will  be  used  as  remains  after  at  least  5  per 
cent  of  the  total  weight  has  been  discarded  from  the  bottom,  and  at  least  20  per  cent 
of  the  total  weight  from  the  top. 

(c)  From  class  (c)  ingots,  when  parts  are  forged  solid,  only  so  much  will  be  used  as 
remains  after  at  least  5  per  cent  of  the  total  weight  has  been  discarded  from  the  bottom, 
and  at  least  20  per  cent  of  the  total  weight  from  the  top. 

(d)  When  forgings  are  to  be  made  from  bored  fluid  compressed  ingots  at  least  3 
per  cent  of  the  total  weight  of  the  ingot  shall  be  discarded  from  the  bottom  and  at 
least  10  per  cent  of  the  total  weight  from  the  top. 

(e)  If  ingots  are  cast  in  any  unusual  manner,  the  amount  of  minimum  discard  from 
them  will  be  determined  by  the  bureau  concerned. 

5.  Test. — Ingots  made  by  steel  manufacturers  and  to  be  forged  or  rolled  into  finished 
objects  by  establishments  other  than  those  manufacturing  them  will  be  subjected  to 
chemical  test. 

6.  Slabs,  Blooms,  and  Billets. — The  line  between  blooms  and  billets  to  be  drawn 
at  36  square  inches  cross-section.     Rounds  shall  be  classed  as  blooms  or  billets  if  they 
are  to  be  reforged  or  retreated. 

7.  Ordering. — Slabs,  blooms,  and  billets  will  be  ordered  by  grade  with  reference 
to  the  classifications  as  contained  in  the  Navy  Department's  latest  specifications  for 
hull  and  engine  forgings. 

8.  Material. — Slabs,  blooms,  and  billets  for  the  use  of  the  Navy  Department  shall 
be  manufactured  from  open-hearth,  crucible,  or  electric-furnace  steel,  and  shall  be 
rolled  or  forged  from  ingots  of  at  least  four  times  the  cross-section  of  the  finished  slab, 
bloom,  or  billet. 

9.  Tests  When  Material  is  Not  to  be  Reforged. — Slabs,  blooms,  and  billets  of  carbon, 
nickel,  and  alloy  steel  and  which  are  not  to  be  reforged  or  retreated  shall  be  tested  at  the 
place  of  manufacture,  and  shall  comply  with  the  chemical  and  physical  requirements 
of  then*  grades,  as  contained  in  the  Navy  Department's  latest  specifications  for  hull 
and  engine  forgings.     For  identification  this  material  shall  be  stamped  with  the  number 
of  the  heat  or  ingot. 

10.  Tests  When  Material  is  to  be  Reforged.— (a)  Slabs,  blooms,  and  billets  of  carbon 
and  nickel  steel  and  which  are  to  be  reforged  or  retreated  by  establishments  other  than 
those  manufacturing  them  shall  be  accepted  on  the  chemical  requirements  for  the  grade 
as  specified.     In  case  of  ordering  same  according  to  the  requirements  of  forgings  for 
which  they  are  intended  a  reduction  of  10  per  cent  on  the  required  percentage  of  elonga- 
tion and  reduction  of  area  shall  be  allowed  by  the  inspector  and  the  bending  test  will 
not  be  required.    This  material  shall  be  plainly  stamped  with  the  forgings  and  grade 
number  and  the  words  "For  reforging." 

[303] 


BOILER  PLATES 

(b)  Slabs,  blooms,  and  billets  of  alloy  steel  and  which  are  to  be  reforged  or  retreated 
by  establishments  other  than  those  manufacturing  them  shall  be  accepted  on  the 
chemical  requirements  for  the  grade  as  specified.  This  material  shall  be  plainly  stamped 
with  the  forging  and  grade  number  and  the  words  "For  reforging."  The  manufacturer 
shall  furnish  the  inspector  with  a  description  of  the  heat  treatment  necessary  to  produce 
the  physical  requirements  of  the  grade  ordered. 

11.  Surface  Inspection. — All  slabs,  blooms,  and  billets  shall  be  free  from  injurious 
surface  defects,  shall  be  reasonably  straight  and  free  from  twist,  and  shall  not  vary 
from  the  transverse  dimensions  specified  more  than  3  per  cent,  under  or  over. 

12.  Test  Bars. — (a)  The  standard  tensile-test  bar,  0.505  inch  in  diameter  and  2 
inches  between  measuring  points,  will  be  used. 

(b)  The  standard  bar  for  the  cold-bending  test  shall  be  of  rectangular  cross-section, 
0.5  inch  by  1  inch.  The  edges  may  be  rounded  off  to  a  radius  of  ^  of  an  inch. 

13.  Location  of  Test  Bars. — Tensile  and  cold-bending  test  pieces  shall  be  taken  in 
the  direction  of  the  greatest  working  of  the  slab,  bloom,  or  billet  and  on  the  line  of 
greatest  width,  at  one-half  the  distance  from  the  center  to  the  edge  of  the  slab,  bloom, 
or  billet. 

14.  Tests. — In  all  cases  where  physical  tests  are  required  at  the  place  of  manu- 
facture the  slabs,  blooms,  and  billets  shall  be  tested  by  heats  (if  treated  together;  other- 
wise from  each  lot  of  each  heat  so  treated),  four  longitudinal  tensile  and  two  longitudinal 
cold-bending  test  pieces  being  selected,  each  from  a  different  object;  but  if  less  than 
sixteen  pieces  are  made  from  one  heat,  then  one  cold-bending  and  two  tensile  test  pieces 
shall  be  selected;  but  if  there  is  one  slab,  bloom,  or  billet  from  a  heat,  one  longitudinal 
textile  and  one  longitudinal  cold-bending  test  piece  will  suffice,  either  or  both  of  which 
to  be  taken  from  the  upper  or  lower  end,  at  discretion  of  the  inspector. 

15.  Chemical  Analysis. — A  chemical  analysis  will  be  made  by  the  contractor  of  each 
heat  and  the  sample  may  be  taken  from  a  physical  test  piece  or  drilled  from  the  slab, 
bloom,  or  billet  at  the  point  designated  in  paragraph  13  as  the  location  for  the  test 
piece. 

BOILER  PLATES 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General  Instructions. — General  instructions  or  specifications  issued  by  the  bureau 
concerned  shall  form  part  of  these  specifications. 

2.  Physical  and  Chemical  Properties. — The  physical  and  chemical  characteristics 
of  steel  boiler  plate  are  to  be  in  accordance  with  the  table  on  opposite  page. 

TESTS 

3.  Number  of  Tests. — One  longitudinal  tensile  test  piece  and  one  bending  test 
piece  (transverse  for  Class  "A"  and  Class  "B"  and  longitudinal  for  Class  "C"  boiler 
plate)  shall  be  cut  from  each  plate  as  rolled  at  such  points  as  may  be  designated  by 
the  inspector.     The  cold-bending  test  pieces  may  have  their  corners  rounded  to  a  curve 
the  radius  of  which  is  equal  to  one-fourth  the  thickness  of  the  plate. 

4.  Additional  Tests. — The  inspector  may  require  from  time  to  time  such  additional 
tests  as  he  may  deem  necessary  to  determine  the  uniformity  of  the  material. 

5.  Rejection  on  Delivery. — Boiler  plate  may  be  rejected  at  a  navy  yard  or  other 
places  of  delivery  for  surface  or  other  defects  either  existing  on  arrival  or  developed  in 
working  or  storage,  even  though  the  material  may  have  passed  the  required  inspection 
at  the  place  of  manufacture. 

FINISH 

6.  Surface  Inspection. — Boiler  plates  shall  be  free  of  all  slag,  foreign  substances, 
brittleness,  laminatibns,  hard  spots,  brick   or    scale    marks,  scabs,  snakes,  or  other 
injurious  defects. 

[304] 


BOILER  PLATES 


- 

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and  through  180°  for  plates 

1  inch  in  thickness  and  un- 

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thickness    and    equal    to 
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180°  for  plates  1  inch  and 

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C 

Open  -  hearth 

To  be  in  accordance  with  specifications  for  flange  and  boiler  steel 

or   Besse- 

adopted by  the  Association  of  American  Steel  Manufacturers, 

mer  steel 

revised  1903. 

NOTES. — When  the  finished  plate  is  ?  inch  or  less  the  elongation  shall  be  measured 
on  an  original  length  of  sixteen  times  the  thickness  of  the  plate  tested. 

When  plates  are  ordered  to  gauge,  United  States  standard  gauge  will  be  used. 

7.  Shearing. — Boiler  plates  shall  not  be  sheared  closer  to  finished  dimensions  than 
once  the  thickness  of  the  plate  along  each  end  and  one-half  the  thickness  of  the  plate 
along  each  side.     This  allowance  shall  be  made  by  the  contractor  in  his  order,  and  the 
manufacturer  shall  shear  to  the  ordered  dimensions. 

8.  Variation  in  Thickness.    Tolerance. — A  tolerance  of  0.01  inch  below  the  ordered 
gauge  will  be  permitted  for  plates  up  to  and  including  100  inches  in  width,  and  for 
plates  over  100  niches  in  width  a  tolerance  of  0.015  inch  will  be  allowed,  measured  in 
each  case  at  the  thinnest  point. 

9.  Weight  Variation  Tolerance. — For  all  plates  ordered  to  gauge  there  will  be  per- 
mitted an  average  excess  of  weight  over  the  calculated  weight  equal  in  amount  to  that 
specified  in  the  table  on  the  following  page. 

10.  Marking   and   Stamping. — Each  plate    shall  be  stamped  with  heat  number 
figures  to  be  not  less  than  \  inch  long,  and  shall  have  size  and  order  number  plainly 
marked  with  white  paint. 

11.  Inspection  Stamps. — Plates  which  have  passed  inspection  must  show  the  U.  S. 
anchor  and  other  stamps  necessary  for  identification,  encircled  by  white  paint  marks. 


REHEATING 

12.  Boiler-Drum  Tube  Sheets,  Drumheads,  Etc. — Boiler-drum  tube  sheets,  drum- 
heads, headers,  nozzles,  and  man-  and  hand-hole  plates  which  are  formed  from  boiler 
plate  shall  be  formed  hot. 

13.  temperatures  of  Reheating. — The  inspector  shall  see  that  the  proper  temper- 
ature is  used  for  forming  boiler  parts  from  material  and  that  the  material  is  not 
overheated. 

[305] 


BOILER  PLATES 
ALLOWANCES  FOB  OVERWEIGHT  FOE  PLATES  WHEN  ORDERED  TO  GAUGE 


Thickness  of  Plate, 
in  Inches 

WIDTH  OF  PLATE  IN  INCHES 

vti° 

50  to 
70 

Over 
70 

Up  to 

75 

75  to 
100 

100  to 
115 

Over 
113 

PERCENTAGE  ALLOWED 

Under  &.. 

10 

8£ 

7 

15 

131 

10 

20 

17 
15 

10 

8 
7 
6 
5 
4* 
4 
3| 

14 
12 
10 
8 
7 
6£ 
6 
5 

18 
16 
13 
10 
9 
8* 
8 
6£ 

17 
13 
12 
11 
10 
9 

JW  UD  to  A 

A  UD  tO  T     . 

i 

A    . 

|  

A    . 

i  

A 

f  

Over  |  

The  weight  of  1  cubic  inch  of  rolled  steel  is  assumed  to  be  0.2833  pound. 

14.  Flanges. — All  flanges  must  be  carefully  examined  for  defects  before  and  during 
the  pressure  test  of  the  boiler. 

INSPECTION  FACILITIES 

15.  Mill   Inspection. — The  material  shall  be  inspected  at  the  mill  unless  special 
authority  to  the  contrary  is  given. 

16.  Access  to  Manufacturing  Plant. — The  Navy  Department  shall  have  the  right 
to  keep  inspectors  at  the  place  of  manufacture,  and  these  inspectors  shall  have  free 
access  at  all  times  to  all  parts  of  the  manufacturing  plant  and  be  permitted  to  examine 
the  raw  material  and  to  witness  the  process  of  manufacture. 

17.  Testing  Machine  and  Other  Appliances. — The  manufacturer  shall  furnish  all 
facilities  for  inspecting  and  testing  the  weight  and  quality  of  all  material  at  the  mill 
where  it  is  manufactured.     He  shall  furnish  a  suitable  testing  machine  for  testing  the 
specimens  as  we"!  as  prepare  the  specimens  for  the  machine  free  of  cost. 

18.  Inspection  Office,  Etc. — The  manufacturer  shall  furnish  free  of  cost  the  in- 
spectors with  such  facilities  as  may  be  necessary  for  the  proper  transaction  of  their 
business  as  agents  of  the  Government. 


STEEL  PLATES  FOR  HULLS  AND  HULL  CONSTRUCTION  FOR 
THE  UNITED  STATES  NAVY 

1.  General   Requirements. — The   "General   Specifications  for  the   Inspection   of 
Material,"  of  latest  issue  by  the  Navy  Department,  shall  form  a  part  of  these  speci- 
fications, and  must  be  complied  with  as  to  material,  method  of  inspection,  and  all 
other  requirements  therein. 

2.  Finish. — Plates  shall  be  flat,  free  from  all  injurious  defects,  and  shall  have  a 
workmanlike  finish. 

3.  Physical  and  Chemical  Requirements. — The  physical  and  chemical  requirements 
and  kind  of  material  for  plates  shall  be  in  accordance  with  the  table  on  opposite 
page. 

[306] 


STEEL  PLATES  FOR  HULLS  AND  HULL  CONSTRUCTION 


Grade 

Material 

Minimum 
Tensile 
Strength 

Minimum 
Elongation 

MAXIMUM 
AMOUNT  OF  — 

Cold  Bend 

P. 

s. 

Pounds 

per  Sq. 

Per 

Per 

Inch 

Cent 

Per  Ct. 

Cent 

Soft  or 
flange 

• 

f  Open-hearth 
\carbon  steel 

}  50,000 

30  1 

0.05  acid  . 
.04  basic 

}o.05 

180°  flat  on  itself. 

steel 

For   test    specimens    be- 

low f  inch  in  thickness, 

• 

180°   flat   on   itself   for 

longitudinal,    and    180° 

to  diameter  of  one  thick- 

Medium 
steel 

(  Open-hearth 
\  carbon  steel 

}  60,000 

25{ 

0.05  acid. 
.04  basic 

}  0.05 

ness  for  transverse.   For 
test    specimens    f    inch 
thickness     and     above, 

the  bends  will  be  180° 

to    a    diameter    of    one 

thickness  for  longitudi- 

nal, and  two  thicknesses 

for  transverse  specimens. 

High  ten- 
sile steel 

Open-hearth 
carbon, 

80,000 

20{ 

0.05  acid  . 
.04  basic 

}o.05 

180°  to  a  diameter  of  one 
and  one-half  thicknesses 

nickel,  or 

for     longitudinal,     and 

silicon  steel 

180°  to  a  diameter  of 

two  and  one-half  thick- 

nesses for  transverse. 

Common 

Open-hearth 

55,000 

22 

No    chei 

nical 

180°  to  a  diameter  of  one 

steel  (c) 

or     Besse- 

analysis   re- 

thickness. 

mer  steel 

quired 

4.  Test  Specimens. — (a)  ELONGATION. — For  plates  up  to  and  including  5.1  pounds 
per  square  foot,  the  elongation  shall  be  measured  on  a  length  of  2  inches;  over  5.1  pounds 
per  square  foot,  up  to  and  including  7.65  pounds,  in  4  inches;  over  7.65  pounds  per 
square  foot,  up  to  and  including  10.2  pounds,  in  6  inches;  over  10.2  pounds  per  square 
foot,  and  under  60  pounds  per  square  foot  in  8  inches.  The  test  specimens  may  be 
either  Type  II  or  Type  III. 

(b)  For  plates  60  pounds  per  square  foot  and  over  the  elongation  shall  be  measured 
in  2  inches,  using  the  standard  2-inch  turned  specimen  (Type  I),  in  which  case  the 
minimum  shall  be  27  per  cent  for  medium  steel  and  22  per  cent  for  high  tensile  steel. 

(c)  BENDING. — The  bending  test  specimens  shall  conform  to  "General  Specifica- 
tions," paragraph  21. 

(d)  PERMISSIBLE  VARIATIONS. — In  melt  and  individual  tests  of  plates  under  60 
pounds  per  square  foot  the  specimens  for  tensile  tests  shall  be  required  to  average  tho 
requirements  of  the  grade  of  steel  they  represent;  but  no  test  shall  fall  more  than  3,000 
pounds  in  tensile  strength,  or  2  units  of  per  cent  in  elongation  below  the  requirements 
for  steel  of  the  grade.     An  additional  allowance  for  transverse  specimens  shall  be  a 
deduction  of  1  unit  of  per  cent  in  elongation  for  each  increase  of  |  inch  in  thickness 
above  f  inch;  provided  that  the  minimum  elongation  for  any  such  transverse  specimen 
shall  be  20  per  cent  for  medium  steel  and  16  per  cent  for  high  tensile  steel. 

(e)  For  plates  60  pounds  per  square  foot  and  over,  a  variation  in  tensile  strength 
only,  of  3,000  pounds  below  the  requirement  for  steel  of  the  grade,  will  be  allowed. 

-       ,      [307] 


STEEL  PLATES  FOR  HULLS  AND  HULL  CONSTRUCTION 

5.  Common  Steel. — (a)  Common  steel  may  be  rolled  from  any  stock  on  hand,  and 
the  stamping  of  serial  numbers  on  separate  pieces  may  be  omitted,  provided  that  all 
other  information  required  by  these  specifications,  such  as  melt  and  charging  records, 
etc.,  be  supplied  to  the  inspector,  to  enable  him  to  select  test  specimens. 

(b)  Two  test  specimens  shall  be  taken  from  each  melt  of  finished  material — one 
for  tension  and  one  for  bending. 

(c)  Common  steel  plates  shall,  in  addition  to  other  marks  prescribed,  have  painted 
conspicuously  on  each  plate  the  letter  "C,"  not  less  than  12  inches  in  height.     All 
invoices  or  reports  of  material  shipped  shall  be  plainly  marked  "Common." 

6.  Material  Presented  for  Test. — (a)  Plates  under  60  pounds  per  square  foot  may 
be  tested  as  individual  plates  or  by  melts.     Plates  60  pounds  per  square  foot  and  over 
shall  be  tested  as  individuals.     On  individual  test  the  plate  is  accepted  or  rejected  on 
the  result  of  the  tests  representing  that  plate  only.     On  melt  test  all  the  material 
from  the  same  melt  is  accepted  or  rejected  on  the  result  of  the  tests  representing  the 
melt,  subject,  however,  to  such  special  tests  as  may  be  considered  necessary  by  the 
inspector. 

(b)  When  a  melt  is  rolled  and  presented  for  test  as  a  melt,  six  plates  shall  be  selected 
by  the  inspector  for  test,  each  plate  from  a  different  ingot,  if  practicable.     The  plates 
shall  be  so  selected  as  to  represent  the  topmost  and  bottommost  parts  of  the  ingots. 
When  the  difference  in  gauge  of  the  plates  rolled  is  such  that  six  plates  will  not  properly 
represent  the  melt,  sufficient  additional  plates  shall  be  selected  for  test  to  give  satis- 
factory information  of  the  physical  characteristics  of  all  the  gauges  rolled. 

(c)  When  a  melt  is  presented  for  test  preliminary  to  rolling,  six  plates  shall  be 
rolled  from  slabs  or  ingots  which  may  be  selected  by  the  inspector,  each  plate  being 
from  a  different  slab,  and  when  practicable  from  a  different  ingot.     The  plates  shall  be 
selected  to  represent  the  topmost  and  bottommost  parts  of  the  ingots.     Plates  rolled 
for  such  a  test  shall  not  vary  from  the  maximum  to  the  minimum  gauge — more  than 
2.7  pounds  per  square  foot  for  plates  10.2  pounds  per  square  foot  and  under;  more 
than  5  pounds  per  square  foot  for  plates  above  10.2  pounds,  including  30.6  pounds  per 
square  foot;  more  than  10  pounds  per  square  foot  for  plates  over  30.6  pounds  per  square 
foot.     Plates  subsequently  rolled  from  such  a  melt  shall  be  of  the  gauges  tested  or 
intermediate  gauges,  except  that  the  inspector  may  authorize  the  rolling  of  gauges 
not  more  than  25  per  cent  above  and  below  the  gauges  tested  in  the  case  of  plates  10.2 
pounds  per  square  foot  and  under,  and  not  more  than  5  pounds  per  square  foot  above 
and  below  in  the  case  of  plates  over  10.2  pounds  per  square  foot.     The  inspector  shall 
satisfy  himself  that  the  material  rolled  has  received  practically  the  same  treatment  as 
the  test  plates,  especially  as  to  the  amount  of  working  temperature  during  finishing, 
and  amount  of  discard  from  the  ingot. 

(d)  Plates  rolled  to  gauges  other  than  those  authorized  on  the  melt  test  will  be 
tested  as  individuals. 

7.  Number  of  Tests. — (a)  MELT  TESTS. — One  tensile  test  specimen  shall  be  located 
by  the  inspector  on  each  of  four  of  the  plates  submitted  for  test.     Two  of  the  test 
specimens  shall  be  cut  longitudinally,  that  is,  in  the  direction  of  greatest  working,  and 
two  transversely,  that  is,  in  the  direction  of  least  working.     These  four  test  specimens 
shall  be  selected  so  as  to  represent  the  upper  and  lower  and  intermediate  gauges  rolled, 
as  specified  in  paragraph  6  (c).     Two  bending  test  specimens  shall  be  located  by  the 
inspector  on  each  of  the  two  remaining  plates,  one  test  specimen  on  each  plate  being 
cut  longitudinally  and  one  transversely.     These  bending  test  specimens  shall  be  taken 
from  a  plate  representing  the  topmost  part  of  the  ingot. 

(b)  INDIVIDUAL  TESTS. — When  a  plate  under  60  pounds  per  square  foot  is  sub- 
mitted for  individual  test,  three  test  specimens  shall  be  located  by  the  inspector.     Two 
of  these  shall  be  tensile  specimens,  one  to  be  taken  longitudinally,  and  one  transversely, 
one  being  from  each  end  of  the  plate.     The  third,  a  transverse  cold  bend,  shall  be  taken 
from  the  opposite  end  from  which  the  transverse  tensile  specimen  is  taken. 

(c)  For  plates  60  pounds  per  square  foot  and  over  two  test  specimens  shall  be 
located  by  the  inspector.     One  of  these  will  be  a  tensile  specimen,  which  will  represent 
the  material  nearest  the  bottom  of  the  ingot;  the  other  will  be  a  cold-bend  specimen, 
which  will  be  taken  from  the  opposite  end  of  the  plate  from  the  tensile  specimen.     The 

[308] 


STEEL  PLATES  FOR  HULLS  AND  HULL  CONSTRUCTION 

tensile  test  specimen  shall  be  cut  longitudinally  and  the  bend  test  specimen  shall  be 
cut  transversely.  Both  specimens  shall  be  cut  from  the  ends  of  the  plate  midway 
between  the  center  and  the  outer  edge. 

,  8.  Universal  Plates. — (a)  Universal  plates  shall  be  in  accordance  with  the  fore- 
going requirements  for  steel  of  the  grade  specified  except  that  the  melt  and  individual 
tests  shall  be  as  given  in  the  following. 

(b)  MELT  TESTS. — One  tensile  test  specimen  shall  be  located  by  the  inspector 
on  each  of  four  of  the  plates  submitted  for  test.     All  of  the  test  specimens  shall  be  cut 
longitudinally,  that  is,  in  the  direction  of  greatest  working.     One  cold-bending  test 
specimen,  cut  longitudinally,  shall  be  located  by  the  inspector  on  each  of  the  two 
remaining  plates. 

If  practicable,  both  cold-bending  test  specimens  shall  be  cut  from  the  end  repre- 
senting the  top  of  the  ingot. 

(c)  INDIVIDUAL  TESTS. — When  a  plate  is  submitted  for  individual  test,  one  tensile 
and  one  cold-bending  test  specimen,  both  cut  longitudinally,  shall  be  located  by  the 
inspector.     The  tensile  test  specimen  shall  be  located  to  represent  the  material  nearest 
the  bottom  of  the  ingot,  and  the  cold-bending  test  specimen  will  be  taken  from  the 
opposite  end  of  the  plate. 

9.  Figured  Plates. — (a)  CLASS  A. — These  plates  shall  conform  in  all  respects  to  the 
requirements  of  medium  steel  as  outlined  above. 

(b)  CLASS  B. — These  plates  shall  conform  in  all  respects  to  the  requirements  of 
common  steel  as  called  for  above. 

10.  Galvanized  Plates. — (a)  PHYSICAL  AND  CHEMICAL  REQUIREMENTS. — Plates  to 
be  galvanized  shall  meet  the  requirements  for  steel  of  the  grade  specified  before  gal- 
vanizing and  shall  conform  to  the  permissible  variations  in  weight  and  gauge  before 
galvanizing. 

(b)  FREEDOM  FROM  SURFACE  DEFECTS. — Galvanized  plates  must  be  thoroughly 
and  evenly  galvanized;  of  a  bright  appearance;  free  from  pits,  blisters,  and  other  defects; 
and  must  be  commercially  flat.     No  rerolling  of  the  plates  after  leaving  the  galvanizing 
bath  will  be  permitted,  except  for  the  purpose  of  straightening.     The  coating  must 
not  break  off  when  scraped  with  a  knife  or  if  the  plate  is  bent  90°. 

(c)  SAMPLES  FROM  GALVANIZING  BATH. — The  galvanizing  material  must  show  at 
least  98  per  cent  pure  zinc,  determined  from  a  sample  taken  at  random  by  the  inspector, 
from  the  upper  half  of  the  galvanizing  bath.     The  sample  may  be  taken  at  any  time, 
provided  the  manufacturer  agrees  to  have  the  sample  represent  the  coating  for  the 
order;  otherwise,  when  the  inspector  has  been  unable  to  secure  a  sample  of  the  bath 
used  for  the  order,  the  purity  of  the  bath  may  be  established  by  a  sample  of  galvanized 
plate  taken  at  random  from  the  finished  material. 

(d)  AMOUNT  OF  COATING. — The  increase  in  weight  due  to  galvanizing  shall  not 
exceed  2f  ounces  nor  shall  it  be  less  than  2  ounces  per  square  foot  of  surface  coated. 
The  determination  of  the  amount  of  coating  per  square  foot  shall  preferably  be  made 
by  establishing  the  practice  of  the  firms,  at  convenient  intervals,  by  weighing  plates  as 
follows:  First,  weight  in  bulk  of  selected  plates  in  the  black,  after  pickling.     Second, 
weight  of  the  same  selected  plates  after  galvanizing.     If  this  course  cannot  be  pursued, 
a  selected  sample  from  the  galvanized  plates  for  the  order,  of  2  square  feet  of  surface, 
will  be  sent  to  a  Government  laboratory,  at  the  expense  of  the  contractor,  where 
determination  will  be  made  of  the  amount  of  zinc  coating  per  square  foot. 

11.  Permissible   Variations  in   Weight   and   Gauge. — The  maximum  permissible 
variations  in  weight  and  gauge,  applicable  to  single  plates,  will  be  in  accordance  with 
the  tables  on  following  page. 

12.  Character  of  Material  for   Certain  Purposes. — (a)  Narrow  plates,   or  flats, 
intended  for  seam  straps  or  similar  purposes  may  be  rolled  on  universal  or  bar  mill  and 
tested  in  accordance  with  requirements  for  universal  plates. 

(b)  The  use  of  universal  rolled  plates  will  not  be  permitted  for  butt  straps  or  for 
any  purpose  where  the  transverse  strength  of  the  material  is  of  particular  importance. 

Note  for  General  Storekeepers. — Plates  or  sheets  0.141  inch  and  under  in  thickness 
should  be  ordered  under  these  specifications  only  when  they  are  for  structural  purposes 
where  strength  and  gauge  are  important;  otherwise  such  plates  should  be  ordered  under 

[309] 


STEEL  SHAPES  FOR  HULLS  AND  HULL  CONSTRUCTION 


the  latest  issue  of  specifications  for  black  and  galvanized  sheet  steel,  No.  47S8,  of 
latest  sub-letter. 

(a)  PLATES  LESS  THAN  10  POUNDS  PER  SQUARE  FOOT 


the 


ALLOWABLE  UNDERGAUGE  AT  EDGE  (Per  Cent) 

Allow- 

able 

8 

II 

if 

2  $ 

Js 

If 

1 

• 

WEIGHT  ORDERED 
(Pounds  per  Square  Foot) 

Varia- 
tion in 

Weight 

1j 

Is 

|| 

«1 

in 

fi 

1 

o£ 

HH   jB 

H-4  g. 

«"> 

M  g> 

Mt 

(Per 
Cent) 

II 

J3 

*3 

13 

*3 

*si 

|o1 

feol 

E4HM 

1 

£ 

° 

0 

° 

° 

0 

0 

0 

Up  to  5.                           ( 

3  over. 
5  under 

}l2 

15 

18 

21 

24 

.. 

.. 

.. 

5  inclusive  to  7|  exclu- 

sive.. 

tt 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

7^  inclusive  to  10  exclu- 

sive   

K 

8 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

(b)  PLATES  10  POUNDS  PER  SQUARE  FOOT  AND  OVER 


ALLOWABLE  UNDERGAUGE  AT  EDGE  (Per  Cent) 

Allowable 

I 

|s 

If 

|s 

|s 

s« 

m 

WEIGHT  ORDERED 
(Pounds  per  Square  Foot) 

Varia- 
tion in 
Weight 
(Per  Cent) 

h 
sj 

l|e 

H  ^ 

}j| 

lls 

IJ 

ssl 

1 

§ 

|l 

fcol 

(J+il-t 

id 

n*"13 

|o| 

i 

o 

° 

0 

o 

° 

0 

10  inclusive  to  12|  exclusive  \ 

3  over... 
5  under.  . 

}10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

18 

-. 

12|  inclusive  to  15  exclusive,  j 

2  over  .  .  . 
3  under.  . 

I8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

14 

16 

15   inclusive  to  17|  exclusive  .  . 

u 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

13 

17£  inclusive  to  20  exclusive.  .  . 

tt 

5 

5 

6 

•    7 

8 

9 

10 

20    inclusive  to  25  exclusive  .  .  . 

" 

4 

5 

5 

5 

6 

7 

8 

25    inclusive  to  30  exclusive  .  .  . 

it 

3 

3 

3 

4 

5 

5 

6 

30   inclusive  to  40  exclusive.  .  . 

" 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 

5 

40    and  up  

" 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

4 

STEEL  SHAPES  FOR  HULLS  AND  HULL  CONSTRUCTION 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General  Requirements. — "General  Specifications  for  Inspection  of  Steel  and 
Iron  Material,  General  Specifications,  Appendix  I,"  issued  June,  1912,  shall  form  a 
part  of  these  specifications,  and  must  be  complied  with  in  all  respects. 

2.  Finish. — All  shapes  shall  be  true  to  section,  free  from  injurious  defects,  and  shall 
have  a  workmanlike  finish. 

3.  Physical   and   Chemical   Requirements. — (a)  All  shapes   shall  be   of  uniform 
quality.     The  physical  and  chemical  requirements  of  the  various  grades  of  material 
for  shapes  shall  be  in  accordance  with  the  following  table: 

[310] 


STEEL  SHAPES  FOR  HULLS  AND  HULL  CONSTRUCTION 


Grade 

Material 

Minimum 
Tensile 
Strength 
per 
Square 
Inch 

Minimum 
Elonga- 
tion in 
8  Inches 
(b) 

MAXIMUM  AMOUNT 

OF  — 

Cold  Bend 

P. 

S. 

Pounds 

Per  Ct. 

Per  Ct. 

Per  Ct. 

Soft    or 
flange 
steel 

f  Open  -hearth 
\      carbon 
I     steel 

1  48,000 

30 

{Acid 
0.05 
Basic 
.04 

i    0.05 

180°  flat  on  itself. 

1  For    test    pieces 

below  f  inch  in 

thickness,    180° 

flat  on  itself. 

Medium 
steel 

(  Open  -hearth 
]      carbon 
I     steel 

i  60,000 

25 

f  Acid 
1    0.05 
]   Basic 

,/\  J 

). 
0.05 

For  test  pieces  f 
.     inch  or  more  in 
thickness      the 

• 

I      .04 

bends    will    be 

180°  to  a  diam- 

eter     of      one 

thickness. 

Open  -  hearth 

i 

{Acid 

("180°  to  a  diam- 

High  ten- 
sile steel 

carbon 
nickel,     or 
silicon 

steel 

80,000 

20 

0.05 
Basic 
.04 

0.05 

I    eter  of  one  and 
|    one-half    thick- 
l   nesses. 

Common 
steel  (c) 

f  Open  -  hearth 
j      or     Besse- 
l     mer  steel 

i  56,000 

22 

(  No  chemical  an- 
\   alysis    required 

("180°  to  a  diam- 
•|    eter      of      one 
I   thickness. 

(b)  ELONGATION. — For  shapes,  the  legs  or  webs  of  which  have  a  nominal  thickness 
|  inch  or  less,  elongation  will  be  measured  in  2  inches;  over  £  inch  nominal  thickness, 
to  and  including  ^  inch,  in  4  inches;  over  &  inch  nominal  thickness,  to  and  including 
J  inch,  in  6  inches;  and  over  \  inch  nominal  thickness,  in  8  inches. 

4.  Tensile  Tests  (Except  for  Common  Steel). — Shapes  shall  be  tested  by  lots  (or 
singly) ;  a  lot  consisting  of  all  the  shapes  rolled  from  a  particular  melt  at  a  continuous 
rolling  into  sections,  the  nominal  gauges  of  the  webs  or  legs  of  which  do  not  vary  more 
than  \  inch  from  the  maximum  to  the  minimum  gauge.     Four  longitudinal  test  pieces 
shall  be  prepared  from  each  lot,  each  specimen  being  from  a  separate  shape,  and,  if 
practicable,  from  different  ingots.     All  of  these  specimens  must  meet  the  requirements 
for  the  grade  of  steel  specified.     No  lot  will  be  accepted  if  there  is  a  difference  of  more 
than  10.000  pounds  in  tensile  strength  between  any  two  of  the  four  specimens. 

5.  Bending  Tests  (Except  for  Common  Steel). — Two  cold-bend  specimens  shall  be 
taken  from  each  lot,  each  from  a  different  shape.     These  specimens  shall  meet  the 
requirements  of  the  specified  grade  of  steel  without  sign  of  fracture  on  the  outer  curve. 
If  one  of  these  specimens  fail,  each  shape  rolled  from  the  lot  must  pass  the  cold-bending 
test  before  being  cut  to  ordered  length. 

6.  Physical  Tests  for  Common  Steel. — Common  steel  may  be  rolled  from  any 
stock  on  hand,  but  all  information!  required  by  these  specifications,  such  as  melt  and 
charging  records,  etc.,  shall  be  supplied  to  the  inspector  to  enable  him  to  select  test 
specimens.     Two  specimens  shall  be  taken  from  each  melt  of  finished  material — one 
for  tension  test  and  one  for  bending  test. 

7.  Opening  and  Closing  Tests. — Opening  and  closing  tests  will  be  made  at  the 
option  of  the  inspector  on  individual  angles,  Zee  bars,  Tee  bars,  I  beams  and  channels 
which  show  evidence  of  mechanical  defects  or  overheating,  if  in  the  opinion  of  the 
inspector  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  defects  need  confirmation  by  such  tests.    The 
opening  test  shall  consist  of  opening  the  section  out  flat  while  cold  and  the  closing  test 

[311] 


BLACK  AND  GALVANIZED  SHEET  STEEL 


shall  consist  of  closing  the  section  down  flat  on  itself  while  cold.    Under  these  tests 
the  material  shall  not  crack  or  tear. 

8.  Test  of  a  Single  Shape. — In  case  of  a  single  shape  one  tensile  and  one  cold- 
bending  test  will  be  made.     These  tests  must  meet  the  requirements  for  the  grade  of 
steel  specified. 

9.  Tolerances. — Shapes  of  6  pounds  per  linear  foot  or  less  will  be  accepted  if  the 
weights  vary  3  per  cent  above  and  5  per  cent  below  the  specified  weight.     Shapes 
over  6  pounds  per  linear  foot  will  be  accepted  if  the  weights  vary  2  per  cent  above 
or  3  per  cent  below  the  specified  weights. 

10.  Marking  Common  Shapes. — Common  shapes  shall,  in  addition  to  the  other 
marks  prescribed,  have  painted  conspicuously  on  each  shape  the  word  "Common." 
All  invoices  or  "Reports  of  Material  Shipped,"  covering  this  class  of  material,  shall 
be  plainly  marked  with  the  word  "Common." 

BLACK  AND  GALVANIZED  SHEET  STEEL 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General    Instructions. — General   instructions   or   specifications   issued   by   the 
bureau  concerned  shall  form  part  of  these  specifications. 

2.  These  specifications  cover  sheets  of  0.141  inch  in  thickness  and  thinner. 

3.  General  Requirements. — Sheets  shall  be  made  of  the  very  best  soft  sheet  steel; 
to  stand  double-seam  purposes. 

4.  (a)  To  be  free  from  all  injurious  defects,  and  to  be  free  also  from  excessive  scale 
and  to  be  commercially  flat  and  reasonably  free  from  waves  and  buckles. 

(b)  To  be  of  the  finest  working  quality  and  meet  the  allowances  for  thickness  and 
weights  given  below. 

(c)  BUNDLING. — Sheets  0.063  inch  thick  or  thicker,  weighing  60  pounds  each  or 
over,  are  not  to  be  bundled.     All  other  sheets  to  be  delivered  in  commercial  bundles 
fastened  with  three  iron  or  steel  straps  not  to  exceed  1  j  inches  in  width  and  not  thicker 
than  |  inch.     When  sheets  exceed  120  inches  in  length,  an  extra  strap  may  be  required 
by  the  inspector. 

(d)  PAYMENT. — Gross  weight  will  be  paid  for. 

(e)  MARKING. — Outside  surface  of  the  top  sheet  of  each  bundle  (or  single  sheet 
when  not  bundled)  shall  be  plainly  marked  to  show  the  number  and  size  of  sheets, 
weight  per  square  foot,  and  gross  weight. 

(f)  Tolerances. — When  not  otherwise  specified,   allowance  over  the  width  and 
length  ordered  will  be  permitted,  as  shown  in  the  table  below.     Sheets  required  to  be 
closer  in  dimensions  will  be  ordered  as  "resquared." 

(g)  The  agreement  with  thickness  ordered  is  to  be  established  by  the  weight.    Each 
sheet  shall  be  of  practically  uniform  thickness. 

(h)  A  variation  in  weight  of  sheets  of  5  per  cent,  plus  or  minus,  will  be  allowed. 

5.  Regular  Sizes. — (a)  Regular  sizes  of  sheets  are  as  follows,  those  italicized  being 
most  used. 


Thickness,  in  Inches 

Width 

Length 

Maximum 
Variation 
in  Length 
(Plus) 

Maximum 
Variation 
in  Width 
(Plus) 

0  141  to  0  063,  inclusive 

Inches 
24,  26,  28, 

Inches 
72,  84,  96, 

Inch 
i 

Inch 
4 

0.  056  to  0.025,  inclusive  

30,  36,  40, 
42,  48 
24,  26,  28, 

120,  144 

72,  84,  96, 

i 

1 

0  .  022  to  0  .  016,  inclusive  

30,  86 
24,  26,  28, 

120,  144 

72,  84,  96, 

I 

J 

0  .  014  to  0  .  013,  inclusive  

30 

24,  26,  28, 

120,  144 
72,  84,  96, 

| 

1 

30 

120 

[312] 


BLACK  AND   GALVANIZED  SHEET  STEEL 
(b)  MAXIMUM  SIZES. — Maximum  sizes  of  sheets  are  as  follows: 


BLACK 

GALVANIZED,  AND  BLACK  THINNER  THAN  0.063  INCH 

Thickness 

Dimensions 

Thickness 

Dimensions 

Inch 
0  141 

Inches 
24   x   240   or 
66  x  180 
24   x   228   or 
66  x  180 
54  x  156 

54  x  156 

Inch 
0.141  to  0.038,  inclusive  

0.034  to  0.025,  inclusive  
0  022  and  0  019 

Inches 
48x144 

28  x  144  or 
48  x  120 
28  x  144  or 
44  x  120 
28  x  144  or 
42  x  120 
28  x  144  or 
36  x  120 

0.125  and  0.109... 
0.094  and  0.078... 
0.070  and  0.063... 

0  017 

0.016  to  0.013,  inclusive  

6.  Weights  for  black  and  galvanized  sheets: 

(a)  These  weights  are  the  weights  adopted  commercially  for  sheets  of  corresponding 
thicknesses  and  are  approximate  weights. 


Thick- 
ness, in 
Inches 

WEIGHT  PER  SQUARE  FOOT 

Thick- 
ness, in 
Inches 

WEIGHT  PER  SQUARE  FOOT 

Galvanized 

Black 

Galvanized 

Black 

Us. 

Ozs. 

Lbs. 

Ozs. 

Lbs. 

Ozs. 

Lbs. 

Ozs. 

0.141 

(5.781) 

92.5 

(5.625) 

90 

0.034 

(1.531) 

24.5 

(1.375) 

22 

.125 

(5.156) 

82.5 

(5.00  )  . 

80 

.031 

(1.406) 

22.5 

(1.25  ) 

20 

.109 

(4.531) 

72.5 

(4.375) 

70 

.028 

(1.281) 

20.5 

(1.125) 

18 

.094 

(3.906) 

62.5 

(3.75  ) 

60 

.025 

(1.156) 

18.5 

(1.0    ) 

16 

.078 

(3.281) 

52.5 

(3.125) 

50 

.022 

(1.031) 

16.5 

(  .875) 

14 

.070 

(2.968) 

47.5 

(2.812) 

45 

.019 

(  .906) 

14.5 

(  -75  ) 

12 

.063 

(2.656) 

42.5 

(2.50  ) 

40 

.017 

(  .843) 

13.5 

(  .687) 

11 

.056 

(2.406) 

38.5 

(2.25  ) 

36 

.016 

(  .781) 

12.5 

(  .625) 

10 

.050 

(2.156) 

34.5 

(2.00  ) 

32 

.014 

(  -718) 

11.5 

(  .562) 

9 

.044 

(1.906) 

30.5 

(1.75  ) 

28 

.013 

(  .656) 

10.5 

(  .50  ) 

8 

.038 

(1.656) 

26.5 

(1.50  ) 

24 

NOTE  FOR  GENERAL  STOREKEEPERS. — Requisitions  should  state  the  material 
desired,  black  or  galvanized,  the  width,  length,  and  weight  per  square  foot.  In  ordering 
material,  where  possible,  regular  sizes  will  be  asked  for,  and  where  special  sizes  are 
required  the  maximum  limits  will  not  be  exceeded. 

7.  Galvanized  Sheets,  Freedom  from  Defects. — Galvanized  sheets  must  be  thor- 
oughly and  evenly  galvanized,  of  a  bright  appearance,  devoid  of  blisters,  ragged  edges 
or  other  defects,  reasonably  free  from  buckles,  and  commercially  flat.  The  zinc  coating 
must  not  flake  or  peel  off  when  scraped  with  a  knife  or  when  the  sheet  is  bent  sharply 
at  right  angles. 


[313] 


CORRUGATED  GALVANIZED  SHEET  STEEL 


8.  Thickness.- 


Thickness,  in  Inches 

Maximum 
Sizes 

Minimum 
Zinc  Coating 
per  Square 
Foot  for 
Galvanized 
Plates 

0  141  to  0.  038,  inclusive  

Inches 
48  x  144 

Ounces 
1  65 

0.  034  to  0  .  025,  inclusive  

/28xl44\ 

1ff\ 

0  022  and  0.019  

\48x  120  / 
/  28  x  144  \ 

.ou 

1Af\ 

0  017   

1  44  x  120  / 

/  28  x  144  \ 

.4U 

IOC 

0  016  to  0  013,  inclusive   .    .    . 

\42xl20J 
/  36  x  120  \ 

.OO 
Ioe 

\28xl44J 

.OO 

9.  Samples  from  Galvanizing  Bath. — No  rerolling  of  sheets  after  leaving  the  gal- 
vanizing bath  will  be  permitted,  except  for  the  purpose  of  straightening.    The  galvanizing 
material  must  show  98  per  cent  pure  zinc,  determined  from  a  sample  taken  at  random 
by  a  Government  inspector  from  the  upper  half  of  the  galvanizing  bath.     These  samples 
may  be  taken  at  any  time,  provided  the  manufacturer  agrees  to  have  the  sample  repre- 
sent the  galvanizing  for  the  order;  otherwise,  when  the  inspector  has  been  unable  to 
secure  a  sample  of  the  bath  used  for  the  order,  the  purity  of  the  bath  may  be  established 
by  a  Government  laboratory  from  a  sample  of  galvanized  sheet  taken  at  random  from 
the  order. 

10.  Determination  of  Amount  of  Zinc  Coating. — The  determination  of  the  amount 
of  coating  per  square  foot  to  be  obtained  by  establishing  the  practice  of  the  firm  at 
convenient  intervals,  by  weighing  plates,  as  follows:  First,  weight  in  bulk  of  selected 
plates  in  the  black,  after  pickling.     Secondly,  weight  of  the  same  selected  plates  after 
galvanizing.     If  this  course  cannot  be  pursued,  the  following  method  may  be  used :  A 
selected  sample  from  a  galvanized  sheet  for  the  order,  of  two  square  feet  of  surface,  will 
be  sent  to  a  Government  laboratory  at  the  expense  of  the  manufacturer,  where  determi- 
nation will  be  made  of  the  amount  of  zinc  coating  per  square  foot. 


CORRUGATED  GALVANIZED  SHEET  STEEL 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General   Instructions. — General   instructions   or   specifications   issued   by   the 
bureau  concerned  shall  form  part  of  these  specifications. 

2.  General  Quality. — Corrugated  sheet  steel  to  be  of  a  good  grade  of  steel.    Sheets 
to  be  thoroughly  and  uniformly  galvanized  and  of  a  bright  appearance;  to  be  free  from 
ragged  edges,  deep  pits,  or  other  defects.     Gross  weight,  including  steel  straps  for 
bundling,  will  be  paid  for.     Weight  of  flat  plates  after  galvanizing  to  conform  to  table 
following,  with  a  tolerance  of  5  per  cent  either  way,  provided  the  weight  of  coating 
is  not  reduced. 

3.  Types  of  Corrugation. — Corrugations  will  be  of  three  types,  A,  B,  or  C,  as  re- 
quired, in  accordance  with  sketch  incorporated  in  and  forming  a  part  of  these  specifica- 
tions.    Corrugations  shall  be  approximately  parallel  to  each  other  and  to  edges  of 
sheet,  and  ends  of  sheet  shall  be  approximately  square.    Requisitions  must  state  type 
of  corrugation  required. 

(a)  For  type  A,  width  of  sheet  shall  be  sufficient  to  allow  9  full  corrugations, 
covering  width  of  24  inches,  finishing  both  edges  down,  as  shown  on  sketch. 

(b)  For  type  B,  width  of  sheets  shall  be  sufficient  to  allow  9|  corrugations,  covering 
width  of  24  inches,  finished  one  edge  up  and  one  edge  down,  as  shown  on  sketch. 

[314] 


CORRUGATED  GALVANIZED  SHEET  STEEL 


(c)  For  types  A  and  B,  depth  of  corrugations  to  be  from  \  to  f  inch,  inclusive, 
pitch  center  to  center  of  corrugations  being  between  2£  and  2H  inches. 

(d)  For  type  C,  the  width  stated  should  be  in  multiples  of  8  inches,  measured  between 


TYPE- A 

9  CORRUGATIONS  ,    COVERING  WIDTH  ABOUT  24 


]"    SHEET  WIDTH-  ABOUT  Z6'   (lO CORRUGATIONS  LESS  ABTif  ON  EACH  EDGE) 

4 


TYPE-B 

9  CORRUGATIONS  ,  COVERING    WIDTH  ABOUT    24! 


SHEET  WIDTH  ABOUT  Z7%    (\Ok  CORRUGATIONS  LESS  ABT.  a-"oN  EACH  EDGC) 


the  centers  of  the  outside  corrugations.    This  type  is  to  be  used  only  where  absolutely 
necessary. 

4.  Sizes  and  Variations  Allowed. — All  sheets  to  be  cut  full  to  length  specified  and 
not  to  exceed  this  length  by  more  than  f  inch. 

5.  Data  for  Preparing  Requisition. — Sheets  should  be  specified  by  type,  length,  and 
weight  per  square  foot  of  flat  galvanized  plate,  as  given  in  the  second  column  of  the 
following  table. 

Standard  lengths  are  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  and  10  feet.     Maximum  length  12  feet. 

The  third  column  of  the  following  table  gives  approximate  weights  per  square  foot 
of  corrugated  galvanized  sheets,  types  A  and  B  corresponding  to  the  weights  of  flat 
sheets  noted: 


United 
States 
Gauge 
No? 

WEIGHT  PER  SQUARE 
FOOT,  POUNDS 

Minimum 
Zinc  Coating 
per  Square 
Foot, 
Ounces 

United 
States 
Gauge 
No? 

WEIGHT  PER  SQUARE 
FOOT,  POUNDS 

Minimum 
Zinc  Coating 
per  Square 
Foot, 
Ounces 

Flat, 
Galvanized 

Corrugated, 
Galvanized 

Flat, 
Galvanized 

Corrugated, 
Galvanized 

12 

4.531 

4.88 

1.65 

23 

1.281 

1.38 

1.50 

14 

3.281 

3.54 

1.65 

24 

1.156 

1.24 

1.50 

16 

2.656 

2.86 

1.65 

25 

1.031 

1.11 

1.40 

18 

2.156 

2.32 

1.65 

26 

.906 

.98 

1.40 

20 

1.656 

1.78 

1.65 

27 

.844 

.91 

1.35 

21 

1.531 

1.65 

1.50 

28 

.781 

.85 

1.35 

22 

1.406 

1.51 

1.50 

•• 

..... 

6.  Samples  from  Galvanizing  Bath. — The  galvanizing  material  must  show  98  per 
cent  pure  zinc,  determined  from  a  sample  taken  at  random  by  a  Government  inspector 
from  the  upper  half  of  the  galvanizing  bath.  These  samples  may  be  taken  at  any 
time,  provided  the  manufacturer  agrees  to  have  the  sample  represent  the  galvanizing 
for  the  order;  otherwise,  when  the  inspector  has  been  unable  to  secure  a  sample  of  the 

[315] 


FLOOR  PLATES 

bath  used  for  the  order,  the  purity  of  the  bath  may  be  established  by  a  Government 
laboratory  from  a  sample  of  galvanized  sheet  taken  at  random  from  the  order. 

7.  Determination  of  the  Amount  of  Zinc  Coating.— The  determination  of  the  amount 
of  coating  per  square  foot  to  be  obtained  by  establishing  the  practice  of  the  firm  at 
convenient  intervals,  by  weighing  plates,  as  follows:  First,  weight  in  bulk  of  selected 
plates  in  the  black,  after  pickling.  Secondly,  weight  of  the  same  selected  plates  after 
galvanizing.  If  this  course  cannot  be  pursued  the  following  method  may  be  used: 
A  selected  sample  from  a  galvanized  sheet  for  the  order,  or  2  square  feet  of  surface, 
will  be  sent  to  a  Government  laboratory  at  the  expense  of  the  manufacturer,  where 
determination  will  be  made  of  the  amount  of  zinc  coating  per  square  foot. 

FLOOR  PLATES 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  Floor  plates  to  be  made  from  steel  plates  of  domestic  manufacture.     They  will 
be  free  from  surface  defects  and  conform  to  dimensions  ordered.     Unless  ordered 
with  planed  edges,  plates  will  be  shop  sheared,  and  a  variation  of  |  inch  in  dimensions 
will  be  allowed. 

2.  They  will  be  of  ribbed  pattern. 


3.  Ribs  will  be  symmetrical,  well  denned,  approximately  flat  tops,  and  the  axes  of 
patterns  shall  be  parallel  with  longest  dimensions.     The  ribs  shall  cover  approximately 
half  the  surface. 

4.  The  under  side  of  the  plates  shall  be  flat  and  reasonably  free  from  marks  of  rolls. 


TABLE  V 


Thickness 
at  Bottom 
of  Pattern: 
Minimum 

Height  of 
Rib 

Weight: 
Maximum 
per  Square 
Foot 

Thickness 
at  Bottom 
of  Pattern: 
Minimum 

Height  of 
Rib 

Weight: 
Maximum 
per  Square 
Foot 

Inch 

Inch 

Pounds 

Inch 

Inch 

Pounds 

\ 

A 

9 

t 

& 

i7i 

i 

4 

A 

i 

is' 

i 

A 

22f 

6.  Plates  exceeding  weight  in  table  by  not  more  than  5  per  cent  may  be  accepted, 
but  excess  weight  will  not  be  paid  for.     A  minus  variation  in  height  of  rib  will  be  allowed 
as  follows: 

Plates  up  to  36  inches  wide 0.01  inch. 

Plates  36  inches  wide  and  over 0.03  inch. 

No  upper  limit  is  placed  on  the  height. 

7.  Inspection  will  be  made  at  place  of  manufacture. 

[316] 


TERNEPLATE  ROOFING  TIN 


TERNEPLATE  ROOFING   TIN 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

All  roofing  tin  to  be  made  of  best  quality  soft  open-hearth  steel  as  a  basis,  plates 
resquared,  112  sheets  to  the  box,  unless  otherwise  specified. 


1C  14  by 
20  Inches 

1C  28  by 
20  Inches 

IX  14  by 
20  Inches 

IX  28  by 
20  Inches 

Black.  plate  from  which  made  to  weigh 
per  1  12  sheets  net  in  the  black  

Pounds 
100  to  107 

Pounds 
200  to  2  14 

Pounds 
125  to  135 

Pounds 
250  to  270 

Tin  when  finished  to  weigh  per  112 
sheets  net 

120  to  127 

240  to  254 

145  to  155 

290  to  3  10 

1.  Coating  on  all  roofing  tin  to  be  a  mixture  of  pure  new  tin  and  pure  new  lead 
thoroughly  mixed,  and  having  a  proportion  of  not  less  than  20  per  cent  of  tin  and  the 
remainder  lead;  coating  to  be  thoroughly  amalgamated  with  the  black  plate  by  the 
palm-oil  process. 

2.  This  coating  must  be  applied  so  that  the  sheets  be  evenly  and  equally  coated 
on  both  sides  and  the  coating  distributed  equally  over  each  sheet. 

3.  After  the  plate  has  been  cleansed  in  a  weak  acid  solution  it  is  to  be  thoroughly 
washed  with  water,  after  which  nothing  is  to  be  brought  in  contact  with  the  black 
plate  but  pure  palm  oil,  pure  new  tin,  and  pure  new  lead. 

4.  Every  sheet  so  coated  must  be  free  from  all  defects,  blisters,  bad  edges  and 
corners,  and  bare  or  imperfectly  coated  spots. 

Each  sheet  to  be  stamped  with  the  brand,  thickness  of  the  plate,  and  name  of  the 
manufacturer. 

5.  The  weight  of  coating  in  pounds  per  112  sheets  of  20  inches  by  28  inches  net 
shall  not  be  less  than  40  pounds. 

6.  Terneplate   (Roofing  Tin)   with  Charcoal-Iron  Base. — In  case  a  plate  with  a 
charcoal-iron  base  is  specified,  the  foregoing  specifications  shall  apply  as  regards  weights 
of  coatings  and  the  process  of  manufacture. 

The  base  or  black  plate  shall  be  rolled  and  made  from  absolutely  genuine  charcoal 
iron,  and  no  steel  in  the  form  of  scrap  or  otherwise,  or  any  other  foreign  matter,  shall 
enter  into  the  manufacture  of  the  base  or  black  plate. 

7.  An  affidavit  to  the  above  must  be  furnished  by  the  contractor,  which  affidavit 
must  accompany  the  delivery  of  the  roofing  tin. 

8.  Tinned  Plate  (Bright  Tin).— All  tin  to  be  made  of  best  quality  soft  open-hearth 
steel  as  a  basis,  112  sheets  to  the  box,  unless  otherwise  specified. 


1C  14  by 
20  Inches 

IX  14  by 
20  Inches 

IXX  14  by 
20  Inches 

IXXXX 
14  by  20 
Inches 

Black  plate  from  which  made  to  weigh 
per  112  sheets  net  in  the  black  

Pounds 
102  to  107 

Pounds 
129  to  135 

Pounds 
148  to  156 

Pounds 
187  to  197 

Tin  when  finished  to  weigh  per  112 
sheets  net  

107  to  112 

134  to  140 

153  to  161 

192  to  202 

9.  The  coating  shall  weigh  not  less  than  5  pounds  per  1 12  sheets  of  14  by  20  inch  size. 

10.  The  tin  is  to  be  of  the  best  quality  of  commercially  pure  pig  tin.     If  other  size 
sheets  are  required  the  same  proportions  of  black  plate  and  tin  should  be  observed. 

11.  The  coating  is  to  be  thoroughly  amalgamated  with  the  black  plate.    This 
coating  must  be  applied  so  that  the  sheets  be  evenly  and  equally  coated  on  both  sides 
and  the  coating  distributed  equally  over  each  sheet.     Every  sheet  so  coated  must  be 
free  from  all  defects,  blisters,  bad  edges,  and  corners,  and  bare  or  imperfectly  coated 
spots. 

[317]' 


WEIGHT  OF  RECTANGULAR  STEEL  PLATES 


WEIGHT  OF  RECTANGULAR  STEEL  PLATES  PER  LINEAL  FOOT 
Reduction  factor:  1  cubic  inch  of  steel  =  0.283333  pound 


WIDTH,  IN  INCHES 

Thick- 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

ness, 

in 
Six- 

AREA, IN  SQUARE  FEET 

teenths 

of  an 

Inch 

1.000 

1.083 

1.167 

1.250 

1.333 

1.417 

1.500 

1.583 

WEIGHT,  IN  POUNDS 

& 

2.55 

2.76 

2.98 

3.19 

3.40 

3.61 

3.83 

4.04 

1 

5.10 

5.53 

5.95 

6.38 

6.80 

7.23 

7.65 

8.08 

& 

7.65 

8.29 

8.93 

9.56 

10.20 

10.84 

11.48 

12.11 

I 

4 

10.20 

11.05 

11.90 

12.75 

13.60 

14.45 

15.30 

16.15 

& 

12.75 

13.81 

14.88 

15.94 

17.00 

18.06 

19.13 

20.19 

! 

15.30 

16.58 

17.85 

19.13 

20.40 

21.68 

22.95 

24.23 

A 

17.85 

19.34 

20.83 

22.31 

23.80 

25.29 

26.78 

28.26 

k 

20.40 

22.10 

23.80 

25.50 

27.20 

28.90 

30.60 

32.30 

& 

22.95 

24.86 

26.78 

28.69 

30.60 

32.51 

34.43 

36.34 

1 

25.50 

27.63 

29.75 

31.88 

34.00 

36.13 

38.25 

40.38 

tt 

28.05 

30.39 

32.73 

35.06 

37.40 

39.74 

42.08 

44.41 

I 

30.60 

33.15 

35.70 

38.25 

40.80 

43.35 

45.90 

48.45 

tt 

33.15 

35.91 

38.86 

41.44 

44.20 

46.96 

49.73 

52.49 

1 

35.70 

38.68 

41.65 

44.63 

47.60 

50.58 

53.55 

56.53 

H 

38.25 

41.44 

44.63 

47.81 

51.00 

54.19 

57.38 

60.56 

i 

40.80 

44.20 

47.60 

51.00 

54.40 

57.80 

61.20 

64.60 

I* 

43.35 

46.96 

50.58 

54.19 

57.80 

61.41 

65.03 

68.64 

li 

45.90 

49.73 

53.55 

57.38 

61.20 

65.03 

68.85 

72.68 

l* 

48.45 

52.49 

56.53 

60.56 

64.60 

68.64 

72.68 

76.71 

ii 

51.00 

55.25 

59.50 

63.75 

68.00 

72.25 

76.50 

80.75 

i& 

53.55 

58.01 

62.48 

66.94 

71.40 

75.86 

80.33 

84.79 

if 

56.10 

60.78 

65.45 

70.13 

74.80 

79.48 

84.15 

88.83 

1* 

58.65 

63.54 

68.43 

73.31 

78.20 

83.09 

87.98 

92.86 

li 

61.20 

66.30 

71.40 

76.50 

81.60 

86.70 

91.80 

96.90 

i& 

63.75 

69.06 

74.38 

79.69 

85.00 

90.31 

95.63 

100.94 

11 

66.30 

71.83 

77.35 

82.88 

88.40 

93.93 

99.45 

104.98 

itt 

68.85 

74.59 

80.33 

86.06 

91.80 

97.54 

103.28 

109.01 

H 

71.40 

77.35 

83.30 

89.25 

95.20 

101.15 

107.10 

113.05 

Ill 

73.95 

80.11 

86.28 

92.44 

98.60 

104.76 

110.93 

117.09 

if 

76.50 

82.88 

89.25 

95.63 

102.00 

108.38 

114.75 

121.13 

itt 

79.05 

85.64 

92.23 

98.81 

105.40 

111.99 

118.58 

125.16 

2 

81.60 

88.40 

95.20 

102.00 

108.80 

115.60 

122.40 

129.20 

[318] 


WEIGHT  OF  RECTANGULAR  STEEL  PLATES 


WEIGHT  OP  RECTANGULAR  STEEL  PLATES  PER  LINEAL  FOOT — (Cont.) 


WIDTH,  IN  INCHES 

Thick- 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

ness, 

m 

Six- 

AREA, IN  SQUARE  FEET 

teenths 

of  an 

Inch 

1.667 

1.750 

1.833 

1.917 

2.000 

2.083 

2.167 

2.250 

WEIGHT,  IN  POUNDS 

& 

4.25 

4.46 

4.58 

4.89 

5.10 

5.31 

5.53 

5.74 

i 

8.50 

8.93 

9.35 

9.78 

10.20 

10.63 

11.05 

11.48 

A 

12.75 

13.39 

14.03 

14.66 

15.30 

15.94 

16.58 

17.21 

\ 

17.00 

17.85 

18.70 

19.55 

20.40 

21.25 

22.10 

22.95 

A 

21.25 

22.31 

23.38 

24.44 

25.50 

26.56 

27.63 

28.69 

i 

25.50 

26.78 

28.05 

29.33 

30.60 

31.88 

33.15 

34.43 

A 

29.75 

31.24 

32.73 

34.21 

35.70 

37.19 

38.68 

40.16 

\ 

34.00 

35.70 

37.40 

39.10 

40.80 

42.50 

44.20 

45.90 

A 

38.25 

40.16 

42.08 

43.99 

45.90 

47.81 

49.73 

51.64 

I 

42.50 

44.63 

46.75 

48.88 

51.00 

53.13 

55.25 

57.38 

tt 

46.75 

49.09 

51.43 

53.76 

56.10 

58.44 

60.78 

63.11 

1 

51.00 

53.55 

56.10 

58.65 

61.20 

63.75 

66.30 

68.85 

H 

55.25 

58.01 

60.78 

63.54 

66.30 

69.06 

71.83 

74.59 

1 

59.50 

62.48 

65.45 

68.43 

71.40 

74.38 

77.35 

80.33 

II 

63.75 

66.94 

70.13 

73.31 

76.50 

79.69 

82.88 

86.06 

i 

68.00 

71.40 

74.80 

78.20 

81.60 

85.00 

88.40 

91.80 

l* 

72.25 

75.86 

79.48 

83.09 

86.70 

90.31 

93.93 

97.54 

i| 

76.50 

80.33 

84.15 

87.98 

91.80 

95.63 

99.45 

103.28 

1A 

80.75 

84.79 

88.83 

92.86 

96.90 

100.94 

104.98 

109.01 

i| 

85.00 

89.25 

93.50 

97.75 

102.00 

106.25 

110.50 

114.75 

1A 

89.25 

93.71 

98.18 

102.64 

107.10 

111.56 

116.03 

120.49 

H 

93.50 

98.18 

102.85 

107.53 

112.20 

116.88 

121.55 

126.23 

1A 

97.75 

102.64 

107.53 

112.41 

117.30 

122.19 

127.08 

131.96 

U 

102.00 

107.10 

112.20 

117.30 

122.40 

127.50 

132.60 

137.70 

1A 

106.25 

111.56 

116.88 

122.19 

127.50 

132.81 

138.13 

143.44 

H 

110.50 

116.03 

121.55 

127.08 

132.60 

138.13 

143.65 

149.18 

iH 

114.75 

120.49 

126.23 

131.96 

137.70 

143.44 

149.18 

154.91 

if 

119.00 

124.95 

130.90 

136.85 

142.80 

148.75 

154.70 

160.65 

iH 

123.25 

129.41 

135.58 

141.74 

147.90 

154.06 

160.23 

166.39 

if 

127.50 

133.88 

140.25 

146.63 

153.00 

159.38 

165.75 

172.13 

itt 

131.75 

138.34 

144.93 

151.51 

158.10 

164.69 

171.28 

177.86 

2 

136.00 

142.80 

149.60 

156.40 

163.20 

170.00 

176.80 

183.60 

[319] 


WEIGHT  OF  RECTANGULAR  STEEL  PLATES 


WEIGHT  OP  RECTANGULAR  STEEL  PLATES  PER  LINEAL  FOOT — (Cont.) 


WIDTH,  IN  INCHES 

Thick- 
ness, 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

in 

Six- 

AREA, IN  SQUARE  FEET 

teenths 

of  an 

Inch 

2.333 

2  An 

2.500 

2.583 

2.667 

2.750 

2.833 

2.917 

WEIGHT,  IN  POUNDS 

A 

5.95 

6.16 

6.38 

6.59 

6.80 

7.01 

7.23 

7.44 

I 

11.90 

12.33 

12.75 

13.18 

13.60 

14.03 

14.45 

14.88 

A 

17.85 

18.49 

19.13 

19.76 

20.40 

21.04 

21.68 

22.31 

£ 

23.80 

24.65 

25.50 

26.35 

27.20 

28.05 

28.90 

29.75 

A 

29.75 

30.81 

31.88 

32.94 

34.00 

35.06 

36.13 

37.19 

1 

35.70 

36.98 

38.25 

39.53 

40.80 

42.08 

43.35 

44.63 

A 

41.65 

43.14 

44.63 

46.11 

47.60 

49.09 

50.58 

52.06 

i 

47.60 

49.30 

51.00 

52.70 

54.40 

56.10 

57.80 

59.50 

A 

53.55 

55.46 

57.38 

59.29 

61.20 

63.11 

65.03 

66.94 

I 

59.50 

61.63 

63.75 

65.88 

68.00 

70.13 

72.25 

74.38 

tt 

65.45 

67.79 

70.13 

72.46 

74.80 

77.14 

79.48 

81.81 

1 

71.40 

73.95 

76.50 

79.05 

81.60 

84.15 

86.70 

89.25 

H 

77.35 

80.11 

82.88 

85.64 

88.40 

91.16 

93.93 

96.69 

i 

83.30 

86.28 

89.25 

92.23 

95.20 

98.18 

101.15 

104.13 

89.25 

92.44 

95.63 

98.81 

102.00 

105.19 

108.38 

111.56 

i 

95.20 

98.60 

102.00 

105.40 

108.80 

112.20 

115.60 

119.00 

1A 

101  .  15 

104.76 

108.38 

111.99 

115.60 

119.21 

122.83 

126.44 

H 

107.10 

110.93 

114.75 

118.58 

122.40 

126.23 

130.05 

133.88 

1A 

113.05 

117.09 

121.13 

125.16 

129.20 

133.24 

137.28 

141.31 

If 

119.00 

123.25 

127.50 

131.75 

136.00 

140.25 

144.50 

148.75 

1A 

124.95 

129.41 

133.88 

138.34 

142.80 

147.26 

151.73 

156.19 

U 

130.90 

135.58 

140.25 

144.93 

149.60 

154.28 

158.95 

163.63 

ITS 

136.85 

141.74 

146.63 

151.51 

156.40 

161.29 

166.18 

171.06 

If 

142.80 

147.90 

153.00 

158.10 

163.20 

168.30 

173.40 

178.50 

1A 

148.75 

154.06 

159.38 

164.69 

170.00 

175.31 

180.63 

185.94 

U 

154.70 

160.23 

165.75 

171.28 

176.80 

182.33 

187.85 

193.38 

til 

160.65 

166.39 

172.13 

177.86 

183.60 

189.34 

195.08 

200.81 

l| 

166.60 

172.55 

178.50 

184.45 

190.40 

196.35 

202.30 

208.25 

if! 

172.55 

178.71 

184.88 

191.04 

197.20 

203.36 

209.53 

215.69 

if 

178.50 

184.88 

191.25 

197.63 

204.00 

210.38 

216.75 

223.13 

iff 

184.45 

191.04 

197.63 

204.21 

210.80 

217.39 

223.98 

230.56 

2 

190.40 

197.20 

204.00 

210.80 

217.60 

224.40 

231.20 

238.00 

[320] 


WEIGHT  OF  RECTANGULAR  STEEL  PLATES 


WEIGHT  OP  RECTANGULAR  STEEL  PLATES  PER  LINEAL  FOOT — (Cont.) 


WIDTH,  IN  INCHES 

Thick- 
ness, 

36 

37 

38 

39 

40 

41 

42 

43 

in 
Six- 

AREA, IN  SQUARE  FEET 

teenths 

of  an 

Inch 

3.000 

3.083 

3.167 

3.250 

3.333 

3.417 

3.500 

3.583 

WEIGHT,  IN  POUNDS 

A 

7.65 

7.86 

8.08 

8.29 

8.50 

8.71 

8.93 

9.14 

i 

15.30 

15.73 

16.15 

16.58 

17.00 

17.43 

17.85 

18.28 

A 

22.95 

23.59 

24.23 

24.86 

25.50 

26.14 

26.78 

27.41 

i 

30.60 

31.45 

32.30 

33.15 

34.00 

34.85 

35.70 

36.55 

38.25 

39.31 

40.38 

41.44 

42.50 

43.56 

44.63 

45.69 

I 

45.90 

47.18 

48.45 

49.73 

51.00 

52.28 

53.55 

54.83 

ft 

53.55 

55.04 

56.33 

58.01 

59.50 

60.99 

62.48 

63.96 

^ 

61.20 

62.90 

64.60 

66.30 

68.00 

69.70 

71.40 

73.10 

A 

68.85 

70.76 

72.68 

74.59 

76.50 

78.41 

80.33 

82.24 

t 

76.50 

78.63 

80.75 

82.88 

85.00 

87.13 

89.25 

91.38 

tt 

84.15 

86.49 

88.83 

91.16 

93.50 

95.84 

98.18 

100.51 

i 

91.80 

94.35 

96.90 

99.45 

102.00 

104.55 

107.10 

109.65 

u 

99.45 

102.21 

104.98 

107.74 

110.50 

113.26 

116.03 

118.79 

i 

107  .  10 

110.08 

113.05 

116.03 

119.00 

121.98 

124.95 

127.93 

H 

114.75 

117.94 

121.13 

124.31 

127.50 

130.69 

133.88 

137.06 

i 

122.40 

125.80 

129.20 

132.60 

136.00 

139.40 

142.80 

146.20 

IT¥ 

130.05 

133.66 

137.28 

140.89 

144.50 

148.11 

151.73 

155.34 

U 

137.70 

141.53 

145.35 

149.18 

153.00 

156.83 

160.65 

164.48 

I* 

145.35 

149.39 

153.43 

157.46 

161.50 

165.54 

169.58 

173.61 

If 

153.00 

157.25 

161.50 

165.75 

170.00 

174.25 

178.50 

182.75 

1A 

160.65 

165.11 

169.58 

174.04 

178.50 

182.96 

187.43 

191.89 

if 

168.30 

172.98 

177.65 

182.33 

187.00 

191.68 

196.35 

201.03 

175.95 

180.84 

185.73 

190.61 

195.50 

200.39 

205.28 

210.16 

H* 

183.60 

188.70 

193.80 

198.90 

204.00 

209.10 

214.20 

219.30 

iA 

191.25 

196.56 

201.88 

207.19 

212.50 

217.81 

223.13 

228.44 

H 

198.90 

204.43 

209.95 

215.48 

221.00 

226.53 

232.05 

237.58 

1H 

206.55 

212.29 

218.03 

223.76 

229.50 

235.24 

240.98 

246.71 

U 

214.20 

220.15 

226.10 

232.05 

238.00 

243.95 

249.90 

255.85 

IT! 

221.85 

228.01 

234.18 

240.34 

246.50 

252.66 

258.83 

264.99 

If 

229.50 

235.88 

242.25 

248.63 

255.00 

261.38 

267.75 

274.13 

1±£ 

237.15 

243.74 

250.33 

256.91 

263.50 

270.09 

276.68 

283.26 

2 

244.80 

251.60 

258.40 

265.20 

272.00 

278.80 

285.60 

292.40 

[321 


WEIGHT  OF  RECTANGULAR  STEEL  PLATES 


WEIGHT  OF  RECTANGULAR  STEEL  PLATES  PER  LINEAL  FOOT — (Cont.) 


WIDTH,  IN  INCHES 

Thick- 
ness, 

44 

45 

46 

47 

48 

49 

50 

51 

in 

Six- 

AREA, IN  SQUARE  FEET 

teenths 

of  an 

Inch 

3.667 

3.750 

3.833 

3.917 

4.000 

4.083 

4.167 

4.250 

WEIGHT,  IN  POUNDS 

A 

9.35 

9.56 

9.78 

9.99 

10.20 

10.41 

10.63 

10.84 

i 

18.70 

19.13 

19.55 

19.98 

20.40 

20.83 

21.25 

21.68 

A 

28.05 

28.69 

29.33 

29.96 

30.60 

31.24 

31.88 

32.51 

i 

37.40 

38.25 

39.10 

39.95 

40.80 

41.65 

42.50 

43.35 

A 

46.75 

47.81 

48.88 

49.94 

51.00 

52.06 

53.13 

54.19 

I 

56.10 

57.38 

58.65 

59.93 

61.20 

62.48 

73.75 

65.03 

A 

65.45 

66.94 

68.43 

69.91 

71.40 

72.89 

74.38 

75.86 

i 

74.80 

76.50 

78.20 

79.90 

81.60 

83.30 

85.00 

86.70 

A 

84.15 

86.06 

87.98 

89.89 

91.80 

93.71 

95.63 

97.54 

f 

93.50 

95.63 

97.75 

99.88 

102.00 

104.13 

106.25 

108.38 

H 

102.85 

105.19 

107.53 

109.86 

112.20 

114.54 

116.88 

119.21 

i 

4 

112.20 

114.75 

117.30 

119.85 

122.40 

124.95 

127.50 

130.05 

H 

121.55 

124.31 

127.08 

129.84 

132.60 

135.36 

138.13 

140.89 

1 

130.90 

133.88 

136.85 

139.83 

142.80 

145.78 

148.75 

151.73 

H 

140.25 

143.44 

146.63 

149.81 

153.00 

156.19 

159.38 

162.56 

i 

149.60 

153.00 

156.40 

159.80 

163.20 

166.60 

170.00 

173.40 

1A 

158.95 

162.56 

166.18 

169.79 

173.40 

177.01 

180.63 

184.24 

if 

168.30 

172.13 

175.95 

179.78 

183.60 

187.43 

191.25 

195.08 

iA 

177.65 

181.69 

185.72 

189.76 

193.80 

197.84 

201.88 

205.91 

U 

187.00 

191.25 

195.50 

199.75 

204.00 

208.25 

212.50 

216.75 

1A 

196.35 

200.81 

205.28 

209.74 

214.20 

218.66 

223.13 

227.59 

if 

205.70 

210.38 

215.05 

219.73 

224  .40 

229.08 

233.75 

238.43 

1A 

215.05 

219.94 

224.83 

229.71 

234.60 

239.49 

244.38 

249.26 

H 

224.40 

229.50 

234.60 

239.70 

244.80 

249.90 

255.00 

260.10 

1* 

233.75 

239.06 

244.38 

249.69 

255.00 

260.31 

265.63 

270.94 

H 

243.10 

248.63 

254.15 

259.68 

265.20 

270.73 

276.25 

281.78 

itt 

252.45 

258.19 

263.93 

269.66 

275.40 

281.14 

286.88 

292.61 

U 

261.80 

267.75 

273.70 

279.65 

285.60 

291.55 

297.50 

303.45 

1H 

271.15 

277.31 

283.48 

289.64 

295.80 

301.96 

308.13 

314.29 

if 

280.50 

286.88 

293.25 

299.63 

306.00 

312.38 

318.75 

325.13 

1H 

289.85 

296.44 

303.03 

309.61 

316.20 

322.79 

329.38 

335.96 

2 

299.20 

306.00 

312.80 

319.60 

326.40 

333.20 

340.00 

346.80 

[322]" 


WEIGHT  OF  RECTANGULAR  STEEL  PLATES 


WEIGHT  OP  RECTANGULAR  STEEL  PLATES  PER  LINEAL  FOOT — (Cont.) 


WIDTH,  IN  INCHES 

Thick- 

52 

53 

54 

55 

56 

57 

58 

59 

ness, 

in 
Six- 

AREA, IN  SQUARE  FEET 

teenths 

of  an 
Inch 

4.333 

4.417 

4.500 

4.583 

4.667 

4.750 

4.833 

4.917 

WEIGHT,  IN  POUNDS 

A 

11.05 

11.26 

11.48 

11.69 

11.90 

12.11 

12.33 

12.54 

22.10 

22.53 

22.95 

23.38 

23.80 

24.23 

24.65 

25.08 

A 

33.15 

33.79 

34.43 

35.06 

35.70 

36.34 

36.98 

37.61 

i 

44.20 

45.05 

45.90 

46.75 

47.60 

48.45 

49.30 

50.15 

A 

55.25 

56.31 

57.38 

58.44 

^59.50 

60.56 

61.63 

62.69 

I 

66.30 

77.58 

68.85 

70.13 

71.40 

72.68 

73.95 

75.23 

77.35 

78.84 

80.33 

81.81 

83.30 

84.79 

86.28 

87.76 

f 

88.40 

90.10 

91.80 

93.50 

95.20 

96.90 

98.60 

100.30 

A 

99.45 

101.36 

103.28 

105.19 

107.10 

109.01 

110.93 

112.84 

f 

110.50 

112.63 

114.75 

116.88 

119.00 

121.13 

123.25 

125.38 

ft 

121.55 

123.89 

126.23 

128.56 

130.90 

133.24 

135.58 

137.91 

f  - 

132.60 

135.15 

137.70 

140.25 

142.80 

145.35 

147.90 

150.45 

ft 

143.65 

146.41 

149.18 

151.94 

154.70 

157.46 

160.23 

162.99 

154.70 

157.68 

160.65 

163.63 

166.60 

169.58 

172.55 

175.53 

ft 

165.75 

168.94 

172.13 

175.31 

178.50 

181.69 

184.88 

188.06 

i 

176.80 

180.20 

183.60 

187.00 

190.40 

193.80 

197.20 

200.60 

1JL 

187.85 

191.46 

195.08 

198.69 

202.30 

205.91 

209.53 

213.14 

U 

198.90 

202.73 

206.55 

210.38 

214.20 

218.03 

221.85 

225.68 

209.95 

213.99 

218.03 

222.06 

226.10 

230.14 

234.18 

238.21 

H 

221.00 

225.25 

229.50 

233.75 

238.00 

242.25 

246.50 

250.75 

Ml 

232.05 

236.51 

240.98 

245.44 

249.90 

254.36 

258.83 

263.29 

H 

243.10 

247.78 

252.45 

257.13 

261.80 

266.48 

271.15 

275.83 

254.15 

259.04 

263.93 

268.81 

273.70 

278.59 

283.48 

288.36 

if 

265.20 

270.30 

275.40 

280.50 

285.60 

290.70 

295.80 

300.90 

iA 

276.25 

281.56 

286.88 

292.19 

297.50 

302.81 

308.13 

313.44 

if 

287.30 

292.83 

298.35 

303.88 

309.40 

314.93 

320.45 

325.98 

iff 

298.35 

304.09 

309.83 

315.56 

321.30 

327.04 

332.78 

338.51 

if 

309.40 

315.35 

321.30 

327.25 

333.20 

339.15 

345.10 

351.05 

iif 

320.45 

326.61 

332.78 

338.94 

345.10 

351.26 

357.43 

363.59 

il 

331.50 

337.88 

344.25 

350.63 

357.00 

363.38 

369.75 

376.13 

iif 

342.55 

349.14 

355.73 

362.31 

368.90 

375.49 

382.08 

388.66 

2 

353.60 

360.40 

367.20 

374.00 

380.80 

387.60 

394.40 

401.20 

[323] 


WEIGHT  OF  RECTANGULAR  STEEL  PLATES 


WEIGHT  OP  RECTANGULAR  STEEL  PLATES  PER  LINEAL  FOOT — (Cont.) 


WIDTH,  IN  INCHES 

Thick- 

60 

61 

62 

63 

64 

65 

66 

67 

ness, 

in 

Six- 

AREA, IN  SQUARE  FEET 

teenths 

of  an 

Inch 

5.000 

-5.083 

5.167 

5.250 

5.333 

5.417 

5.500 

5.583 

WEIGHT,  IN  POUNDS 

& 

12.75 

12.96 

"13.18 

13.39 

13.60 

13.81 

14.03 

14.24 

i 

25.50 

25.93 

26.35. 

26.78 

27.20 

27.63 

28.05 

28.48 

A 

38.25 

38.89 

39.53 

40.16 

40.80 

41.44 

42.08 

42.71 

i 

51.00 

51.85 

52.70 

53.55 

54.40 

55.25 

56.10 

56.95 

A 

63.75 

64.81 

,65.88 

66.94 

68.00 

69.06 

70.13 

71.19 

I 

76.50 

77.78 

79.05 

80.33 

81.60 

82.88 

84.15 

85.43 

A 

89.25 

90.74 

92.23 

93.71 

95.20 

96.69 

98.18 

99.66 

i 

102.00 

103.70 

105.40 

107.10 

108.80 

110.50 

112.20 

113.90 

* 

114.75 

116.66 

118.58 

120.49 

122.40 

124.31 

126.23 

128.14 

i 

127.50 

129.63 

131.75 

133.88 

136.00 

138.13 

140.25 

142.38 

ft 

140.25 

142.59 

144.93 

147.26 

149.60 

151.94 

154.28 

156.61 

i 

153.00 

155.55 

158.10 

160.65 

163.20 

165.75 

168.30 

170.85 

H 

165.75 

168.51 

171.28 

174.04 

176.80 

179.56 

182.33 

185.09 

1 

178.50 

181.48 

184.45 

187.43 

190.40 

193.38 

196.35 

199.33 

H 

191.25 

194.44 

197.63 

200.81 

204.00 

207.19 

210.38 

213.56 

i 

204.00 

207.40 

210.80 

214.20 

217.60 

221.00 

224.40 

227.80 

i* 

216.75 

220.36 

223.98 

227.59 

231.20 

234.81 

238.43 

242.04 

H 

229.50 

233.33 

237.15 

240.98 

244.80 

248.63 

252.45 

256.28 

i& 

242.25 

246.29 

250.33 

254.36 

258.40 

262.44 

266.48 

270.51 

H 

255.00 

259.25 

263.50 

267.75 

272.00 

276.25 

280.50 

284.75 

i* 

267.75 

272.21 

276.68 

281.14 

285.60 

290.06 

294.53 

298.99 

if 

280.50 

285.18 

289.85 

294.53 

299.20 

303.88 

308.55 

313.23 

14 

293.25 

298.14 

303.03 

307.91 

312.80 

317.69 

322.58 

327.46 

H 

306.00 

311.10 

316.20 

321.30 

326.40 

331.50 

336.60 

341.70 

i* 

318.75 

324.06 

329.38 

334.69 

340.00 

345.31 

350.63 

355.94 

if 

331.50 

337.03 

342.55 

348.08. 

353.60 

359.13 

364.65 

370.18 

1H 

344.25 

349.99 

355.73 

361.46 

367.20 

372.94 

378.68 

384.41 

U 

357.00 

362.95 

368.90 

374.85 

380.80 

386.75 

392.70 

398.65 

iff 

369.75 

375.91 

382.08 

388.24 

394.40 

400.56 

406.73 

412.89 

if 

382.50 

388.88 

395.25 

401.63 

408.00 

414.38 

420.75 

427.13 

in 

395.25 

401.84 

408.43 

415.01 

421.60 

428.19 

434.78 

441.36 

2 

408.00 

414.80 

421.60 

428.40 

435.20 

442.00 

448.80 

455.60 

[3241 


WEIGHT  OF  RECTANGULAR  STEEL  PLATES 


WEIGHT  OF  RECTANGULAR  STEEL  PLATES  PER  LINEAL  FOOT — (Cant.) 


WIDTH,  IN  INCHES 

Thick- 
ness, 

68 

69 

70 

71 

72 

73 

74 

75 

in 
Six- 

AREA, IN  SQUARE  FEET 

teenths 

of  an 

1 

Inch 

5.667 

5.750 

5.833 

5.917 

6.000 

6.083 

6.167 

6.250 

WEIGHT,  IN  POUNDS 

A 

14.45 

14.66 

14.88 

15.09 

15.30 

15.51 

15.73 

15.94 

1 

28.90 

29.33 

29.75 

30.18 

30.60 

31.03 

31.45 

31.88 

A 

43.35 

43.99 

44.63 

45.26 

45.90 

46.54 

47.18 

47.81 

i 

57.80 

58.65 

59.50 

60.35 

61.20 

62.05 

62.90 

63.75 

A 

72.25 

73.31 

74.38 

75.44 

76.50 

77.56 

78.63 

79.69 

I 

86.70 

87.98 

89.25 

90.53 

91.80 

93.08 

94.35 

95.63 

A 

101.15 

102.64 

104.13 

105.61 

107.10 

108.59 

110.08 

111.56 

1 

115.60 

117.30 

119.00 

120.70 

122.40 

124.10 

125.80 

127.50 

A 

130.05 

131.96 

133.88 

135.79 

137.70 

139.61 

141.53 

143.44 

I 

144.50 

146.63 

148.75 

150.88 

153.00 

155.13 

157.25 

159.38 

H 

158.95 

161.29 

163.63 

165.96 

168.30 

170.64 

172.98 

175.31 

i 

4 

173.40 

175.95 

178.50 

181.05 

183.60 

186.15 

188.70 

191.25 

H 

187.85 

190.61 

193.38 

196.14 

198.90 

201.66 

204.43 

207.19 

1 

202.30 

205.28 

208.25 

211.23 

214.20 

217.18 

220.15 

223.13 

** 

216.75 

219.94 

223  .  13 

226.31 

229.50 

232.69 

235.88 

239.06 

i 

231.20 

234.60 

238.00 

241.40 

244.80 

248.20 

251.60 

255.00 

i* 

245.65 

249.26 

252.88 

256.49 

260.10 

263.71 

267.33 

270.94 

H 

260.10 

263.93 

267.75 

271.58 

275.40 

279.23 

283.05 

286.88 

I* 

274.55 

278.59 

282.63 

286.66 

290.70 

294.74 

298.78 

302.81 

li 

289.00 

293.25 

297.50 

301.75 

306.00 

310.25 

314.50 

318.75 

1* 

303.45 

307.91 

312.38 

316.84 

321.30 

325.76 

330.23 

334.69 

if 

317.90 

322.58 

327.25 

331.93 

336.60 

341.28 

345.95 

350.63 

l* 

332.35 

337.24 

342.13 

347.01 

351.90 

356.79 

361.68 

366.56 

11 

346.80 

351.90 

357.00 

362.10 

367.20 

372.30 

377.40 

382.50 

1A 

361.25 

366.56 

371.88 

377.19 

382.50 

387.81 

393.13 

398.44 

if 

375.70 

381.23 

386.75 

392.28 

397.80 

403.33 

408.85 

414.38 

tit 

390.15 

395.89 

401.63 

407.36 

413.10 

418.84 

424.58 

430.31 

u 

404.60 

410.55 

416.50 

422.45 

428.40 

434.35 

440.30 

446.25 

i» 

419.05 

425.21 

431.38 

437.54 

443.70 

449.86 

456.03 

462.19 

H 

433.50 

439.88 

446.25 

452.63 

459.00 

465.38 

471.75 

478.13 

1H 

447.95 

454.54 

461  .  13 

467.71 

474.30 

480.89 

487.48 

494.06 

2 

462.40 

469.20 

476.00 

482.80 

489.60 

496.40 

503.20 

510.00 

[325] 


WEIGHT  OF  RECTANGULAR  STEEL  PLATES 


WEIGHT  OF  RECTANGULAR  STEEL  PLATES  PER  LINEAL  FOOT — (Cont.) 


WIDTH,  IN  INCHES 

Thick- 
ness, 

76 

77 

78 

79 

80 

81 

82 

83 

in 
Six- 

AREA, IN  SQUARE  FEET 

teenths 

of  an 

1 

Inch 

6.333 

6.417 

6.500 

6.583 

6.667 

6.750 

6.833 

6.917 

WEIGHT,  IN  POUNDS 

& 

16.15 

16.36 

16.58 

16.79 

17.00 

17.21 

17.43 

17.64 

i 

32.30 

32.73 

33.15 

33.58 

34.00 

34.43 

34.85 

35.28 

A 

48.45 

49.09 

49.73 

50.36 

51.00 

51.64 

52.28 

52.91 

i 

64.60 

65.45 

66.30 

67.15 

68.00 

68.85 

69.70 

70.55 

A 

80.75 

81.81 

82.88 

83.94 

85.00 

86.06 

87.13 

88.19 

I 

96.90 

98.18 

99.45 

100.73 

102.00 

103.28 

104.55 

105.83 

A 

113.05 

114.54 

116.03 

117.51 

119.00 

120.49 

121.98 

123.46 

* 

129.20 

130.90 

132.60 

134.30 

136.00 

137.70 

139.40 

141.10 

A 

145.35 

147.26 

149.18 

151.09 

153.00 

154.91 

156.83 

158.74 

i 

161.50 

163.63 

165.75 

167.88 

170.00 

172.13 

174.25 

176.38 

H 

177.65 

179.99 

182.33 

184.66 

187.00 

189.34 

191.68 

194.01 

I 

193.80 

196.35 

198.90 

201.45 

204.00 

206.55 

209.10 

211.65 

H 

209.95 

212.71 

215.48 

218.24 

221.00 

223.76 

226.53 

229.29 

1 

226.10 

229.08 

232.05 

235.03 

238.00 

240.98 

243.95 

246.93 

H 

242.25 

245.44 

248.63 

251.81 

255.00 

258.19 

261.38 

264.56 

i 

258.40 

261.80 

265.20 

268.60 

272.00 

275.40 

278.80 

282.20 

1* 

274.55 

278.16 

281.78 

285.39 

289.00 

292.61 

296.23 

299.84 

U 

290.70 

294.53 

298.35 

302.18 

306.00 

309.83 

313.65 

317.48 

1A 

306.85 

310.89 

314.93 

318.96 

323.00 

327.04 

331.08 

335.11 

H 

323.00 

327.25 

331.50 

335.75 

340.00 

344.25 

348.50 

352.75 

1A 

339.15 

343.61 

348.08 

352.54 

357.00 

361.46 

365.93 

370.39 

if 

355.30 

359.98 

364.65 

369.33 

374.00 

378.68 

383.35 

388.03 

1A 

371.45 

376.34 

381.23 

386.11 

391.00 

395.89 

400.78 

405.66 

U 

387.60 

392.70 

397.80 

402.90 

408.00 

413.10 

418.20 

423.30 

1A 

403.75 

409.06 

414.38 

419.69 

425.00 

430.31 

435.63 

440.94 

if 

419.90 

425.43 

430.95 

436.48 

442.00 

447.53 

453.05 

458.58 

1H 

436.05 

441.79 

447.53 

453.26 

459.00 

464.74 

470.48 

476.21 

H 

452.20 

458.15 

464.10 

470.05 

476.00 

481.95 

487.90 

493.85 

i« 

468.35 

474.51 

480.68 

486.84 

493.00 

499.16 

505.33 

511.49 

if 

484.50 

490.88 

497.25 

503.63 

510.00 

516.38 

522.75 

529.13 

itt 

500.65 

507.24 

513.83 

520.41 

527.00 

533.59 

540.18 

546.76 

2 

516.80 

523.60 

530.40 

537.20 

544.00 

550.80 

557.60 

564.40 

[326] 


WEIGHT  OF  RECTANGULAR  STEEL  PLATES 


WEIGHT  OP  RECTANGULAR  STEEL  PLATES  PER  LINEAL  FOOT — (Cont.) 


WIDTH,  IN  INCHES 

Thick- 
ness, 

84 

85 

86 

87 

88 

89 

90 

91 

in 
Six- 

AREA, IN  SQUARE  FEET 

teenths 

of  an 

Inch 

7.000 

7.083 

7.167 

7.250 

7.333 

7.417 

7.500 

7.583 

WEIGHT,  IN  POUNDS 

& 

17.85 

18.06 

18.28 

18.49 

18.70 

18.91 

19.13 

19.34 

I 

35.70 

36.13 

36.55 

36.98 

37.40 

37.83 

38.25 

38.68 

A 

53.55 

54.19 

54.83 

55.46 

56.10 

56.74 

57.38 

58.01 

i 

71.40 

72.25 

73.10 

73.95 

74.80 

75.65 

76.50 

77.35 

A 

89.25 

90.31 

91.38 

92.44 

93.50 

94.56 

95.63 

96.69 

1 

107.10 

108.38 

109.65 

110.93 

112.20 

113.48 

114.75 

116.03 

ft 

124.95 

126.44 

127.93 

129.41 

130.90 

132.39 

133.88 

135.36 

i 

142.80 

144.50 

146.20 

147.90 

149.60 

151.30 

153.00 

154.70 

A 

160.65 

162.56 

164.48 

166.39 

168.30 

170.21 

172.13 

174.04 

I 

178.50 

180.63 

182.75 

184,88 

187.00 

189.13 

191.25 

193.38 

H 

196.35 

198.69 

201.03 

203.36 

205.70 

208.04 

210.38 

212.71 

i 

214.20 

216.75 

219.30 

221.85 

224.40 

226.95 

229.50 

232.05 

H 

232.05 

234.81 

237.58 

240.34 

243.10 

245.86 

248.63 

251.39 

1 

249.90 

252.88 

255.85 

258.83 

261.80 

264.78 

267.75 

270.78 

H 

267.75 

270.94 

274.13 

277.31 

280.50 

283.69 

286.88 

290.06 

i 

285.60 

289.00 

292.40 

295.80 

299.20 

302.60 

306.00 

309.40 

i* 

303.45 

307.06 

310.68 

314.29 

317.90 

321.51 

325.13 

328.74 

H 

321.30 

325.13 

328.95 

332.78 

336.60 

340.43 

344.25 

348.08 

I* 

339.15 

343.19 

347.23 

351.26 

355.30 

359.34 

363.38 

367.41 

li 

357.00 

361.25 

365.50 

369.75 

374.00 

378.25 

382.50 

386.75 

1ft 

374.85 

379.31 

383.78 

388.24 

392.70 

397.16 

401.63 

406.09 

U 

392.70 

397.38 

402.05 

406.73 

411.40 

416.08 

420.75 

425.43 

I* 

410.55 

415.44 

420.33 

425.21 

430.10 

434.99 

439.88 

444.76 

H 

428.40 

433.50 

438.60 

443.70 

448.80 

453.90 

459.00 

464.10 

lA 

446.25 

451.56 

456.88 

462.19 

467.50 

472.81 

478.13 

483.44 

if 

464  .  10 

469.63 

475.15 

480.68 

486.20 

491.73 

497.25 

502.78 

i» 

481.95 

487.69 

493.43 

499.16 

504.90 

510.64 

516.38 

522.11 

if 

499.80 

505.75 

511.70 

517.65 

523.60 

529.55 

535.50 

541.45 

1H 

517.65 

523.81 

529.98 

536.14 

542.30 

548.46 

554.63 

560.79 

li 

535.50 

541.88 

548.25 

554.63 

561.00 

567.38 

573.75 

580.13 

1H 

553.35 

559.94 

566.53 

573.11 

579.70 

586.29 

592.88 

599.46 

2 

571.20 

578.00 

584.80 

591.60 

598.40 

605.20 

612.00 

618.80 

[327] 


WEIGHT  OF  RECTANGULAR  STEEL  PLATES 


WEIGHT  OF  RECTANGULAR  STEEL  PLATES  PER  LINEAL  FOOT — (Cont.) 


WIDTH,  IN  INCHES 

Thick- 

92 

93 

94 

95 

96 

97 

— 

98 

99 

ness, 

in 

Six- 

AREA, IN  SQUARE  FEET 

teenths 

of  an 

Inch 

7.667 

7.750 

7.833 

7.917 

8.000 

8.083 

8.167 

8.250 

WEIGHT,  IN  POUNDS 

& 

19.55 

19.76 

19.98 

20.19 

20.40 

20.61 

20.83 

21.04 

i 

39.10 

39.53 

39.95 

40.38 

40.80 

41.23 

41.65 

42.08 

* 

58.65 

59.29 

59.93 

60.56 

61.20 

61.84 

62.48 

63.11 

i 

4 

78.20 

79.05 

79.90 

80.75 

81.60 

82.45 

83.30 

84.15 

A 

97.75 

98.81 

99.88 

100.94 

102.00 

103.86 

104.13 

105.19 

t 

117.30 

118.58 

119.85 

121.13 

122.40 

123.68 

124.95 

126.23 

A 

136.85 

138.34 

139.83 

141.31 

142.80 

144.29 

145.78 

147.26 

1 

156.40 

158.10 

159.80 

161.50 

163.20 

164.90 

166.60 

168.30 

A 

175.95 

177.86 

179.68 

181.69 

183.60 

185.51 

187.43 

189.34 

I 

195.50 

197.63 

199.75 

201.88 

204.00 

206.13 

208.25 

210.38 

H 

215.05 

217.39 

219.73 

222.06 

224.40 

226.74 

229.08 

231.41 

1 

234.60 

237.15 

239.70 

242.25 

244.80 

247.35 

249.90 

252.45 

H 

254.15 

256.91 

259.68 

262.44 

265.20 

267.96 

270.73 

273.49 

* 

273.70 

276.68 

279.65 

282.63 

285.60 

288.58 

291.55 

294.53 

if 

293.25 

296.44 

299.63 

302.81 

306.00 

309.19 

312.37 

315.56 

i 

312.80 

316.20 

319.60 

323.00 

326.40 

329.80 

333.20 

336.60 

i& 

332.35 

335.96 

339.58 

343.19 

346.80 

350.41 

354.03 

357.64 

H 

351.90 

355.73 

359.55 

363.38 

367.20 

371.03 

374.85 

378.68 

1A 

371.45 

375.49 

379.53 

383.56 

387.60 

391.64 

395.68 

399.71 

II 

391.00 

395.25 

399.50 

403.75 

408.00 

412.25 

416.50 

420.75 

1A 

410.55 

415.01 

419.48 

423.94 

428.40 

432.86 

437.33 

441.79 

if 

430.10 

434.78 

439.45 

444.13 

448.80 

453.48 

458.15 

462.83 

1ft 

449.65 

454.54 

459.43 

464.31 

469.20 

474.09 

478.98 

483.86 

li 

469.20 

474.30 

479.40 

484.50 

489.60 

494.70 

499.80 

504.90 

1* 

488.75 

494.06 

499.38 

504.69 

510.00 

515.31 

520.63 

525.94 

if 

508.30 

513.83 

519.35 

524.88 

530.40 

535.93 

541.45 

546.98 

1H 

527.85 

533.59 

539.33 

545.06 

550.80 

556.54 

562.28 

568.01 

H 

547.40 

553.35 

559.30 

565.25 

571.20 

577.15 

583.10 

589.05 

1H 

566.95 

573.11 

579.28 

575.44 

591.60 

597.76 

603.93 

610.09 

If 

586.50 

592.88 

599.25 

605.63 

612.00 

618.38 

624.75 

631.13 

itt 

606.05 

612.64 

619.23 

625.81 

632.40 

638.99 

645.58 

652.16 

2 

625.60 

632.40 

639.20 

646.00 

652.80 

659.60 

666.40 

673.20 

[328] 


WEIGHT  OF  CIRCULAR  STEEL  PLATES 

WEIGHT  OP  CIRCULAR  STEEL  PLATES 
Reduction  factor:  1  cubic  inch  of  steel  =  0.283333  pound 


DIAMETER,  IN  INCHES 

LThick- 
ness, 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

in 
Six- 

AREA, IN  SQUARE  INCHES 

teenths 

of  an 
Inch 

113.10 

132.73 

153.94 

176.72 

201.06 

226.98 

254.47 

283.53 

WEIGHT,  IN  POUNDS 

ft 

2.00 

2.35 

2.73 

3.13 

3.56 

4.02 

4.51 

5.02 

i 

4.01 

4.70 

5.45 

6.26 

7.12 

8.04 

9.01 

10.04 

JL 

6.01 

7.05 

8.18 

9.39 

10.68 

12.06 

13.52 

15.06 

1 

8.01 

9.40 

10.90 

12.52 

14.24 

16.08 

18.02 

20.08 

10.01 

11.75 

13.63 

16.65 

17.80 

20.10 

22.53 

25.10 

1 

12.02 

14.10 

16.36 

18.78 

21.36 

24.12 

27.04 

30.13 

14.02 

16.45 

19.08 

21.91 

24.92 

28.14 

31.54 

35.15 

| 

16.02 

18.80 

21.81 

25.03 

28.48 

32.16 

36.05 

40.17 

A 

18.02 

21.15 

24.53 

28.16 

32.04 

36.18 

40.56 

45.19 

I 

20.03 

23.50 

27.26 

31.29 

35.60 

40.19 

45.06 

50.21 

B 

22.03 

25.86 

29.99 

34.42 

39.17 

44.21 

49.57 

55.23 

f 

24.03 

28.21 

32.71 

37.55 

42.73 

48.23 

54.07 

60.25 

H 

26.04 

30.56 

35.44 

40.68 

46.29 

52.25 

58.58 

65.27 

I 

28.04 

32.91 

38.16 

43.81 

49.85 

56.27 

63.09 

70.29 

30.04 

35.26 

40.89 

46.94 

53.41 

60.29 

67.59 

75.31 

i1* 

32.04 

37.61 

43.62 

50.07 

56.97 

64.31 

72.10 

80.33 

DIAMETER,  IN  INCHES 

Thick- 
ness, 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

in 

Six- 

AREA, IN  SQUARE  INCHES 

teenths 

of  an 
Inch 

314.16 

346.36 

380.13 

415.48 

452.39 

490.88 

530.93 

572.56 

WEIGHT,  IN  POUNDS 

ft 

5.56 

6.13 

6.73 

7.36 

8.01 

8.69 

9.40 

10.14 

I 

11.13 

12.27 

13.46 

14.71 

16.02 

17.39 

18.80 

20.28 

16.69 

18.40 

20.19 

22.07 

24.03 

26.08 

28.21 

30.42 

i 

22.25 

24.53 

26.93 

29.43 

32.04 

34.77 

37.61 

40.56 

A 

27.82 

30.67 

33.66 

36.79 

40.06 

43.46 

47.01 

50.70 

f 

33.38 

36.80 

40.39 

44.14 

48.07 

52.16 

56.41 

60.83 

ft 

38.94 

42.93 

47.12 

51.50 

56.08 

60.85 

65.81 

70.97 

1 

44.51 

49.07 

53.85 

58.86 

64.09 

69.54 

75.22 

81.11 

T$ 

50.07 

55.20 

60.58 

66.22 

72.10 

78.23 

84.62 

91.25 

1 

55.63 

61.33 

67.32 

73.57 

80.11 

86.93 

94.02 

101.39 

H 

61.20 

67.47 

74.05 

80.93 

88.12 

95.62 

103.42 

111.53 

1 

66.76 

73.60 

80.78 

88.29 

96.13 

104.31 

112.82 

121.67 

it 

72.32 

79.74 

87.51 

95.65 

104.14 

113.00 

122.22 

131.81 

i 

77.89 

85.87 

94.24 

103.00 

112.16 

121.70 

131.63 

141.95 

H 

83.45 

92.00 

100.97 

110.36 

120.17 

130.39 

-141.03 

152.09 

i 

89.01 

98.14 

107.70 

117.72 

128.18 

139.08 

150.43 

162.22 

[329] 


WEIGHT  OF  CIRCULAR  STEEL  PLATES 
WEIGHT  OF  CIRCULAR  STEEL  PLATES — (CW.) 


DIAMETER,  IN  INCHES 

Thick- 
ness, 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

in 

Six- 

AREA, IN  SQUARE  INCHES 

teenths 

of  an 
Inch 

615.75 

660.52 

706.86 

754.77 

804.25 

855.30 

907.92 

962.11 

WEIGHT,  IN  POUNDS 

A 

10.90 

11.70 

12.52 

13.37 

14.24 

15.15 

16.08 

17.04 

1 

21.81 

23.39 

25.03 

26.73 

28.48 

30.29 

32.16 

34.07 

A 

32.71 

35.09 

37.55 

40.10 

42.73 

45.44 

48.23 

51.11 

i 

43.62 

46.79 

50.07 

53.46 

56.97 

60.58 

64.31 

68.15 

A 

54.52 

58.48 

62.59 

66.83 

71.21 

75.73 

80.39 

85.19 

I 

65.42 

70.18 

75.10 

80.19 

85.45 

90.88 

96.47 

102.22 

A 

76.33 

81.88 

87.62 

93.56 

99.69 

106.02 

112.54 

119.26 

* 

87.23 

93.57 

100.14 

106.93 

113.94 

121.17 

128.62 

136.30 

A 

98.14 

105.27 

112.66 

120.29 

128.18 

136.31 

144.70 

153.34 

f 

109.04 

116.97 

125.17 

133.66 

142.42 

151.46 

160.78 

170.37 

tt 

119.94 

128.66 

137.69 

147.02 

156.66 

166.61 

176.86 

187.41 

1 

130.85 

140.36 

150.21 

160.39 

170.90 

181.75 

192.93 

204.45 

H 

141.75 

152.06 

162.73 

173.75 

185.15 

196.90 

209.01 

221.49 

1 

152.66 

163.75 

175.24 

187.12 

199.39 

212.04 

225.09 

238.52 

H 

163.56 

175.45 

187.76 

200.49 

213.63 

227.19 

241  .  17 

255.56 

l 

174.46 

187.15 

200.28 

213.85 

227.87 

242.34 

257.24 

272.60 

DIAMETER,  IN  INCHES 

Thick- 
ness, 

36 

37 

38 

39 

40 

41 

42 

43 

in 

Six- 

AREA, IN  SQUARE  INCHES 

teenths 

of  an 
Inch 

1017.87 

1075.21 

1134.11 

1194.59 

1256.64 

1320.25 

1385.44 

1452.20 

WEIGHT,  IN  POUNDS 

A 

18.02 

19.04 

20.08 

21.15 

22.25 

23.38 

24.53 

25.72 

* 

36.05 

38.08 

40.17 

42.31 

44.51 

46.76 

49.07 

51.43 

A 

54.07 

57.12 

60.25 

63.46 

66.76 

70.14 

73.60 

77.15 

i 

72.10 

76.16 

80.33 

84.62 

89.01 

93.52 

98.14 

102.86 

A 

90.12 

95.20 

100.42 

105.77 

111.27 

116.90 

122.67 

128.58 

I 

108.15 

114.24 

120.50 

126.93 

133.52 

140.28 

147.20 

154.30 

A 

126.17 

133.28 

140.58 

148.08 

155.77 

163.66 

171.74 

180.01 

* 

144.20 

152.32 

160.67 

169.23 

178.02 

187.04 

196.27 

205.73 

A 

162.22 

171.36 

180.75 

190.39 

200.28 

210.42 

220.81 

231.44 

1 

180.25 

190.40 

200.83 

211.54 

222.53 

233.79 

245.34 

257.16 

H 

198.27 

209.44 

220.92 

232.70 

244.78 

257.17 

269.87 

282.88 

I 

216.30 

228.48 

241.00 

253.85 

267.04 

280.55 

294.41 

308.59 

tt 

234.32 

247.52 

261.08 

275.01 

289.29 

303.93 

318.94 

334.31 

1 

252.35 

266.56 

281  .  17 

296.16 

311.54 

327.31 

343.47 

360.03 

H 

270.37 

285.60 

301.25 

317.31 

333.80 

350.69 

368.01 

385.74 

i 

288.40 

304.64 

321.33 

338.47 

356.05 

374.07 

392.54 

411.46 

[330] 


WEIGHT  OF  CIRCULAR  STEEL  PLATES 
WEIGHT  OF  CIRCULAR  STEEL  PLATES — (Cont.) 


DIAMETER,  IN  INCHES 

Thick- 
ness, 

44 

45 

46 

47 

48 

49 

50 

51 

in 

Six- 

AREA, IN  SQUARE  INCHES 

teenths 

of  an 
Inch 

1520.53 

1590.43 

1661.90    |    1734.94 

1809.56 

1885.74 

1963.50 

2042.82 

WEIGHT,  IN  POUNDS 

A 

26.93 

28.16 

29.43 

30.72 

32.01 

33.39 

34.77 

36.18 

53.85 

56.33 

58.86 

61.45 

64.09 

66.79 

69.54 

72.35 

A 

80.78 

84.49 

88.29 

92.17 

96.13 

100.18 

104.31 

108.53 

I 

107.70 

112.66 

117.72 

122.89 

128.18 

133.57 

139.08 

144.70 

A 

134.63 

140.82 

147.15 

153.61 

160.22 

166.97 

173.85 

180.88 

I 

161.56 

168.98 

176.58 

184.34 

192.27 

200.36 

208.62 

217.05 

A 

188.48 

197.15 

206.01 

215.06 

224.31 

233.75 

243.39 

253.23 

i 

215.41 

225.31 

235.44 

245.78 

256.35 

267.15 

278.16 

289.40 

A 

242.34 

253.48 

264.87 

276.51 

288.40 

300.54 

312.93 

325.58 

1 

269.26 

281.64 

294.30 

307.23 

320.44 

333.93 

347.70 

361.75 

H 

296.19 

309.80 

323.73 

337.95 

352.49 

367.33 

382.47 

397.93 

t 

323.11 

337.97 

353.15 

368.68 

384.53 

400.72 

417.24 

434.10 

H 

350.04 

366.13 

382.58 

399.40 

416.58 

434.11 

452.02 

470.28 

1 

376.97 

394.30 

412.01 

430.12 

448.62 

467.51 

486.79 

506.45 

H 

403.89 

422.46 

441.44 

460.84 

480.67 

500.90 

521.56 

542.63 

i 

430.82 

450.62 

470.87 

491.57 

512.71 

534.29 

556.33 

578.80 

DIAMETER,  IN  INCHES 

Thick- 
ness, 

52 

53 

54 

55 

56 

57                  58 

59 

in 

Six- 

AREA, IN  SQUARE  INCHES 

teenths 

of  an 
Inch 

2123.72 

2206.18 

2290.22 

2375.83 

2463.01 

2551.76    |    2642.08 

2733.97] 

WEIGHT, 

IN  POUNDS 

A 

37.61 

39.07 

40.56 

42.07 

43.62 

45.19 

46.79 

48.41 

1 

75.22 

78.14 

81.11 

84.14 

87.23 

90.38 

93.57 

96.83 

A 

112.82 

117.20 

121.67 

126.22 

130.85 

135.56 

140.36 

145.24 

i 

150.43 

156.27 

162.22 

168.29 

174.46 

180.75 

187.15 

193.66 

A 

188.04 

195.34 

202.78 

210.36 

218.08 

225.94 

233.93 

242.07 

I 

225.65 

234.41 

243.34 

252.43 

261.70 

271.13 

280.72 

290.48 

A 

263.25 

273.48 

283.89 

294.50 

305.31 

316.31 

327.51 

338.90 

\ 

300.86 

312.54 

324.45 

336.58 

348.93 

361.50 

374.30 

387.31 

A 

338.47 

351.61 

365.00 

378.65 

392.54 

406.69 

421.08 

435.73 

I 

376.08 

390.68 

405.56 

420.72 

436.16 

451.88 

467.87 

484.14 

H 

413.68 

429.75 

446.12 

462.79 

479.77 

497.06 

514.66 

532.56 

I 

451.29 

468.81 

486.67 

504.87 

523.39 

542.25 

561.44 

580.97 

H 

488.90 

507.88 

527.23 

546.94 

567.01 

587.44 

608.23 

629.38 

7 
I 

526.51 

546.95 

567.79 

589.01 

610.62 

632.63 

655.02 

677.80 

H 

564.11 

586.02 

608.34 

631.08 

654.24 

677.81 

701.80 

726.21 

i 

601.72 

625.09 

648.90 

673.15 

697.85 

723.00 

748.59 

774.63 

[331] 


WEIGHT  OF  CIRCULAR  STEEL  PLATES 
WEIGHT  OF  CIRCULAR  STEEL  PLATES — (Cont.) 


DIAMETER,  IN  INCHES 

Thick- 
ness, 

60 

61 

62 

63 

64 

65 

66 

67 

in 

Six- 

AREA, IN  SQUARE  INCHES 

teenths 

of  an 
Inch 

2827.44 

2922.47 

3019.07 

3117.25 

3216.99 

3318.31    1    3421.20 

3525.66 

WEIGHT,  IN  POUNDS 

ft 

50.07 

51.75 

53.46 

55.20 

56.97 

58.76 

60.58 

62.43 

i 

100.14 

103  50 

106.93 

110.40 

113.94 

117.52 

121.17 

124.87 

150.21 

155.26 

160.39 

165.60 

170.90 

176.29 

181.75 

187.30 

i 

200.28 

207.01 

213.85 

220.81 

227.87 

235.05 

242.34 

249.73 

ft 

250.35 

258.76 

267.31 

276.01 

284.84 

293.81 

302.92 

312.17 

I 

300.42 

310.51 

320.78 

331.21 

341.81 

352.57 

363.50 

374.60 

350.49 

362.27 

374.24 

386.41 

398.77 

411.33 

424.09 

437.04 

,  .* 

400.55 

414.02 

427.70 

441.61 

455.74 

470.10 

484.67 

499.47 

450.62 

465.77 

481.17 

496.81 

512.71 

528.86 

545.26 

561.90 

V 

500.69 

517.52 

534.63 

552.01 

569.68 

587.62 

605.84 

624.34 

H 

550.76 

569.27 

588.09 

607.22 

626.64 

646.38 

666.42 

686.77 

1 

600.83 

621.03 

641.55 

662.42 

683.61 

705.14 

727.01 

749.20 

H 

650.90 

672.78 

695.02 

717.62 

740.58 

763.90 

787.59 

811.64 

700.97 

724.53 

748.48 

772.82 

797.55 

822.67 

848.17 

874.07 

if 

751.04 

776.28 

801.94 

828.02 

854.51 

881.43 

908.76 

936.51 

i 

801.11 

828.04 

855.41 

883.22 

911.48 

940.19 

969!  34 

998.94 

DIAMETER,  IN  INCHES 

Thick- 
ness, 

68 

69 

70 

71 

72 

73 

74 

75 

in 

Six- 

AREA, IN  SQUARE  INCHES 

teenths 

of  an 
Inch 

3631.68 

3739.28 

3848.46 

3959.20 

4071.51 

4185.39 

4300.85 

4417.87 

WEIGHT,  IN  POUNDS 

* 

64.31 

66.22 

68.15 

70.11 

72.10 

74.12 

76.16 

78.23 

128.62 

132.43 

136.30 

140.22 

144.20 

148.23 

152.32 

156.47 

ft 

192.93 

198.65 

204.45 

210.33 

216.30 

222.35 

228.48 

234.70 

257.24 

264.87 

272.60 

280.44 

288.40 

296.47 

304.64 

312.93 

% 

321.56 

331.08 

340.75 

350.56 

360.50 

370.58 

380.81 

391.17 

1 

385.87 

397.30 

408.90 

420.67 

432.60 

444.70 

456.97 

469.40 

* 

450.18 

463.52 

477.05 

490.78 

504.70 

518.82 

533  .  13 

547.63 

514.49 

529.73 

545.20 

560.89 

576.80 

592.93 

609.29 

625.87 

& 

578.80 

595.95 

613.35 

631.00 

648.90 

667.05 

685.45 

704.10 

I 

643.11 

662.17 

681.50 

701.11 

721.00 

741.16 

761.61 

782.33 

H 

707.42 

728.38 

749.65 

771.22 

793.10 

815.28 

837.77 

860.57 

771.73 

794.60 

817.80 

841.33 

865.20 

889.40 

913.93 

938.80 

tt 

836.04 

860.82 

885.95 

911.44 

937.30 

963.51 

990.09 

1017.0 

900.36 

927.03 

954.10 

981.55 

1009.4 

1037.6 

1066.3 

1095.3 

H 

964.67 

993.25 

1022.2 

1051.7 

1081.5 

1111.7 

1142.4 

1173.5 

l 

1029.0 

1059.5 

1090.4 

1121.8 

1153.6 

1185.9 

1218.6 

1251.7 

[332 


WEIGHT  OF  CIRCULAR  STEEL  PLATES 


WEIGHT  OF  CIRCULAR  STEEL  PLATES — (Cont.) 


DIAMETER,  IN  INCHES 

Thick- 
ness, 

76 

77 

78 

79 

80 

81 

82 

83 

in 
Six- 

AREA, IN  SQUARE  INCHES 

teenths 

of  an 
Inch 

4536.47 

4656.63 

4778.37 

4901.68 

5026.56 

5153.00 

5281.02 

5410.62 

WEIGHT,  IN  POUNDS 

ft 

80.33 

82.46 

84.62 

86.80 

89.01 

91.25 

93.52 

95.81 

i 

160.67 

164.92 

169.23 

173.60 

178.02 

182.50 

187.04 

191.63 

A 

241.00 

247.38 

253.85 

260.40 

267.04 

273.75 

280.55 

287.44 

1 

321.33 

329.85 

338.47 

347.20 

356.05 

365.01 

374.07 

383.25 

A 

401.67 

412.31 

423.09 

434.00 

445.06 

456.26 

467.59 

479.07 

I 

482.00 

494.77 

507.70 

520.80 

534.07 

547.51 

561.11 

574.88 

ft 

562.33 

577.23 

592.32 

607.61 

623.09 

638.76 

654.63 

670.69 

1 

642.67 

659.69 

676.94 

694.41 

712.10 

730.01 

748.15 

766.51 

ft 

723.00 

742.15 

761.55 

781.21 

801.11 

821.26 

841.66 

862.32 

I 

803.34 

824.61 

846.17 

868.01 

890.12 

912.51 

935.18 

958.13 

H 

883.67 

907.07 

930.79 

954.81 

979.13 

1003.8 

1028.7 

1053.9 

i 

964.00 

989.54 

1015.4 

1041.6 

1068.1 

1095.0 

1122.2 

1149.8 

H 

1044.3 

1072.0 

1100.0 

1128.4 

1157.2 

1186.3 

1215.7 

1245.6 

1 

1124.7 

1154.5 

1184.6 

1215.2 

1246.2 

1277.5 

1309.3 

1341.4 

H 

1205.0 

1236.9 

1269.3 

1302.0 

1335.2 

1368.8 

1402.8 

1437.2 

l 

1285.3 

1319.4 

1353.9 

1388.8 

1424.2 

1460.0 

1496.3 

1533.0 

DIAMETER,  IN  INCHES 

Thick- 
ness, 

84 

85 

86 

87 

88 

89 

90 

91 

in 

Six- 

AREA,  IN  SQUARE  INCHES 

teenths 

of  an 
Inch 

5541.78 

5674.51 

5808.81 

5944.69 

6082.13 

6221.15 

6361.74 

6503.89 

WEIGHT,  IN  POUNDS 

& 

98.14 

100.49 

102.86 

105.27 

107.70 

110.17 

112.66 

115.17 

1 

196.27 

200.97 

205.73 

210.54 

215.41 

220.33 

225.31 

230.35 

A 

294.41 

301.46 

308.59 

315.81 

323.11 

330.50 

337.97 

345.52 

i 

392.54 

401.95 

411.46 

421.08 

430.82 

440.67 

450.62 

460.69 

A 

490.68 

502.43 

514.32 

526.35 

538.52 

550.83 

563.28 

575.87 

I 

588.82 

602.92 

617.19 

631.62 

646.23 

661.00 

675.94 

691.04 

ft 

686.95 

703.40 

720.05 

736.90 

753.93 

771.17 

788.59 

806.21 

* 

785.09 

803.89 

822.92 

842.17 

861.64 

881.33 

901.25 

921.39 

A 

883.22 

904.38 

925.78 

947.44 

969.34 

991.50 

1013.9 

1036.6 

! 

981.36 

1004.9 

1028.6 

1052.7 

1077.0 

1101.7 

1126.6 

1151.7 

H 

1079.5 

1105.3 

1131.5 

1158.0 

1184.8 

1211.8 

1239.2 

1266.9 

I 

1177.6 

1205.8 

1234.4 

1263.2 

1292.5 

1322.0 

1351.9 

1382.1 

H 

1275.8 

1306.3 

1337.2 

1368.5 

1400.2 

1432.2 

1464.5 

1497.3 

1 

1373.9 

1406.8 

1440.1 

1473.8 

1507.9 

1542.3 

1577.2 

1612.4 

H 

1472.0 

1507.3 

1543.0 

1579.1 

1615.6 

1652.5 

1689.8 

1727.6 

i 

1570.2 

1607.8 

1645.8 

1684.3 

1723.3 

1762.7 

1802.5 

1842.8 

[333 


WEIGHT  OF  CIRCULAR  STEEL  PLATES 


WEIGHT  OF  CIRCULAR  STEEL  PLATES — (Cont.) 


DIAMETER,  IN  INCHES 

Thick- 
ness, 

92 

93 

94 

95 

96 

97 

98 

99 

in 
Six- 

AREA, IN  SQUARE  INCHES 

teenths 

of  aii 
Inch 

6647.62 

6792.92 

6939.79 

7088.23 

7238.24 

7389.80 

7542.96 

7697.68 

WEIGHT,  IN  POUNDS 

£ 

117.72 

120.29 

122.89 

125.52 

128.18 

130.86 

133.57 

136.31 

| 

235.44 

240.58 

245.78 

251.04 

256.35 

261.72 

267.15 

272.63 

A 

353.16 

360.87 

368.68 

376.56 

384.53 

392.58 

400.72 

408.94 

i 

470.87 

481.17 

491.57 

502.08 

512.71 

523.45 

534.29 

545.25 

A 

588.59 

601.46 

614.46 

627.61 

640.89 

654.31 

667.87 

681.57 

1 

706.31 

721.75 

737.35 

753.13 

769.06 

785.17 

801.44 

817.88 

tV 

824.03 

842.04 

860.25 

878.65 

897.24 

916.03 

935.01 

954.19 

I 

941.75 

962.33 

983.14 

1004.2 

1025.4 

1046.9 

1068.6 

1090.5 

A 

1059.5 

1082.6 

1106.0 

1129.7 

1153.6 

1177.8 

1202.2 

1226.8 

1 

1177.2 

1202.9 

1228.9 

1255.2 

1281.8 

1308.6 

1335.7 

1363.1 

H 

1294.9 

1323.2 

1351.8 

1380.7 

1410.0 

1439.5 

1469.3 

1499.4 

f 

1412.6 

1443.5 

1474.7 

1506.3 

1538.1 

1570.3 

1602.9 

1635.8 

H 

1530.3 

1563.8 

1597.6 

1631.8 

1666.3 

1701.2 

1736.5 

1772.1 

i 

1648.1 

1684.1 

1720.5 

1757.3 

1794.5 

1832.1 

1870.0 

1908.4 

H 

1765.8 

1804.4 

1743.4 

1882.8 

1922.7 

1962.9 

2003.6 

2044.7 

l 

1883.5 

1924.7 

1966.3 

2008.3 

2050.8 

2093.8 

2137.2 

2181.0 

<,                            DIAMETER,  IN  INCHES 

Thick- 
ness, 

100 

101 

102 

103 

104 

105 

106 

107 

in 
Six- 

AREA, IN  SQUARE  INCHES 

teenths 

of  an 
Inch 

7854.00 

8011.84 

8171.28 

8332.29 

8494.87 

8659.01 

8824.73 

8992.02 

WEIGHT,  IN  POUNDS 

A 

139.08 

141.88 

144.70 

147.55 

150.43 

153.34 

156.27 

159.23 

1 

278.16 

283.75 

289.49 

295.10 

300.86 

306.67 

312.54 

318.47 

417.24 

425.63 

434.10 

442.65 

451.29 

460.01 

468.81 

477.70 

1 

556.33 

567.51 

578.80 

590.21 

601.72 

613.35 

625.09 

636.94 

A 

695.41 

709.38 

723.50 

737.76 

752.15 

766.68 

781.36 

796.17 

1 

834.49 

851.26 

868.20 

885.31 

902.58 

920.02 

937.63 

955.40 

973.57 

993.14 

1012.9 

1032.9 

1053.0 

1073.4 

1093.9 

1114.6 

i 

1112.7 

1135.0 

1157.6 

1180.4 

1203.4 

1226.7 

1250.2 

1273.9 

^ 

1251.7 

1276.9 

1302.3 

1328.0 

1353.9 

1380.0 

1406.4 

1433.1 

f 

1390.8 

1418.8 

1447.0 

1475.5 

1504.3 

1533.4 

1562.7 

1592.3 

H 

1529.9 

1560.6 

1591.7 

1623.1 

1654.7 

1686.7 

1719.0 

1751.6 

1669.0 

1702.5 

1736.4 

1770.6 

1805.2 

1840.0 

1875.3 

1910.8 

tt 

1808.1 

1844.4 

1881.1 

1918.2 

1955.6 

1993.4 

2031.5 

2070.0 

1 

1947.1 

1986.3 

2025.8 

2065.7 

2106.0 

2146.7 

2187.8 

2229.3 

H 

2086.2 

2128.2 

2170.5 

2213.2 

2256.5 

2300.1 

2344.1 

2388.5 

1 

2225.3 

2270.0 

2315.2 

2360.8 

2406.9 

2453.4 

2500.4 

2547.7 

[334] 


WEIGHT  OF  CIRCULAR  STEEL  PLATES 


WEIGHT  OF  CIRCULAR  STEEL  PLATES — (Cont.) 


DIAMETER  IN  INCHES 

Thick- 
ness, 

108 

109 

110 

ill 

112 

113 

114 

115 

in 
Six- 

AREA, IN  SQUARE  INCHES 

teenths 

of  an 
Inch 

9160.88 

9331.32 

9503.32 

9676.89 

9852.03 

10028.75 

10207.03 

10386.89 

WEIGHT,  IN  POUNDS 

A 

162.22 

165.24 

168.29 

171.36 

174.76 

177.59 

180.75 

183.93 

i 

324.45 

330.49 

336.58 

342.72 

348.93 

355.19 

361.50 

367.87 

A 

486.67 

495.73 

504.87 

514.09 

523.39 

532.78 

542.25 

551.80 

i 

648.90 

660.97 

673.15 

685.45 

697.85 

710.37 

723.00 

735.74 

A 

811.12 

826.21 

841.44 

856.81 

872.32 

887.96 

903.75 

919.67 

1 

973.35 

991.46 

1009.7 

1028.2 

1046.8 

1065.6 

1084.5 

1103.6 

& 

1135.6 

1156.7 

1178.0 

1199.5 

1221.2 

1243.2 

1265.2 

1287.5 

4 

1297.8 

1321.9 

1346.3 

1370.9 

1395.7 

1420.7 

1446.0 

1471.5 

A 

1460.0 

1487.2 

1514.6 

1542.3 

1570.2 

1598.3 

1626.7 

1655.4 

I 

1622.2 

1652.4 

1682.9 

1713.6 

1744.6 

1775.9 

1807.6 

1839.3 

H 

1784.5 

1817.7 

1851.2 

1885.0 

1919.1 

1953.5 

1988.2 

2023.3 

3 
4 

1946.7 

1982.9 

2019.5 

2056.3 

2093.6 

2131.1 

2169.0 

2207.2 

H 

2108.9 

2148.2 

2187.7 

2227.7 

2268.0 

2308.7 

2349.7 

2391.2 

1 

2271.1 

2313.4 

2356.0 

2399.1 

2442.5 

2486.3 

2530.5 

2575.1 

H 

2433.4 

2478.6 

2524.3 

2570.4 

2617.0 

2663.9 

2711.2 

2759.0 

i 

2595.6 

2643.9 

2692.6 

2741.8 

2791.4 

2841.5 

2892.0 

2943.0 

DIAMETER,  IN  INCHES 

Thick- 
ness, 

116 

117 

118 

119 

120 

in 

Six- 

AREA, IN  SQUARE  INCHES 

teenths 

of  an 
Inch 

10568.32 

10751.32 

10935.88 

11122.02 

11309.73 

WEIGHT,  IN  POUNDS 

A 

187.15 

190.39 

193.66 

196.95 

200.28 

i 

374.30 

380.78 

387.31 

393.91 

400.55 

A 

561.44 

571.17 

580.97 

590.86 

600.83 

i 

4 

748.59 

761.55 

774.63 

787.81 

801.11 

A 

935.74 

951.94 

968.28 

984.76 

1001.4 

1 

1122.9 

1142.3 

1161.9 

1181.7 

1201.7 

& 

1310.0 

1332.7 

1355.6 

1378.7 

1401.9 

i 

1497.2 

1523.1 

1549.3 

1575.6 

1602.2 

A 

1684.3 

1713.5 

1742.9 

1772.6 

1802.5 

I 

1871.5 

1903.9 

1936.6 

1969.5 

2002.8 

H 

2058.6 

2094.3 

2130.2 

2166.5 

2203.0 

2245.8 

2284.7 

2323.9 

2363.4 

2403.3 

H 

2432.9 

2475.0 

2517.5 

2560.4 

2603.6 

1 

2620.1 

2665.4 

2711.2 

2757.3 

2803.9 

H 

2807.2 

2855.8 

2904.9 

2954.3 

3004.2 

i 

2994.4 

3046.2 

3098.5 

3151.2 

3204.4 

[335] 


WEIGHTS  OF  SQUARE  AND  ROUND  STEEL  BARS 

WEIGHTS  OF  SQUARE  AND  ROUND  STEEL  BARS. 
Reduction  Factor :    1  cubic  inch  of  steel  =  0.28333  pound. 


Size 

SQUARI 

3  BARS 

ROUND 

BARS 

Size 

SQUARI 

3  BARS 

ROUND 

BARS 

in 
Inches 

Per 
Foot 

Per 
Inch 

Per 
Foot 

Per 
Inch 

in 
Inches 

Per 
Foot 

Per 

Inch 

Per 
Foot 

Per 
Inch 

1     

.213 

018 

167 

.014 

21 

25  71 

2  14 

20  20 

1  68 

A.. 

.332 

.028 

.261 

.022 

2*|.. 

26  90 

2  24 

21  12 

1   76 

478 

040 

376 

031 

21 

28  10 

2  34 

22  07 

1  84 

A. 

.651 

.054 

.511 

.043 

2r!.. 

29  34 

2  45 

23.04 

1  92 

.850 

.071 

.668 

.056 

3  

30.60 

2.55 

24.03 

2.00 

JL 

1.076 

.090 

.845 

.070 

SJL 

31  89 

2  66 

25.05 

2  08 

[f  

1.328 

.111 

1.043 

.087 

3|  

33.20 

2.77 

26.08 

2.17 

11 

1  607 

134 

1  262 

105 

3A 

34  54 

2  88 

27  13 

2  26 

1.913 

.159 

1.502 

.125 

3i  . 

35.91 

2.99 

28.21 

2.35 

T£ 

2  245 

187 

1  763 

147 

3JL 

37  31 

3  11 

29  30 

2  44 

1  • 

2  603 

.217 

2.044 

.170 

31  . 

38.73 

3.23 

30.42 

2.53 

if.. 

2.988 

.250 

2.347 

.195 

3;&  

40.18 

3.35 

31.55 

2.63 

1 

3  40 

28 

2  67 

.22 

3|  . 

41  65 

3  48 

32.71 

2  72 

ITS.. 

3.84 

.32 

3.02 

.25 

3^  

43.15 

3.60 

33.89 

2.82 

li  . 

4.30 

.35 

3.38 

.28 

3f  

44.68 

3.72 

35.09 

2.92 

1A.. 

4.79 

.40 

3.77 

.31 

3H-. 

46.23 

3.85 

36.31 

3.02 

11  
ITS 

5.31 
5  86 

.44 
49 

4.17 
4  60 

.35 

.38 

31  
3H.. 

47.81 
49.42 

3.98 
4.12 

37.55 
38.81 

3.13 
3.23 

H  • 

6.43 

.54 

5.05 

.42 

3f  

51.05 

4.25 

40.10 

3.34 

ITS 

7  03 

59 

5  52 

.46 

3H.. 

52.71 

4.39 

41.40 

3.45 

11 

7  65 

64 

6  01 

50 

4 

54  40 

4  53 

42.73 

3.56 

ITS 

8  30 

69 

6  52 

.54 

4tv  . 

56.11 

4.68 

44.07 

3.67 

If 

8  98 

.75 

7.05 

.39 

4|  

57.85 

4.82 

45.44 

3.78 

iii 

9.68 

.81 

7.60 

.63 

4^  

59.62 

4.97 

46.83 

3.90 

1  1 

10  41 

87 

8.18 

.68 

4x  . 

61.41 

5.12 

48.23 

4.01 

IT! 

11  17 

93 

8  77 

.73 

4A 

63.23 

5.27 

49.66 

4.13 

11 

11  95 

1  00 

9  39 

78 

41 

65  08 

5  42 

51.11 

4  25 

1*1, 

12.76 

1.06 

10.02 

.83 

4^  

66.95 

5.58 

52.58 

4.38 

2 

13  60 

13 

10  68 

.89 

4£  

68.85 

5.74 

54.07 

4.50 

2rir 

14  46 

.21 

11.36 

.94 

4&  

70.78 

5.90 

55.59 

4.63 

24 

15  35 

28 

12.06 

.00 

4f  

72.73 

6.06 

57.12 

4.75 

2rV 

16  27 

36 

12  78 

.06 

4H.  . 

74.71 

6.23 

58.67 

4.88 

2£ 

17  21 

43 

13  52 

13 

41  . 

76.71 

6  39 

60.25 

5.01 

2A 

18  18 

52 

14  28 

.19 

4f£.. 

78.74 

6.56 

61.85 

5.15 

21 

19  18 

60 

15  06 

25 

4* 

80  80 

6  73 

63.46 

5.28 

2tk.  . 

20.20 

.68 

15.87 

.33 

4H  

82.89 

6.91 

65.10 

5.42 

2l 

21  25 

.77 

16.69 

.39 

5  

85.00 

7.08 

66.76 

5.56 

2JL. 

22  33 

86 

17  53 

46 

Si1*.. 

87.14 

7.26 

68.44 

5.70 

21 

23.43 

.95 

18.40 

.53 

5i  

89.30 

7.44 

70.14 

5.84 

2H.. 

24.56 

2.05 

19.29 

.61 

5fV  

91.49 

7.62 

71.86 

5.98 

[336] 


WEIGHTS  OF  ROUND  STEEL  BARS 
WEIGHTS  OF  SQUARE  AND  ROUND  STEEL  BARS — (Cont.) 


Size 

SQUARI 

2  BARS 

ROUND 

BARS 

Size 

SQUARI 

3  BARS 

ROUND 

BARS 

in 
Inches 

Per 

Foot 

Per 
Inch 

Per 
.  Foot 

Per 
Inch 

in 
Inches 

Per 
Foot 

Per 
Inch 

Per 
Foot 

Per 
Inch 

61 

93  71 

7.81 

73.60 

6.13 

81  . 

231.41 

19.28 

181.75 

15.15 

5^- 

95  96 

8.00 

75.36 

6.27 

81  . 

238.48 

19.87 

187.30 

15.61 

51 

98  23 

8  19 

77  15 

6  42 

81 

245  65 

20.47 

192.93 

16  08 

100  53 

8  38 

78  95 

6.57 

8|  . 

252.93 

21.08 

198.65 

16  55 

51 

102  85 

8.57 

80.78 

6.72 

81  . 

260.31 

21.69 

204.45 

17.04 

105  .  20 

8  77 

82.62 

6.88 

81  . 

267.80 

22.32 

210.33 

17.55 

gi 

107  58 

8.97 

84.49 

7.03 

9  

275.40 

22.95 

216.30 

18.03 

gfi 

109  98 

9  17 

86  38 

7  19 

91 

283  10 

23  59 

222  35 

18  53 

51 

112  41 

9  37 

88  29 

7.35 

91  . 

290.91 

24.24 

228.48 

19.04 

5H 

114.87 

9.57 

90.22 

7.51 

91  . 

298.83 

24.90 

234.70 

19.56 

51 

117  35 

9  78 

92  17 

7.67 

94  . 

306.85 

25.57 

241.00 

20.08 

119  86 

9.99 

94.14 

7.84 

91  . 

314.98 

26.25 

247.38 

20.62 

6 

122  40 

10  20 

96  13 

8  00 

91 

323  21 

26  93 

253  85 

21.15 

61 

127  55 

10  63 

100  18 

8.34 

91  . 

331  .  55 

27  63 

260.40 

21.87 

61  . 

132.81 

11.07 

104.31 

8.68 

10  

340.00 

28.33 

267.04 

22.25 

61 

138  18 

11.52 

108  53 

9.03 

101 

348  .  55 

29.05 

273.75 

22.81 

143  .  65 

11.97 

112.82 

9.39 

101  . 

357.21 

29.77 

280.55 

23.38 

61 

149  23 

12  44 

117  20 

9  76 

101 

365  98 

30  50 

287  44 

23  95 

61 

154  91 

12  91 

121  67 

10.14 

374  85 

31  24 

294  41 

24.53 

61  . 

160.70 

13.39 

126.22 

10.52 

101  . 

383.83 

31.99 

301.46 

25,12 

7     .   . 

166  60 

13  88 

130  85 

10  90 

101 

392.91 

32  74 

308  59 

25.72 

71  . 

172.60 

14.38 

135  .  56 

11.30 

101  . 

402.10 

33.51 

315.81 

26.32 

71 

178  71 

14  89 

140  36 

11  70 

11 

411  40 

34  28 

323  11 

26  93 

71 

184  93 

15  41 

145  24 

12  10 

111 

420  80 

35  07 

330  50 

27.54 

191.25 

15.94 

150.21 

12.52 

111  . 

430  .  31 

35,86 

337.97 

28.16 

71  . 

197  68 

16  47 

155  26 

12  94 

439  93 

36  66 

345  52 

28.79 

71 

204  21 

17  02 

160  39 

13  37 

m.    . 

449  65 

37  47 

353  16 

29  43 

71 

210  85 

17  57 

165  60 

13  80 

459  48 

38  29 

360  87 

30  07 

8  

217  60 

18  13 

170  90 

14  24 

Ill 

469  41 

39  12 

368  68 

30  72 

81  . 

224.45 

18.70 

176.29 

14.69 

479  45 

39  95 

376  56 

31.38 

m.    . 
12  

489.60 

40.80 

384.53 

32.04 

STRENGTH  OP  ROUND  STEEL  BARS 

Breaking  Strength,  51,000  Pounds  per  Square  Inch.     Proof  Strength,  One-half  Ultimate 
Strength.     Working  Loads  Are  Percentages  of  the  Proof  Strength. 


WORKING  LOAD  AT 

Diam., 
Inches 

Area, 
Sq.  In. 

Breaking 
Strength, 
Pounds 

Load, 
in 
Pounds 

25% 

30% 

35% 

40% 

45% 

50% 

1 

0.049 

2,499 

1,250 

313 

375 

438 

500 

563 

625 

A 

.077 

3,927 

1,964 

491 

589 

687 

785 

884 

982 

I 

.110 

5,610 

2,805 

701 

842 

982 

1,122 

1,262 

1,403 

A 

.150 

7,650 

3,825 

956 

1,148 

1,339 

1,530 

1,721 

1,913 

1 

.196 

9,996 

4,998 

1,250 

1,499 

1,749 

1,999 

2,249 

2,499 

[337] 


STRENGTH  OF  ROUND  STEEL  BARS 
STRENGTH  OF  ROUND  STEEL  BARS — (Cont.) 


Diam., 
Inches 

Area, 
Sq.  In. 

Breaking 
Strength, 
Pounds 

Proof 
Load, 
in 
Pounds 

WORKING  LOAD  AT 

25% 

30% 

35% 

40% 

45% 

50% 

A 

.249 

12,699 

6,350 

1,588 

1,905 

2,223 

2,540 

2,858 

3,175 

f 

.307 

15,657 

7,829 

1,957 

2,349 

2,740 

3,131 

3,523 

3,914 

H 

.371 

18,921 

9,460 

2,365 

2,838 

3,311 

3,784 

4,257 

4,730 

i 

.442 

22,542 

11,271 

2,818 

3,381 

3,945 

4,508 

5,072 

5,636 

H 

.519 

26,469 

13,235 

3,309 

3,970 

4,632 

5,294 

5,956 

6,617 

1 

.601 

30,651 

15,326 

3,832 

4,598 

5,364 

6,130 

6,897 

7,663 

if 

.690 

35,190 

17,595 

4,399 

5,279 

6,158 

7,038 

7,918 

8,798 

i 

.785 

40,035 

20,018 

5,005 

6,005 

7,007 

8,007 

9,008 

10,009 

1^ 

.887 

45,237 

22,619 

5,655 

6,786 

7,917 

9,048 

10,179 

11,310 

H 

.994 

50,694 

25,347 

6,337 

7,604 

8,871 

10,139 

11,406 

12,674 

1A 

1.108 

56,508 

28,254 

7,064 

8,476 

9,889 

11,302 

12,714 

14,127 

H 

1.227 

62,577 

31,289 

7,822 

9,387 

10,951 

12,516 

14,080 

15,645 

1ft 

1.353 

69,003 

34,502 

8,626 

10,351 

12,076 

13,801 

15,526 

17,251 

H 

1.485 

75,735 

37,868 

9,467 

11,360 

13,254 

15,148 

17,041 

18,934 

i& 

1.623 

82,773 

41,387 

10,347 

12,416 

14,485 

16,555 

18,624 

20,694 

H 

1.767 

90,117 

45,059 

11,265 

13,518 

15,771 

18,024 

20,277 

22,530 

ift 

1.918 

97,818 

48,909 

12,227 

14,673 

17,118 

19,564 

22,009 

24,455 

H 

2.074 

105,774 

52,887 

13,222 

15,866 

18,510 

21,155 

23,799 

26,444 

1H 

2.237 

114,087 

57,044 

14,261 

17,113 

19,965 

22,818 

25,670 

28,522 

if 

2.405 

122,655 

61,328 

15,332 

18,398 

21,465 

24,531 

27,598 

30,664 

itt 

2.580 

131,580 

65,790 

16,448 

19,737 

23,027 

26,316 

29,606 

32,895 

U 

2.761 

140,811 

70,406 

17,602 

21,122 

24,642 

28,162 

31,683 

35,203 

1H 

2.948 

150,348 

75,174 

18,794 

22,552 

26,311 

30,070 

33,828 

37,587 

2 

3.142 

160,242 

80,121 

20,030 

24,036 

28,042 

32,048 

36,054 

40,061 

2& 

3.341 

170,391 

85,196 

21,299 

25,559 

29,819 

34,078 

38,338 

42,598 

2* 

3.547 

180,897 

90,449 

22,612 

27,135 

31,657 

36,180 

40,702 

45,225 

2& 

3.758 

191,658 

95,829 

23,957 

28,749 

33,540 

38,332 

43,123 

47,915 

2i 

3.976 

202,776 

101,388 

25,347 

30,416 

35,486 

40,555 

45,625 

50,694 

2A 

4.200 

214,200 

107,100 

26,775 

32,130 

37,485 

42,840 

48,195 

53,550 

•21 

4.430 

225,930 

112,965 

28,241 

33,890 

39,538 

45,186 

50,834 

56,483 

2A 

4.666 

237,966 

118,983 

29,746 

35,695 

41,644 

47,593 

53,542 

59,492 

2* 

4.909 

250,359 

125,180 

31,295 

37,554 

43,813 

50,072 

56,331 

62,590 

2& 

5.157 

263,007 

131,504 

32,876 

39,451 

46,026 

52,602 

59,177 

65,752 

2! 

5.412 

276,012 

138,006 

34,502 

41,402 

48,302 

55,202 

62,103 

69,003 

2H 

5.673 

289,323 

144,662 

36,166 

43,399 

50,632 

57,865 

65,098 

72,331 

2! 

5.940 

302,940 

151,470 

37,868 

45,441 

53,015 

60,588 

68,162 

75,735 

2H 

6.213 

316,863 

158,432 

39,608 

47,530 

55,451 

63,373 

71,294 

79,216 

n 

6.492 

331,092 

165,546 

41,387 

49,664 

57,941 

66,218 

74,496 

82,773 

2& 

6.777 

345,627 

172,814 

43,204 

51,844 

60,485 

69,126 

77,766 

86,407 

3 

7.069 

360,519 

180,260 

45,065 

54,078 

63,091 

72,104 

81,117 

90,130 

3A 

7.366 

375,666 

187,833 

46,958 

56,350 

65,742 

75,133 

84,525 

93,917 

H 

7.670 

391,170 

195,585 

48,896 

58,676 

68,455 

78,234 

88,013 

97,793 

3ft 

7.980 

401,880 

200,940 

50,235 

60,282 

70,329 

80,376 

90,423 

100,470 

31 

8.296 

423,096 

211,548 

52,887 

63,464 

74,042 

84,619 

95,197 

105,774 

3A 

8.618 

439,518 

219,759 

54,940 

65,928 

76,916 

87,904 

98,892 

109,880 

[338] 


STEEL  HULL  RIVETS  AND  RIVET-RODS 


STRENGTH  OF  ROUND  STEEL  BARS — (Cont.) 


Breaking 

Proof 

WORKING  LOAD  AT 

Diam., 
Inches 

Area, 
Sq.  In. 

Strength, 
Pounds 

in 
Pounds 

25% 

30% 

35% 

40% 

45% 

50% 

at 

8.946 

456,246 

228,123 

57,031 

68,437 

79,843 

91,249 

102,655 

114,062 

3A 

9.281 

473,331 

236,666 

59,167 

71,000 

82,833 

94,666 

106,500 

118,333 

3* 

9.621 

490,671 

245,336 

61,334 

73,601 

85,868 

98,134 

110,401 

122,668 

3A 

9.968 

508,368 

254,184 

63,546 

76,255 

88,964 

101,674 

114,383 

127,092 

3| 

10.321 

526,371 

263,186 

65,797 

78,956 

92,115 

105,274 

118,434 

131,593 

3H 

10.680 

544,680 

272,340 

68,085 

81,702 

95,319 

108,936 

122,553 

136,170 

3! 

11.045 

563,295 

281,648 

70,412 

84,494 

98,577 

112,659 

126,742 

140,824 

3H 

11.416 

582,216 

291,108 

72,777 

87,332 

101,888 

116,443 

130,999 

145,554 

31 

11.793 

601,443 

300,722 

75,181 

90,217 

105,253 

120,289 

135,325 

150,361 

3H 

12.177 

621,027 

310,514 

77,629 

93,154 

108,680 

124,206 

139,731 

155,257 

4 

12.566 

640,866 

320,433 

80,108 

96,130 

112,152 

128,173 

144,195 

160,217 

STEEL  HULL  RIVETS  AND  RIVET-RODS 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General  Instructions. — The  latest  issue  of  "  General  Specifications  for  Inspection 
of  Steel  and  Iron  Material"  shall  form  a  part  of  these  specifications,  and  must  be  com- 
plied with  as  to  material,  methods  of  inspection,  and  all  other  requirements  therein. 

2.  Physical  and  Chemical  Requirements. — The  physical  and  chemical  requirements 
for- each  grade  of  material  shall  be  in  accordance  with  the  following  table: 


Tensile 
Strength, 

Minimum  Elonga- 

MAXIMUM 
AMOUNT 

Grade 

Material 

Pounds  per 

tion  (b) 

OP~~* 

Square  Inch 

p. 

s. 

P.   Ct. 

P.  Ct. 

Medium  steel 

Open-hearth  carbon. 

58,000 

28  per  cent  in  8  inches  ; 

0.04 

0.04 

to 

30    per    cent    in    2 

68,000 

inches  when  type  1 

specimen  is  used. 

High  -  tensile 

Open-hearth   carbon, 

75,000 

23  per  cent  in  8  inches  ; 

.04 

.04 

steel. 

silicon,      or     nickel 

to 

25    per    cent    in    2 

•  steel. 

90,000 

inches  when  type  1 

specimen  is  used. 

RIVET  RODS 

3.  Elongation. — For  rods  f  inch  or  less  in  thickness  or  diameter,  the  elongation 
shall  be  measured  on  a  length  equal  to  eight  times  the  thickness  or  diameter  of  section 
tested;  for  sections  over  \  inch  and  less  than  \  inch  in  thickness  or  diameter,  the  elonga- 
tion shall  be  taken  on  a  leng'h  of  6  inches.     In  both  the  preceding  cases  the  required 
percentage  of  elongation  shall  be  that  specified  for  the  type  3  test  piece. 

4.  Type  of  Test  Piece. — Type  of  test  piece  to  be  type  1  or  type  3,  depending  on  size  of 
rod;  type  1  will  be  used  only  when  capacity  of  testing  machine  prevents  the  use  of  type  3. 

5.  Tensile  Tests. — Bars  rolled  from  any  melt  shall  be  tested  by  sizes,  one  tensile 
test  to  be  taken  from  each  ton  or  less  of  each  size.     If  the  results  of  such  tests  from 
the  various  sizes  indicate  that  the  material  is  of  uniform  quality,  not  more  than  eight 
such  specimens  shall  be  taken  to  represent  the  melt.     In  such  cases  the  eight  specimens 
shall  be  fully  representative  of  the  various  sizes  in  the  melt  offered  for  test. 

[339] 


STEEL  HULL  RIVETS  AND  RIVET-RODS 

6.  Bending  Tests  for  Medium  Steel.— From  each  size  of  each  melt  one  cold-bend 
test  shall  be  taken  as  finished  in  the  rolls,  but  not  less  than  two  such  bends  shall  be  made 
from  any  melt.  These  cold-bend  specimens  shall  be  bent  180°  flat  on  themselves  without 
showing  any  cracks  or  flaws  in  the  outer  round. 


TYPE  1  TEST  PIECE 

A  BO  in    18  IN-  OVERALL 
8  INCHBS 


1 

1       1 

1 

Mf/i  5  t/ftJAf  c  FONTS,      \ 

1         2       o 

1               —  ,   (*  W> 

•       -Jjj-o* 
i        7 

K  

9    INCHES  

1 

TYPE  3  TEST  PIECE 


7.  Upsetting  Tests  for  Medium  Steel.— Specimens  shall  be  cut  about  one  and  one- 
fourth  times  the  diameter  of  the  round  in  length,  and  shall  be  required  to  stand  ham- 
mering down  cold  in  a  longitudinal  direction  to  about  one-half  the  original  length  of 
the  specimen  without  showing  seams  or  other  defects  which  would,  in  the  judgment  of 
the  inspector,  tend  to  produce  defects  in  the  manufactured  rivet. 

The  number  of  upsetting-test  pieces  shall  equal  the  number  of  tensile-test  pieces, 
but  in  no  case  shall  it  be  less  than  two  for  each  size. 

8.  Tolerances  in  Diameter  Under  the  Nominal  Gauge  Ordered. — 

Up  to  and  including  |  inch 0.010  inch. 

Over  I  inch,  up  to  and  including  £  inch 014  inch. 

Over  £  inch,  up  to  and  including  f  inch 016  inch. 

Over  |  inch,  up  to  and  including  1  inch 020  inch. 

Over  1  inch,  up  to  and  including  1|  inches 024  inch. 

Over  U  inches 030  inch. 

MANUFACTURED  RIVETS 

9.  Manufactured  Rivets,  Form  and  Surfaces. — (a)  Rivets  shall  be  true  to  form, 
concentric,  and  free  from  scale,  fins,  seams,  and  all  other  injurious  or  unsightly  defects. 
Tap  rivets  shall  be  milled  under  the  head  if  necessary.     They  shall  conform  to  the 
dimensions  and  form  as  shown  on  table  incorporated  in  and  forming  a  part  of  these 
specifications. 

10.  Medium  Steel  Rivets,  Hammer  Tests.— (a)  From  each  lot  of  rivets  of  each 
size  kegged  and  ready  for  shipment  there  shall  be  taken  at  random  6  rivets,  to  be  tested 
as  follows:  ^, 

'(b);  Three  riyets  shall  be  flattened  out  cold  under  the  hammer  to  a  thickness  of 
one-half'  the  diameter  of  the  part  flattened  without  showing  cracks  or  flaws.  Rivets 
of  over  an  inch'  in  diameter  shall  >be  flattened  to  three-fourths  of  the  original  diameter. 
«i-  (c)  Three  rivets  shall  be  flattened  out  hot  under  hammer  to  a  thickness  not  exceeding 
on^-fourth  of  the  original  diameter  of  part  flattened  without  showing  cracks;  heat  to 
-  be  ordinary  driving  heat. 

11.  High-Tensile  Steel  Rivets. — High-tensile  steel  rivets  shall  be  made  of  rivet  rods 

[340] 


STEEL  HULL  RIVETS  AND  RIVET-RODS 

conforming  to  the  requirements  of  these  specifications  for  high-tensile  steel  rods  and  shall 
in  addition  meet  the  following  requirements: 

12.  Shearing  Strength.  —  From  each  lot  of  each  size  kegged  and  ready  i  or  shipment 
there  shall  be  taken  at  random  three  rivets  for  shearing  test.     These  rivets  shall  be  driven 
hot  for  test  under  double  shear.     The  shearing  strength  when  so  tested  shall  not  be  less 
than  64,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  computed  on  the  actual  shearing  area  of  the  rivet 
as  driven;  i.e.,  the  area  corresponding  to  the  area  of  the  rivet  hole,  not  the  nominal 
diameter  of  the  rivet. 

13.  Quality  Test.  —  When  for  any  reason  the  shearing  test  described  above  cannot 
be  made,  the  following  test  shall  be  made:  From  each  lot  of  each  size  kegged  ready  for 
shipment  there  shall  be  taken  at  randon  three  rivets.     These  rivets  shall  be  heated  to 
the  driving  temperature,  when  the  point  shall  be  quickly  hammered  down  to  a  thickness 
of  |  inch  and  the  rivet  immediately  cooled  by  quenching  in  cold  water.     It  will  then  be 
hammered  over  the  edge  of  an  anvil  in  an  effort  to  bend  the  flattened  portion.     The 
rivet  shall  break  short  without  appreciable  bend. 

14.  Marking  and  Packing.  —  (a)  Medium  rivets  shall  be  marked  on  top  or  side 
of  head  with  a  plain  cross  f  by  f  inch  for  larger  sized  rivets,  suitably  reduced  for  the 
smaller  rivets.     This  cross  is  to  be  in  relief. 

(b)  High-tensile  pan  or  button-head  rivets  shall  have  fluted  heads. 

(c)  Unless  otherwise  specified,  to  be  delivered  in  100-pound  boxes  or  kegs,  marked 
as  given  below. 

(d)  All  boxes  or  kegs  to  be  strongly  made  and  plainly  marked  with  the  manu- 
facturer's name  and  contract  number. 

Boxes  or  kegs  to  be  neatly  stenciled  on  one  end  only  with  the  net  weight,  size,  and 
name  of  contents,  as  — 

100  pounds 


High-Tensile  Steel 
Button-Head  Rivets. 


zi— *5 


STANDARD  RIVETS  FOR  SHIP  AND  TORPEDO-BOAT  WORK.     NAVY  DEPARTMENT 


K—  s-* 

Type  A.     Pan  Head.    Straight  Neck 

f          \  "t 

Rivet,  Diam.  D.  . 

i 

A 

1 

I 

f 

f 

i 

1 

H 

if 

r             \!  v 

Hole,  Diam.  A.  .  . 

A 

H. 

A 

A 

tt. 

H 

if 

1A 

1A 

1H 

c              \>L 

1 

M 

Head,  High  B... 
Head,  Diam.  C.  . 

A 

i 

A 

A 

1 
H 

A 

i 

1A 

1A 

f 
H 

H 
if 

f 
1H 

Head,  DiamD... 

i 

A 

t 

i 

f 

f 

1 

l 

H 

2 

[341 


STEEL  HULL  RIVETS  AND  RIVET-RODS 


STANDARD  RIVETS  FOR  SHIP  AND  TORPEDO-BOAT  WORK.     NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

(Continued) 


vf 

Type  B.     Pan  Head.     Conical  Neck 

Rivet,  Diam.  D.. 
Neck,  Diam.  Dl  . 
Neck,  Cone  E  .  .  . 
Head,  High  B  .  .  . 

J 

A 

f 

t 

A 
f 

f 

A 
A 
i 

f 

1 
f 

1A 
f 

1 

if 
A 
A 
1A 

1 

1 

1A 

f 
H 

i 

H 
1A 
A 
H 
if 
it 

H 
1A 

1 
f 
1H 
H 

a 

> 

-^4 

m 

T 

^ 

Head,  Diam.  C.  . 
Head,  Diam.  D.. 

•• 

±ZSs 

^P^ 

Type  C.     Button  Head.     Straight  Neck 

Rivet,  Diam.  D.  . 
Hole,  Diam.  A.  .  . 
Head,  High  B... 
Head,  Diam.  C.. 

i 

4 
& 

A 
A 

t 

f 

A 
A 
A 

i 

A 

f 
if 

f 
H 

A 

i 

1 
1A 

1 
if 
A 
1A 

i 
1A 
f 
l* 

H 
i& 
H 
if 

H 
IB 
f 
IB 

m, 

-A  : 

*—  P-> 

^^      **T*^ 

m 

& 

C     I         \' 

Type  D.     Button  Head.     Conical  Neck 

Rivet,  Diam.  D  . 
Neck,  Diam.  Dl  . 
Neck,  ConeE... 
Head  High  B   . 

* 

" 

f 

A 

f 

f 
B 
A 
A 

i 

if 
f 

1A 

I 
if 
A 
A 
1A 

i 
1A 
* 
f 
It 

H 
1A 
A 
B 
if 

it 

1A 
f 
f 
IB 

W.SJP 

tiSs 

Head,  Diam.  C.. 

-• 

•  • 

•  • 

r^'-i,. 

Type  E.     Countersunk  Head 

a 

Rivet,  Diam.  D.  . 
Head,  Diam.  Kl. 
Head,  Cone  Bl  .  . 
Cone  Angle  

i 

4 
f 

60° 

\ 

60° 

f 
f 
A 

60° 

\ 
I 
A 

60° 

f 
1A 
f 

60° 

f 
i& 

A 

45° 

7 
8 

li 
f 

45° 

i 

IB 

37° 

H 
iff 

7 
8 

37° 

ft 

IB 

1 

37° 

^ 

The  cone  angle  of  45°  in  sketch  is  for  f  and  £  rivets  only. 

k  Kl_* 

Type  F.     Countersunk  Head 

ik  li 

Rivet,  Diam.  D.  . 
Head,  Diam.  K2 
Head,  Cone  B2.  . 
Cone  Angle  

* 

* 

f 

t 

f 

if 

60° 

f 
It 

A 

45° 

1 

1H 
A 

45° 

1 
H 
f 
37° 

H 

it 

\        * 
\       / 

\  / 

V 

^^^^ 

The  cone  angle  of  45°  in  sketch  is  for  f  and  |  rivets  only. 

[342 


STEEL  HULL  RIVETS  AND  RIVET-RODS 


STANDARD  RIVETS  FOR  SHIP  AND  TORPEDO-BOAT  WORK.    NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

(Continued) 


„  to_t 

Type  G.     Countersunk  Head 

Rivet,  Diam  D.  . 
Head,  Diam  K3 
Head,  ConeB3.. 
Cone  Angle  

*; 

A 

t 

* 

1 

i 

4 
1 

45° 

7 
8 

H 

A 

45° 

1 

If 

37° 

!!. 

r4    im. 

».!.          ^^^ 

The  cone  angle  of  45°  in  sketch  is  for  f  and  1  rivets  only. 

I 

Type  H.     Tap  Rivets 

.%1 

Rivet,  Diam.  D.  . 
Head  Diam  .  K4  . 
Head,  Cone  B4.  . 

1 

A 

t 

If 
A 

60° 

1 

i 

f 
If 

60° 

A 

f 

i 

4 

1A 

1 

45° 

f 

7 
8 

1H 

A 

45° 

If 

1 
Iff 

H 

37° 
if 

If 

1 
37° 
f 
if 

H 
1H 

1 

37° 

H 
H 

HL      1  J! 

\ 

t-A 

•*•* 

-45* 

t 

r&-+ 
\    1 
-*& 

^ 

-> 

3 

Stud,  Square  R 

Stud,  Height  S 

The  cone  angle  of  45°  in  sketch  is  for  f  and  f  rivets  only. 

!«— 

-K5- 

"t" 

CO 

Type  K.     Tap  Rivets 

Rivet,  Diam.  D  . 
Head,  Diam.  K5 
Head,  Cone  B5 

1 

A 

f 

i 

f 

f 

1 

U 

A 

45° 

A 

If 

1 

If 

37° 

f 
If 

If 
If 
f 
37° 

f 
If 

H 

is 

1 

M 

Cone  Angle 

*     _           / 

$  —  ^—  jD—r 

V 

^•p  -*«SS 

/ 
V/ 

-> 
S 

T 

to 

Stud,  Square  R 

Stud,  Height  S. 

The  cone  angle  of  45°  in  sketch  is  for  |  rivets  only. 
Studs  for  Tap  Rivets 

Rivet,  Diam  
Stud,  Square  R.  . 
Stud,  Heights... 

1 

A 

1 

f 

f 

A 
f 

f 
If 

1 
A 
If 

1 

1 
If 

If 

f 
If 

U 
H 
If 

3    / 

K  I 

—M 

•n  i^ 

.1 

Template  for  Countersink 

Rivet,  Diam.  .  .  . 
Angle  * 

60° 
2f 
3^ 

A 

60° 
2f 

"Ff 

f 
60° 

i 

60° 
2f 

"64 

1 

f 

60° 

1 
45° 
3 

f 

1 

45° 
3 

21 
f 

1 
37° 
3 

If 

37° 
3 
2f 

H 
37° 
3 

Height  L 

Width  M   .  .. 

Width  N   .  .  .  . 

[343] 


STEEL  HULL  RIVETS  AND  RIVET-RODS 

STANDARD  RIVETS  FOR  SHIP  AND  TORPEDO-BOAT  WORK.    NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

(Continued) 


g 

^fT22> 

p 

Snap  Points 

*-       3>-> 

Rivet,  Diam.D.. 
Point,  Height  B. 
Point,  Diam.C.  . 

I 

A 
A 

A 
i 

f 
A 
A 

i 

1 
H 

1 
A 

i 

f 
1A 

1 
A 
1A 

1 
1 
H 

H 
H 
if 

11 

f 

!t- 

4§2 

w                               /•• 

p 

Hammered  Points.     F-|  D 

Rivet,  Diam.D.. 
Point,  Height  F  . 
Point,  Diam.G.. 

* 

A 
A 

1 

1 
A 
f 

i 

i 

f 
A 
U 

a 

4: 
f 

1A 

1 

7 
T6 

1 

If 

A 

H 

f 

llTJ 

1 

1*- 

<3>?^ 
Q^*-^  , 

Countersunk  points  to  be  the  same  taper  and  depth  as  count- 
ersunk heads,  but  are  to  be  driven  with  slightly  convex  tops. 

ri 

trD  > 

i 

Liverpool  Points.     Y-2  D 

Rivet,  Diam.  D.  . 
Point,  Height  T. 
Point,  Diam.  Y  . 

i 

A 

1 

i 

i 

1 
i 
U 

* 

A 

1 
1 
If 

1 

A 

2 

H 
1 

ii 

*-> 

*-£  ^J 

Countersunk  Liverpool  points  to  be  the  same  taper  as  count- 
ersunk heads,  but  to  be  only  one-half  the  thickness  of  plate. 

' 

/ 

< 

\ 

r~j_ 

\ 

T\ 

/T\ 

/T  1 

\ 

/  j 

j, 

^      ^r?7l 

<&& 

^f*& 

.  I  LJ 

ICMGTH  OP  RIVETS  ANOTAPS  MEASURED 


SMALL  RIVETS,  FLAT  OR  COUNTERSUNK,  FOR  SHEET-METAL 

WORK 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  "General  Instructions  and  Specifications,  General  Specifications,  Appendix  I. 
for  Iron  and  Steel  Material,"  issued  June,  1912,  shall  form  a  part  of  these  specifications 
and  must  be  complied  with. 

2.  To  be  soft  steel,  black  or  tinned,  as  specified.    The  flat-head  rivets  shall  conform 
in  size  and  weight  to  the  following  table: 

[344] 


SMALL  RIVETS 


Size 

Limit 

Size  of 
Wire 

Length 
Under 
Head 

Diame- 
ter of 
Head 

Thick- 
ness of 
Head 

4     OUI1C6S 

0  072 

0.068 

| 

0.156 

0.020 

6    ounces             

.083 

.078 

•& 

.180 

.024 

8    ounces 

095 

.090 

& 

.206 

.027 

10    ounces                     

.090 

.094 

ii 

.214 

.029 

12    ounces  

.106 

.100 

TS 

.230 

.031 

14    ounces             

.110 

.104 

A 

.239 

.032 

1    pound    

.115 

.109 

H 

.249 

.033 

lj  pounds  
1|  pounds        

.120 
.126 

.113 
.120 

& 
tt 

.260 
.273 

.034 
.036 

If  pounds  
2    pounds      

.134 
.144 

.128 
.136 

1 

H 

.290 
.312 

.038 
.041 

2  4  pounds 

.148 

.141 

& 

.323 

.043 

3    pounds.          

.160 

.151 

& 

.346 

.046 

gi  pounds                        •- 

165 

.156 

n 

.357 

.047 

4    pounds                        .  .  . 

.176 

.167 

& 

.381 

.050 

5    pounds 

189 

.180 

| 

.409 

054 

6    pounds            .          ... 

.205 

.195 

H 

.444 

.058 

7    pounds      

.221 

.211 

H 

.479 

.063 

8    pounds 

.229 

.219 

A 

496 

065 

9    pounds            

.238 

.227 

H 

.515 

.068 

10    pounds 

241 

.230 

522 

070 

12    pounds             

.254 

.242 

£ 

.550 

.074 

14    pounds    

.284 

.272 

M 

.616 

.081 

16    pounds 

.300 

.288 

H 

650 

086 

3.  The  countersunk  rivets  shall  conform  to  the  sizes  given  in  the  following  table: 


Size  of  Rivet, 
Diameter 
of  Wire 

Diameter 
of  Head 

Angle  of 
Counter- 
sink 

Lengths 

Size  of  Rivet, 
Diameter 
of  Wire 

Diameter 
of  Head 

Angle  of 
Counter- 
sink 

Lengths 

Inch 

Inch 

Degrees 

Inch 

Inch 

Inch 

Degrees 

Inch 

A  0.189 

0.345 

80 

1  and! 

A     -144 

.259 

80 

*,   t,  and  * 

&     .160 

.287 

80 

i,  *,  and  * 

1      .125 

.230 

80 

&,  i,  and  & 

4.  The  rivets  to  be  put  up  in  packages  of  1,000  rivets,  or  in  boxes  of  not  less  than 
50  pounds  each,  as  required. 

TESTS  FOR  SOFT-STEEL  RIVETS 

5.  A  number  of  rivets,  at  the  discretion  of  the  inspector,  shall  be  selected  from 
each  size  of  each  delivery,  enough  to  satisfy  the  inspector  of  the  quality  of  the  entire  lot. 

6.  Cold  Test. — One-half  of  these  shall  be  flattened  to  one-eighth  of  their  original 
diameter,  and  then  bent  through  180°  flat  on  themselves,  and  shall  show  no  signs  of 
cracks,  flaws,  or  any  other  defects. 

7.  Hot  Test. — The  remaining  rivets  shall  be  heated  to  a  red  heat  and  flattened, 
then  reheated  and  bent  through  180°  and  flattened  on  themselves  without  showing 
any  signs  of  flaws,  cracks,  or  any  other  defects, 

[345] 


SCREW  THREADS 

Previous  to  the  action  of  the  Franklin  Institute  in  1864  there  had  been  no  uniformity 
in  the  diameters  of  taps  and  dies  or  in  the  number  of  threads  per  inch,  for  bolts  and 
studs.  Bolt  iron  was  seldom  rolled  strictly  to  gauge;  in  consequence,  taps  and  dies 
j$  inch  over  size  were  in  general  use. 

Aside  from  variation  in  diameter,  there  was  a  lack  of  uniformity  in  number  of  threads 
per  inch.  The  shape  of  screw  threads  then  in  use  was  the  sharp  or  V-thread  as  in  the 
illustration. 

Screw  threads  with  sharp  edges  are  objected  to  because  the  threads  are  liable  to 
injury  in  the  ordinary  course  of  handling.  The  sharp  edges  of  taps  and  dies  soon 
disappear  in  service,  making  it  difficult  to  maintain  interchangeable  work. 


Formula 


pitch 


No.  thrds.  per  in. 
d  =  depth  =  p  X  .866 


An  occasional  American  manufacturer  adopted  the  Whitworth  standard  for  screw 
threads,  but  this  was  exceptional.  An  investigation  of  the  whole  subject  was  made  by 
William  Sellers,  of  Philadelphia,  and  presented  to  the  Franklin  Institute  in  a  paper  read 
by  him  in  April,  1864.  Mr.  Sellers  disapproved  the  V-thread;  his  objections  to  the 
Whitworth  thread  were,  first,  that  the  angle  of  55°  is  a  difficult  one  to  verify;  secondly, 
the  curve  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  thread  of  the  screw  will  not  fit  the  corresponding 
curve  in  the  nut,  and  the  wearing  surface  on  the  thread  will  be  thus  reduced  to  the 
straight  sides  merely.  Thirdly,  the  increased  cost  and  complication  of  cutting  tools 
required  to  form  this  kind  of  thread  in  a  lathe. 

The  necessity  of  guarding  the  sharp  edge  of  a  V-thread  from  accidental  injury 
was  a  fact  recognized  by  sometimes  finishing  such  bolts  with  a  small  flat  on  the  top  of  the 
thread.  The  flat  angular  sides  being  necessary,  there  remained  to  choose  between  a 
rounded  or  a  flat  top.  As  the  sides  of  a  thread  are  the  only  parts  to  be  fitted,  the  cutting 
tool  employed  having  an  angle  of  60°,  the  width  of  flat  at  top  of  thread  will  be  determined 
by  the  depth  to  which  the  thread  is  cut.  The  flat  at  the  top  of  the  thread  serves  to 


-A 

7W 

A 

f 

\                                         / 

6 

\f— 

R 

Formula 


P  =  pitch  =  No.  thrds.  per  in 
d  =  depth  =  p  X  .6495 


/^> 


protect  it  from  injury,  a  similar  shape  at  the  bottom  gives  increased  strength  to  the 
bolt  by  increasing  its  diameter  at  the  root  of  thread. 

The  angle  of  thread  is  60°,  the  same  as  the  sharp  thread,  it  being  more  easily  obtained 
than  55°.  Divide  the  pitch,  or,  which  is  the  same  thing,  the  side  of  the  thread,  into 
eight  equal  parts,  take  off  one  part  from  the  top  and  fill  in  one  part  in  the  bottom  of  the 
thread,  then  the  flat  top  and  bottom  will  equal  one-eighth  of  the  pitch,  the  wearing 

[346] 


FRANKLIN   INSTITUTE  SCREW  THREADS 


surface  will  be  three-quarters  of  the  pitch,  and  the  diameter  of  the  screw  at  bottom  of 

the  thread  will  be  expressed  by  the  formula  diameter  =  ~- '- rr-r-  -     These 

No.  threads  per  inch 

proportions  will  give  the  depth  of  the  thread  almost  precisely  the  same  as  the  English, 
and  as  the  wearing  surface  on  all  screws  will  be  confined  practically  to  the  flat  sides, 
this  will  be  36  per  cent  greater  than  on  the  English. 

FRANKLIN  INSTITUTE  STANDARD  SCREW  THREAD 
Constants  for  finding  diameter  at  bottom  of  thread 

1.299 


Sellers'  formula:   Diam.  bolt  = 


No.  threads  per  inch 


Threads 
per  Inch 

Constant 

Threads 
per  Inch 

Constant 

Threads 
per  Inch 

Constant 

Threads 
per  Inch 

Constant 

20 
18 
16 
14 

13 

.06495 
.07217 
.08119 
.09279 
09992 

10 
9 

8 
7 
6 

.  12990 
.  14433 
.  16238 
.  18557 
21650 

4£ 
4 
3* 

31 
3 

.28867 
.32475 
.37114 
.39969 
43300 

2f 
2£ 
2| 

21 

.49486 
.51960 
.54695 
.57733 

12 

10825 

51 

-  23618 

21 

45183 

11 

.11809 

5 

.25980 

2| 

.47236 

Example.  To  find  the  diameter  at  bottom  of  a  Franklin  Institute  thread  for  a  bolt 
1£  inches  diameter  we  have:  1£  mch  diameter  =  6  threads  per  inch.  The  constant 
for  6  threads  is  .21650. 

Then:   1.50000  -  .21650  =  1.2835  =  1&  inch  nearly. 

Mr.  Sellers  also  presented  a  system  of  uniform  dimensions  for  bolt  heads  and  nuts. 

The  committee  of  the  Institute  to  whom  this  paper  was  referred  handed  in  their 
final  report  December  15,  1864,  and  offered  in  part  the  following  resolution,  which  was 
adopted. 

"  RESOLVED,  That  the  Franklin  Institute  of  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  recommend,  for 
the  general  adoption  by  American  engineers,  the  following  forms  and  proportions  for 
screw  threads,  bolt  heads,  and  nuts,  viz.: 

"That  screw  threads  shall  be  formed  with  straight  sides  at  an  angle  to  «ach  other 
of  60°,  having  a  flat  surface  at  the  top  and  bottom  equal  to  one-eighth  of  the  pitch. 
The  pitches  shall  be  as  follows,  viz. : 


Diameter  of  bolt.  .  .  . 

1 

A 

i 

A 

i 

A 

f 

f 

1 

1 

u 

11 

If 

H 

If 

H 

H 

Threads  per  inch  .  .  . 

20 

18 

16 

14 

13 

12 

11 

10 

9 

8 

7 

7 

6 

6 

5* 

5 

5 

Diameter  of  bolt.  .  .  . 

2 

21 

2£ 

21 

3 

31 

3* 

3f 

4 

41 

4£ 

4| 

5 

51 

5* 

51 

6 

Threads  per  inch.  .  . 

4* 

4£ 

4 

4 

3£ 

3£ 

31 

3 

3 

2| 

21 

2f 

2£ 

2* 

2| 

2f 

21 

"Bolt  Head  and  Nut.  The  distance  between  the  parallel  sides  of  a  bolt  head  and  nut, 
for  a  rough  bolt,  shall  be  equal  to  one  and  a  half  diameters  of  the  bolt  plus  one-eighth  of 
an  inch.  The  thickness  of  the  heads  for  a  rough  bolt  shall  be  equal  to  one-half  the 
distance  between  its  parallel  sides.  The  thickness  of  the  nut  shall  be  equal  to  the 
diameter  of  the  bolt.  The  thickness  of  the  head  for  a  finished  bolt  shall  be  equal  to  the 
thickness  of  the  nut.  The  distance  between  the  parallel  sides  of  a  bolt  head  and  nut, 
and  the  thickness  of  the  nut,  shall  be  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  less  for  finished  work  than 
for  rough." 

The  foregoing  is  what  is  known  as  the  Franklin  Institute  Standard,  or  as  the  Sellers' 
Standard,  so  named  after  its  originator. 

[347] 


BOLTS  AND  NUTS— U.  S.  NAVY  STANDARD 

United  States  Standard. — The  Navy  Department  appointed  a  Board  to  recommend 
a  standard  gauge  for  bolts,  nuts,  and  screw  threads  for  the  United  States  Navy.  On 
May  15,  1868,  the  Chief  of  Bureau  of  Steam  Engineering  submitted  to  the  Secretary 
of  the  Navy  the  report  of  the  Hoard  indorsing  the  Sellers'  system,  but  recommending 
certain  modifications.  Its  recapitulation  expresses  the  formula  thus: 

Let 

D   =  nominal  diameter  of  bolt.  d     =  effective  diameter  of  bolt  =  diameter 

p    =  pitch  of  thread.  under  root  of  thread, 

n    =  number  of  threads  per  inch.  s      =  depth  of  thread. 

H  =  depth  of  nut.  h     =  depth  of  head. 

dn  =  short  diameter  of  hexagonal  or  square  dh   =  short  diameter  of  head, 
nut. 

Then  

p    =  0.24  VD +  0.625 -0.175.  H  =  D. 

n    =  (No.  of  threads  per  inch)"^  •  dn  =  f  D  +  |" 

s     =0.65  p.  dh  =  |D  +  |" 

d    =  D  —  2s  =D~  1.3p.  h    =  10  +  ^" 

It  then  gives  a  table  of  screw  threads  the  same  as  that  recommended  by  the  Franklin 
Institute,  with  the  one  difference  and  that  regarding  the  size  of  finished  or  unfinished  bolt 
heads  and  nuts.  The  Navy  report  makes  no  difference  in  the  size  of  either — that  is,  for 
finished  work  the  forgings  must  be  made  larger  than  for  rough;  their  idea  being  to  use  the 
same  wrench  on  either  black  or  finished  work.  In  reference  to  their  tables:  The  only 
instance  where  the  values  in  the  table  differ  from  those  given  by  the  formula  is  in  the 
number  of  threads  per  inch,  which  is  so  far  modified  as  to  use  the  nearest  convenient 
aliquot  part  of  a  unit,  so  as  to  avoid,  as  far  as  practicable,  troublesome  combinations  in 
the  gear  of  screw-cutting  machines. 

The  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  in  a  communication  to  the  Chief  of  Bureau  of  Steam 
Engineering,  May  16, 1868,  writes:  "The  standard  for  the  dimensions  of  bolts  and  nuts, 
as  determined  by  the  Board,  is,  upon  your  recommendation,  authorized  for  the  naval 
service." 

This  constitutes  what  is  known  as  the  United  States  Standard ;  it  corresponds  in  all 
respects  to  the  Franklin  Institute  Standard  for  screw  threads,  but  no  difference  in 
dimensions  as  between  rough  and  finished  bolt  heads  and  nuts  is  made,  one  wrench 
serving  for  both. 

This  is  the  standard  now  in  general  use  in  the  United  States,  but  attention  is  drawn 
to  the  table  of  Standard  Dimensions  of  Bolts  and  Nuts  for  the  United  States  Navy,  as 
given  below.  It  will  be  observed  that,  beginning  with  3  inches  diameter  of  screw,  the 
threads  do  not  follow  the  authorized  standard  of  1868,  inasmuch  as  all  screw  threads  for 
bolts  are  uniformly  4  threads  per  inch  from  3  inches  up  to  and  including  12  inches 
diameter. 


[348] 


BOLTS  AND  NUTS— U.  S.  NAVY  STANDARD 
BOLTS    AND    NUTS 
—c- 


Standard  Dimensions   for  United  States  Navy 


DIAMETERS 

Effective 
Area 
Sq.  Inches 

Threads 
Inch 

Long 
Diam. 
Hex.  Nut 
and 
Bolt-head 

Long 
Diam. 
Sq.  Nut 
and 
Bolt-head 

Short 
Diam. 
Hex.  &  Sq. 
Nut  and 
Bolt-head 

Bolt- 
head, 
Depth 

Nut, 
Depth 

Out- 
side, 
Ins. 

Root  of 
Thread, 
Inches 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

i 

0.185 

0.026 

20 

A 

M 

i 

I 

4 

1 

4 

A 

.240 

.045 

18 

tt 

if 

M 

H 

A 

I 

.294 

.067 

16 

If 

H 

H 

» 

f 

A 

.345 

.093 

14 

If 

i& 

M 

H 

A 

i 

.400 

.125 

13 

1 

li 

•  i. 

7 
T5 

f 

A 

.454 

.162 

12 

H 

if 

M 

M 

A 

f 

.507 

.202 

11 

IA 

U 

1A 

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f 

I 

.620 

.302 

10 

IA 

U 

H 

f 

f 

1 

.731 

.419 

9 

m 

2^ 

1A 

If 

1 

i 

.837 

.550 

8 

u 

2A 

H 

M 

i 

if 

.940 

.694 

7 

2& 

2A 

m 

If 

U 

U 

1.065 

.891 

7 

2A 

2M 

2 

i 

U 

1! 

1.160 

1.057 

6 

2H 

3^ 

2^ 

1A 

if 

II 

1.284 

1.294 

6 

2f 

3M 

2f 

1A 

l| 

if 

1.389 

1.515 

5i 

2M 

3| 

2& 

i* 

if 

1! 

1.491 

1.746 

5 

3& 

31 

2! 

if 

if 

11, 

1.616 

2.051 

5 

3M 

4^ 

2M 

1H 

U 

2 

1.712 

2.302 

4£ 

3M 

4M 

3i 

1A 

2 

2i 

1.962 

3.023 

41 

4^ 

4H 

3^ 

if 

2| 

2| 

2.176 

3.719 

4 

4M 

5M 

31 

lit 

2f 

2f 

2.426 

4.622 

4 

4|f 

6 

4£ 

21 

2f 

3 

2.676 

5.624 

4 

5& 

6H 

4f 

2A 

3 

3i 

2.926 

6.724 

4 

5» 

7^ 

5 

2^ 

ai 

31 

3.176 

7.922 

4 

6& 

7H 

5f 

2H 

3| 

31 

3.426 

9.219 

4      ' 

6f 

si 

51 

21 

3f 

4 

3.676 

10.613 

4 

7^ 

8fi 

61 

3^ 

4 

41 

3.926 

12.106 

4 

7* 

9A 

6£ 

3| 

4i 

4* 

4.176 

13.696 

4 

7H 

9|| 

61 

3A 

41 

4f 

4.420 

15.635 

4 

81 

10J 

7| 

31 

4f 

5 

4.676 

17.173 

4 

8H 

IOH 

7f 

3H 

5 

64 

4.926 

19.058 

4 

91 

HA 

8 

4 

51 

5£ 

5.176 

21.042 

4 

9H 

1W 

8f 

4^ 

5£ 

51 

5.426 

23.123 

4 

10^- 

12| 

H 

4f 

5f 

6 

-5.676 

25.303 

4 

IOH 

12ft 

9i 

4A 

6 

[349] 


BOLTS  AND  NUTS— U.  S.   NAVY  STANDARD 
BOLTS  AND  NUTS 

Standard  Dimensions  for  United  States  Navy.     Sizes  Over  6  Inches 


DIAMETERS 

Aresir 
Sq.  Inches 

Threads 
per 
Inch 

Long 
Diam. 
Hex.  Nut 
and 
Bolt-head 

Long 
Diam. 
Sq.  Nut 
and 
Bolt-head 

Short 
Diam. 
Hex.  &  Sq. 
Nut  and 
Bolt-head 

Bolt- 
head 
Depth 

Depth 

Out- 
side, 
Ins. 

Root  of 
Thread, 
Inches 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

61 

5.926 

27.58 

4 

10H 

13** 

91 

..    43 

61 

6.176 

29.95 

4 

HH 

14 

91 

4  if 

65 

6! 

6.426 

32.43 

4 

ill* 

14* 

101 

51 

6!  . 

7 

6.676 

35.00 

4 

121 

15| 

lOf 

5^ 

7 

71 

6.926 

37.68 

4 

12** 

15** 

11 

5* 

71 

7| 

7.176 

40.44 

4 

131 

161 

lit 

5H 

71 

7! 

7.426 

43.30 

4 

13* 

16** 

ii! 

51 

7! 

8 

7.676 

46.27 

4 

14 

17f 

12| 

6rS 

8 

81 

7.926 

49.35 

4 

14* 

17*f 

12* 

61 

81 

8.176 

52.52 

4 

14** 

188 

121 

6A 

81 

8! 

8.426 

55.76 

4 

15* 

w* 

131 

6* 

8! 

9 

8.676 

59.90 

4 

15** 

19** 

13f 

6H 

9 

91 

8.926 

62.57 

4 

16* 

19** 

14 

7 

91 

9.176 

66.13 

4 

16H 

20^ 

14f 

7* 

91 

9! 

9.426 

69.77 

4 

17* 

20H 

14! 

n 

9! 

10 

9.676 

73.52 

4 

17H 

21| 

I5i 

7& 

10 

101 

9.926 

77.38 

4 

17! 

21! 

15* 

7H 

101 

10* 

10.176 

81.33 

4 

18** 

22^ 

151 

7  if 

10i 

10! 

10.426 

85.34 

4 

18« 

161 

81 

10! 

n 

10.676 

89.52 

4 

1ft* 

23  £ 

16f 

8A 

n 

ill 

10.926 

93.76 

4 

19f 

24& 

17 

8* 

Hi 

11.176 

98.10 

4 

20^ 

24* 

171 

8ii 

11} 

ill 

11.426 

102.53 

4 

20^ 

25& 

17! 

81 

n! 

12 

11.676 

107.07 

4 

21* 

25H 

181 

91 

12 

MAXIMUM  WORKING  LOAD  FOR  TABULAR  TENSILE  STRENGTH 

UNITED  STATES  NAVY 

Forgings.     High  grade.     Minimum  tensile  strength 95,000 

Forgings.     High  grade  Class  A.     Minimum  tensile  strength 80,000 

Forgings.     High  grade  Class  B.     Minimum  tensile  strength 60,000 


Bolts  and  boiler  braces. 
Bolts  and  boiler  braces. 


Class  A.     Minimum  tensile  strength 75,000 

Class  B.     Minimum  tensile  strength 58,000 


Rolled  manganese  and  Tobin  bronze  and  naval  brass.  Minimum  tensile  strength .  50,000 
Phosphor  bronze  and  Muntz  metal.     Minimum  tensile  strength 40,000 


[350] 


BOLTS  AND  NUTS— U.  S.   NAVY  STANDARD 


MAXIMUM  WORKING  LOAD  FOR  TABULAR  TENSILE  STRENGTH 

UNITED  STATES  NAVY 


BOLT  DETAILS 

MAXIMUM  WORKING  LOAD  FOR  TENSILE  STRENGTH  F  = 

Factor 
of 
Safety 

Out- 
side 
Diam., 
Ins. 

Diam. 
at 
Root  of 
Thread 

Effec- 
tive 
Area, 
S.q.  Ins. 

40,000 

50,000 

58,000 

60,000 

75,000 

80,000 

95,000 

I 

0.185 

0.026 

111 

138 

160 

166 

206 

221 

261 

9.4 

* 

.240 

.045 

198 

•247 

287 

297 

370 

396 

470 

9.1 

1 

.294 

.067 

301 

376 

435 

451 

560 

601 

714 

9.0 

ft 

.345 

.093 

415 

519 

600 

623 

775 

830 

986 

8.9 

i 

.400 

.125 

564 

704 

818 

845 

1,055 

1,125 

1,340 

8.9 

& 

.454 

.162 

730 

912 

1,060 

1,095 

1,370 

1,460 

1,730 

8.9 

f 

.507 

.202 

913 

1,140 

1,300 

1,370 

1,700 

1,870 

2,170 

8.8 

i 

.620 

.302 

1,380 

1,725 

2,000 

2,070 

2,580 

2,760 

3,280 

8.8 

1 

.731 

.419 

1,930 

2,410 

2,800 

2,900 

3,600 

3,860 

4,580 

8.7 

i 

.837 

.550 

2,530 

3,170 

3,670 

3,800 

4,700 

5,060 

6,010 

8.7 

if 

.940 

.694 

3,190 

3,990 

4,600 

4,790 

5,980 

6,380 

7,570 

8.7 

ii 

.065 

.891 

4,140 

5,180 

6,000 

6,210 

7,760 

8,280 

9,830 

8.6 

If 

.160 

1.057 

4,890 

6,110 

7,080 

7,330 

9,150 

9,780 

11,600 

8.7 

H 

.284 

1.294 

6,040 

7,540 

8,760 

9,060 

11,300 

12,050 

14,300 

8.6 

If 

.389 

1.515 

7,060 

8,820 

10,200 

10,600 

13,200 

14,100 

16,750 

8.6 

If 

.491 

1.746 

8,120 

10,150 

11,770 

12,200 

15,200 

16,200 

19,250 

8.6 

II 

.616 

2.051 

9,600 

12,000 

13,900 

14,400 

18,000 

19,200 

22,800 

8.5 

2 

.712 

2.302 

10,750 

13,400 

15,500 

16,100 

20,100 

21,500 

25,500 

8.6 

21 

.962 

3.023 

14,200 

17,800 

20,600 

21,400 

26,700 

28,500 

33,800 

8.5 

3i 

2.176 

3.719 

17,500 

21,900 

25,300 

26,300 

32,800 

35,000 

41,500 

8.5 

2f 

2.426 

4.622 

22,000 

27,500 

31,900 

33,000 

41,200 

44,000 

52,200 

8.4 

3 

2.676 

5.624 

26,800 

33,500 

38,800 

40,200 

50,200 

53,600 

63,600 

8.4 

3| 

2.926 

6.724 

32,200 

40,200 

46,700 

48,400 

60,400 

64,400 

76,400 

8.3 

3£ 

3.176 

7.922 

38,100 

47,600 

55,100 

57,200 

71,200 

76,200 

90,400 

8.3 

3f 

3.426 

9.219 

44,500 

55,600 

64,300 

66,700 

83,200 

89,000 

105,500 

8.3 

4 

3.676 

10.613 

51,400 

64,200 

74,500 

77,000 

96,400 

102,800 

122,000 

8.3 

41 

3.926 

12.106 

58,700 

73,400 

85,100 

88,100 

110,000 

117,400 

139,300 

8.2 

4) 

4.176 

13.696 

66,600 

83,200 

96,500 

100,000 

124,900 

133,000 

158,000 

8.2 

4| 

4.420 

15.635 

75,000 

93,700 

108,400 

112,000 

140,200 

150,000 

178,000 

8.2 

5 

4.676 

17.173 

83,800 

105,000 

121,500 

126,000 

157,100 

167,500 

199,000 

8.2 

5| 

4.926 

19.058 

93,200 

116,500 

135,000 

140,000 

174,800 

186,000 

221,000 

8.2 

51 

5.176 

21.042 

103,000 

129,000 

149,000 

154,500 

193,100 

206,000 

244,500 

8.2 

51 

5.426 

23.123 

113,500 

142,000 

164,000 

170,000 

212,600 

227,000 

269,000 

8.2 

6 

5.676 

25.303 

124,000 

155,000 

179,800 

186,000 

232,500 

248,000 

295,000 

8.1 

[351 


WEIGHT  OF  BOLT-HEADS  AND  NUTS 


WEIGHT  OP  HEXAGON  BOLT-HEADS  AND  NUTS 


United  States  Standard  Dimensions 


BAR 

HEAD 

NUT 

Diam. 
A 

Area 

Weight 

Sh't 
Dia. 
B 

Area 
Hexagon 
Square 
In. 

Hgh, 

Content 
Cubic 
Inch 

Weight 
Head 

Sh't 
Dia. 
B 

Hght. 

Hole 
Dia. 
£ 

Weight 

Inch 

Foot 

i 

.049 

.014 

.167 

i 

.217 

1 

.054 

.015 

i 

1 

A 

.014 

A 

.077 

.022 

.261 

ft 

.305 

H 

.091 

.026 

II 

A 

i 

.022 

f 

.110 

.031 

.375 

ft 

.409 

H 

.141 

.040 

H 

f 

R 

.036 

A 

.150 

.043 

.511 

If 

.529 

If 

.207 

.059 

If 

A 

IF 

.053 

i 

.196 

.056 

.667 

1 

.663 

A 

.290 

.082 

1 

i 

If 

.075 

A 

.249 

.070 

.845 

ii 

.813 

ft 

.394 

.112 

H 

A 

If 

.100 

f 

.307 

.087 

1.043 

IA 

.979 

H 

.520 

.147 

1A 

f 

H 

.139 

\ 

.442 

.125 

1.502 

u 

1.353 

f 

.846 

.240 

H 

f 

fi 

.223 

i 

.601 

.170 

2.044 

i* 

1.791 

ft 

1.287 

.365 

IA 

1 

H 

.353 

l 

.785 

.222 

2.670 

if 

2.287 

H 

1.858 

.526 

if 

i 

M 

.490 

li 

.994 

.282 

3.379 

itt 

2.847 

H 

2.580 

.731 

itt 

I* 

M 

.676 

li 

1.227 

.348 

4.173 

2 

3.464 

i 

3.464 

.981 

2 

n 

1^ 

.962 

11 

1.485 

.421 

5.049 

2& 

4.156 

1A 

4.546 

1.288 

2^ 

u 

1A 

1.220 

« 

1.767 

.501 

6.008 

21 

4.885 

1A 

5.801 

1.644 

21 

H 

1A 

1.515 

if 

2.074 

.588 

7.051 

2A 

5.689 

1A 

7.289 

2.065 

2A 

If 

iff 

1.852 

if 

2.405 

.681 

8.18 

2f 

6.549 

If 

9.005 

2.551 

2f 

If 

H 

2.272 

H 

2.761 

.782 

9.39 

2M 

7.475 

itt 

10.979 

3.111 

m 

if 

if 

2.817 

2 

3.142 

.890 

10.68 

3| 

8.457 

1A 

13.214 

3.744 

3f 

2 

IB 

3.333 

2* 

3.976 

1.127 

13.52 

3£ 

10.609 

if 

18.566 

5.260 

3£ 

21 

Hi 

4.823 

2* 

4.909 

1.391 

16.69 

31 

13.004 

itt 

25.195 

7.138 

31 

2£ 

2& 

6.549 

2! 

5.940 

1.683 

20.20 

4J 

15.642 

2| 

33.239 

9.418 

4| 

2f 

2^ 

8.552 

3 

7.069 

2.002 

24.03 

4| 

18.524 

2& 

42.837 

12.137 

4f 

3 

2H 

10.924 

31 

8.296 

2.350 

28.20 

5 

21.650 

2£ 

54.125 

15.335 

5 

31 

2H 

13.695 

3| 

9.621 

2.726 

32.71 

5f 

25.019 

2H 

67.239 

19.051 

5f 

3* 

3^ 

16.897 

3| 

11.045 

3.130 

37.56 

5f 

28.632 

2| 

82.317 

23.323 

5f 

3f 

3^ 

20.560 

4 

12.566 

3.561 

42.73 

6| 

32.488 

3^ 

99.495 

28.190 

6| 

4 

3H 

24.715 

[352 


ROUND  SLOTTED  NUTS 


ROUND  SLOTTED  NUTS 
NAVY  DEPARTMENT 


Diam. 
Bolt 

A 

B 

c 

D 

Diam. 
Bolt 

A 

B 

C 

D 

1 

If 

A 

1 

f 

5f 

9f 

H 

1 

5f 

1 

U 

A 

i 

1 

6 

101 

11 

i 

6 

1 

2 

f 

& 

1 

61 

10f 

11 

\ 

61 

11 

2f 

f 

A 

li 

6* 

11 

If 

A 

61 

u 

2| 

I 

A 

If 

61 

HI 

If 

A 

6f 

If 

2| 

A 

A 

if 

7 

HI 

If 

A 

7 

i| 

21 

ft 

A 

t| 

71 

121 

II 

A 

71 

l! 

31 

A 

A 

if 

7| 

12f 

II 

7| 

if 

3| 

i 

A 

H 

*i 

13 

H 

1 

7f 

if 

31 

1 

i 

4 

If 

8 

I3| 

U 

f 

8 

2 

3f 

i 

i 

2 

81 

131 

if 

f 

81 

21 

4i 

A 

I 

4 

21 

8^ 

141 

if 

H 

8| 

21 

*i 

f 

i 

2£ 

8| 

14| 

if 

H 

81 

2| 

41 

f 

A 

2| 

9 

15J 

U 

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9 

3 

51 

ii 

A 

3 

91 

15| 

if 

H 

91 

3i 

5f 

f 

A 

81 

9i 

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if 

f 

9| 

3£ 

61 

f 

A 

3* 

91 

16| 

H 

3 

4 

9f 

3f 

61 

H 

f 

31 

10 

161 

H 

f 

10 

4 

61 

1 

f 

4 

101 

17| 

H 

if 

101 

41 

7f 

tt 

f 

41 

i(H 

17| 

11 

if 

10| 

4| 

71 

i 

f 

4£ 

10| 

18 

2 

if 

lOf 

41 

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A 

41 

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2 

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if 

A 

5 

1H 

191 

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1 

11* 

si 

9 

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A 

51 

12 

20 

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1 

12 

5£ 

9f 

H 

7 
16 

5£ 

[353] 


BOX  WRENCHES 


BOX  WRENCHES  FOR  HEXAGON  AND  ROUND  SLOTTED  NUTS 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 


Tprv 

D 


deaTcmc e  , 


rf 


Diam. 
Bolt 

A 

B 

c 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

I 

K 

L 

M 

I 

U 

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2| 

U 

1 

f 

f 

12" 

A 

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If 

1 

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1 

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f 

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13$" 

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1 

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if 

1 

7 
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A 

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2A 

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21 

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1 

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21" 

A 

7 
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3i 

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A 

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2A 

3 

it 

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A 

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2 

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H 

A 

24" 

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2| 

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ii 

3* 

A 

4f 

2 

H 

H 

f 

2'!*" 

i 

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2M 

3* 

2 

31 

} 

4| 

2* 

ii 

H 

f 

2'3" 

i 

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31 

3f 

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41 

i 

5 

2i 

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f 

2'6" 

-  i 

4 

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3* 

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5* 

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ii 

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if 

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if 

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ii 

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3* 

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f 

5f 

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4 

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4 

61 

1 

81 

« 

if 

2i 

i 

4'1" 

f 

1 

61 

61 

41 

71 

1 

9 

3| 

if 

2f 

i* 

4'4" 

f 

if 

6* 

71 

4f 

7| 

1 

9f 

31 

if 

2^ 

H 

4'6" 

f 

i 

61 

7f 

4f 

81 

1 

10 

3f 

if 

2i 

M 

4'9" 

f 

i 

7i 

8 

5 

8| 

i* 

10f 

31 

H 

2| 

1A 

5'0" 

A 

H 

71 

81 

51 

9 

I* 

11 

4 

if 

2f 

ii 

5'3" 

A 

ii 

8 

81 

5| 

9| 

1* 

11* 

4* 

2 

21 

ii 

5'6" 

A 

a 

8f 

91 

[354] 


BOX  WRENCHES 


BOX  WRENCHES  FOR  HEXAGON  AND  ROUND  SLOTTED  NUTS 

(Continued) 
NAVY  DEPARTMENT 


Diam. 
Bolt 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

I 

K 

L 

M 

5! 

M 

M 

Hi 

4* 

2 

3 

1A 

5'9" 

A 

H 

81 

9f 

6 

lot 

U 

12f 

4| 

2f 

3f 

if 

6'0" 

i 

it 

91 

101 

8| 

10f 

it 

13 

4f 

2| 

3t 

1* 

.... 

i 

it 

91 

101 

6* 

11 

if 

131 

4f 

2| 

3f 

1* 

.... 

i 

if 

91 

101 

6| 

Hi 

if 

14 

5 

2i 

8| 

l\ 

i 

if 

lot 

lit 

7 

111 

i* 

141 

si 

21 

3f 

i* 

A 

if 

10f 

111 

9 

121 

i* 

151 

51 

21 

3f 

if 

A 

*i 

11 

12| 

7* 

12f 

i* 

15f 

5| 

21 

81 

if 

A 

tf 

HI 

13J 

7| 

13 

1* 

16 

5f 

21 

31 

1H 

A 

u 

HI 

121 

8 

13* 

if 

161 

5f 

2| 

4 

if 

f 

ii 

12| 

131 

9f 

13| 

if 

17 

5f 

21 

41 

1H 

f 

if 

121 

131 

if 

141 

if 

171 

6 

21 

4t 

1H 

f 

if 

12| 

14| 

8f 

14| 

if 

18 

6t 

21 

4f 

if 

f 

if 

131 

14| 

9 

15| 

if 

181 

6f 

2f 

41 

iH 

H 

if 

131 

15 

w 

15| 

if 

191 

ei 

2| 

41 

2 



H 

if 

14 

151 

H 

16 

1H 

19f 

6f 

2f 

4f 

2 

H 

if 

141 

15f 

9f 

16| 

i« 

20 

6f 

2f 

4f 

2^ 

H 

if 

141 

161 

10 

161 

2A 

201 

7 

3 

5 

21 

•H 

151 

161 

1(4 

tn 

2A 

211 

7i 

3 

5f 

2A 

I 

if 

151 

17 

10| 

m 

si 

211 

7t 

31 

5t 

21 



i 

4 

if 

151 

17f 

10| 

18 

21 

22 

71 

31 

5f 

2| 

f 

2 

161 

17| 

11 

181 

21 

221 

7f 

3t 

5* 

2& 

.... 

H 

2 

161 

181 

111 

19i 

2A 

231 

7f 

31 

5f 

2f 

H 

21 

171 

19 

12 

20 

2A 

241 

81 

3^ 

6 

2| 



f 

21 

18| 

191 

[355] 


LOCK  NUTS 

LOCK  NUTS  AND  SPLIT  PINS 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 


CQPl 

/*  *\  * — ^*™  ^--^v^  %.  ft 


Diam. 
Bolt 

B 

c 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

K 

L 

M 

i 

1 

i 

i 

A 

4 

1 

8 

i 

4 

A 

f 

4 

i 

8 

i 

16 

A 

8 

4 
1 

8 

\ 

1  6 

A 

i 

4 

i 

8 

i 

1  6 

A 

o 

1 

2f 

ii 

H 

1 

IA 

f 

A 

4 

1 
4 

8 
1 

16 
\ 

H 

21 

it 

H 

1 

iA 

f 

A 

1 

1 

A 

H 

2B 

it 

! 

A 

iA 

f 

A 

f 

A 

f 

if 

3 

2| 

it 

A 

if 

A 

A 

f 

A 

H 

ii 

8J 

21 

if 

H 

ii 

A 

A 

f 

A 

f 

if 

3£ 

2| 

1 

f 

if 

A 

A 

| 

A 

if 

« 

3H 

2| 

7 
8 

1 

if 

A 

A 

A 

1 

ii 

3| 

2H 

if 

if 

U 

i 

A 

I 

A 

if 

2 

41 

3 

if 

1* 

2 

i 

A 

A 

1 

i 

21 

4A 

3f 

1 

H 

21 

1 

1 

A 

i 

4 

H 

2£ 

5 

3| 

ii 

H 

2| 

A 

1 

A 

1 

4 

H 

21 

5A 

4| 

H 

if 

2f 

A 

i 

4 

i 

A 

if 

3 

51 

4| 

H 

if. 

3 

f 

i 

\ 

A 

H 

31 

6| 

41 

H 

2 

31 

f 

A 

\ 

A 

if 

31 

6tt 

51 

H 

21 

3£ 

f 

A 

\ 

A 

if 

«3f 

n 

5f 

if 

2| 

3f 

f 

A 

f 

f 

H 

<t 

7tt 

6 

1} 

2£ 

4 

f 

A 

f 

f 

2 

H 

81 

6| 

if 

2f 

41 

f 

A 

f 

f 

21 

41 

8A 

6! 

it 

21 

4| 

f 

f 

f 

f 

21 

4f 

9 

71 

if 

31 

4f 

7 
8 

f 

f 

f 

2f 

5 

9^ 

71 

if 

31 

5 

1 

f 

H 

A 

21 

51 

91 

71 

H 

3* 

51 

1 

f 

H 

A 

2f 

5£ 

10| 

81 

H 

31 

5^ 

1 

f 

H 

A 

2f 

51 

10H 

8f 

2 

3f 

5f 

1 

f 

f 

i 

21 

6 

HI 

9 

2 

4 

6 

1 

A 

f 

\ 

3 

61 

"tt 

9f 

2& 

4& 

61 

1 

A 

f 

i 

31 

« 

12i 

91 

21 

4f 

H 

1 

A 

f 

\ 

31 

a 

12| 

10| 

2& 

4^ 

6f 

U 

A 

f 

i 

3f 

[356] 


SPRING  COTTERS 


LOCK  NUTS  AND  SPLIT  PINS 

(Continued) 
NAVY  DEPARTMENT 


Diam. 
Bolt 

B 

c 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

K 

L 

M 

7 

13ft 

10| 

21 

4| 

7 

U 

ft 

1 

4 

1 

3£ 

71 

13| 

101 

2ft 

4H 

7* 

1| 

ft 

1 

2 

3f 

7£ 

13H 

ill 

2| 

5| 

7* 

1| 

A 

I 

i 

3f 

7f 

U| 

iif 

2ft 

5ft 

71 

II 

ft 

I 

1 

3| 

8 

14H 

12 

2| 

5£ 

8 

H 

1 

1 

ft 

4 

81 

15| 

12f 

2ft 

5H 

81 

H 

i 

1 

ft 

41 

8* 

15f 

12| 

2| 

51 

8£ 

ii 

i 

1 

ft 

4| 

8f 

16ft 

13J 

2H 

6ft 

8f 

if 

i 

1 

ft 

4| 

9 

16f 

13| 

2f 

6* 

9 

if 

i 

1 

ft 

4* 

SPRING  COTTERS 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General. — To  be  made  of  high-grade  material,  of  good  workmanship,  and  be 
free  from  defects  which  may  affect  the  serviceability  of  the  cotters. 

2.  Material. — Cotters  to  be  made  of  either  spring  brass  or  spring  steel,  as  specified. 

3.  Finish. — Surface  to  be  finished  smooth  and  the  diameter  to  be  uniform.     The 
ends  to  be  slightly  rounded,  beveled,  or  pointed  to  permit  easy  entering. 

4.  Sizes. — The  following  table  of  commercial  sizes  shows  the  various  lengths  for 
the  different  diameters: 


Diameter, 
in  Inches 

Length,  in  Inches        * 

ft 

1 

I 

i 

H 

H 

if 

2 

ft 

1 

f 

i 

H 

H 

if 

2 

i 

} 

I 

i 

H 

H 

H 

2 

2| 

2* 

ft 

1 

f 

i 

H 

H 

if 

2 

2J 

2* 

ft 

i 

I 

i 

H 

H 

if 

2 

21 

2* 

H 

1 

1 

i 

H 

H 

if 

2 

21 

2* 

ft 

f 

i 

H 

H 

if 

2 

2* 

2| 

2f 

3 

tt 

t 

i 

H 

li 

if 

2 

21 

2* 

2f 

3 

£s 

i 

H 

H 

lz 

2 

2i 

2i 

2f 

3 

i 

i 

H 

u 

11 

2 

2i 

91 

91 

3 

31 

31 

4 

ft 

i 

H 

H 

1x 

9 

2i 

2i 

22 

3 

31 

31 

4 

H 

1l 

? 

2i 

91 

91 

3 

31 

31 

4 

ft 

If 

2 

2i 

2i 

21 

3 

31 

32 

4 

5 

9 

2i 

2i 

2f 

3 

3t 

31 

4 

5 

6 

I 

3 

3^ 

3f 

4 

5 

6 

5.  Packing  and  Marking. — To  be  delivered  in  cardboard  boxes  containing  50  or  100 
cotters  each,  marked  with  the  name  of  the  material,  size,  quantity,  and  name  of  the 
manufacturer. 

[357] 


ACME  THREAD  SCREWS 


ACME  THREAD   SCREWS 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 


p  =  pitch  = 


No.  threads  per  in. 
d  =  depth  =  ~  -T-  .010 
f  =  flat  =  p  X  .3707 


BOLT 

SCREW  THREADS 

Nut 
Depth 

Outside 
Diam. 

Area 
Sq.  In. 

Threads 
Per 
Inch 

Pitch 
p 

Depth 
d 

Width  of  Flat 

Diam. 
at 
Root  of 
Thread 

Effective 
Area 
Sq.  In. 

Top 

Bottom 

f 

0.196 

8 

.125 

.073 

.046 

.041 

0.355 

0.099 

! 

I 

.307 

7 

.143 

.082 

.053 

.048 

0.462 

0.168 

1 

I 

.442 

6 

.167 

.094 

.062 

.057 

0.563 

0.249 

l 

1 

.601 

6 

.167 

.094 

.062 

.057 

0.688 

0.372 

H 

1 

.785 

5 

.200 

.110 

.074 

.069 

0.780 

0.478 

H 

1* 

.994 

5 

.200 

.110 

.074 

.069 

0.905 

0.643 

H 

U 

1.227 

4 

.250 

.135 

.093 

.088 

0.980 

0.754 

if 

if 

1.485 

4 

.250 

.135 

.093 

.088 

1.105 

0.959 

H 

H 

1.767 

4 

.250 

.135 

.093 

.088 

1.230 

1.188 

2 

H 

2.074 

4 

.250 

.135 

.093 

.088 

1.355 

1.442 

2| 

if 

2.405 

4 

.250 

.135 

.093 

.088 

1.480 

1.720 

2| 

H 

2.761 

4 

.250 

.135 

.093 

.088 

1.605 

2.023 

2| 

2 

3.142 

4 

.250 

.135 

.093 

.088 

1.730 

2.351 

2f 

2J 

3.976 

4 

.250 

.135 

.093 

.088 

1.980 

3.079 

3 

2| 

4.909 

4 

.250 

.135 

.093 

.088 

2.230 

3.906 

3* 

2| 

5.940 

4 

.250 

.135 

.093 

.088 

2.480 

4.600 

3f 

3 

7.069 

4 

.250 

.135 

.093 

.088 

2.730 

5.853 

4 

3i 

8.296 

4 

.250 

.135 

.093 

.088 

2.980 

6.975 

4f 

3* 

9.621 

4 

.250 

.135 

.093 

.088 

3.230 

8.194 

4f 

3f 

11.045 

4 

.250 

.135 

.093 

.088 

3.480 

9.511 

5 

4 

12.566 

4 

.250 

.135 

.093 

.088 

3.730 

10.927 

5f 

4i 

14.186 

4 

.250 

.135 

.093 

.088 

3.980 

12.441 

5f 

4* 

15.904 

4 

.250 

.135 

.093 

.088 

4.230 

14.053 

6 

41 

17.721 

4 

.250 

.135 

.093 

.088 

4.480 

15.763 

6f 

5 

19.635 

4 

.250 

.135 

.093 

.088 

4.730 

17.572 

6f 

5* 

23.758 

4 

.250 

.135 

.093 

.088 

5.230 

21.483 

71 

6 

28.274 

4 

.250 

.135 

.093 

.088 

5.730 

25.787 

8* 

[358] 


ACME  SCREW  THREADS 
ACME  SCREW  THREADS 

This  form  of  screw  thread  is  much  in  favor  as  a  substitute  for  square  thread  screws 
required  in  machine  construction. 


/'»  . tfQ°."» 

I  I  * Ar7— >  |  ^ 

I    I    * 


.!_ 


I1 


P=  pitch  =  :r= -i j : r 

No.  threads  per  inch 
d = depth  =  | +.010 
f  =flat     =  p  X  .3707 

Each  side  of  an  Acme  thread  is  at  an  angle  of  14|°,  or  29°  in  the  included  angle 
between  threads.  The  screw  itself  is  measured  by  standard,  or  any  given  outside 
diameter  suited  to  the  work.  Whatever  the  diameter,  the  thread  hi  the  nut  is  0.02 
inch  over  the  standard  or  given  diameter,  to  provide  a  clearance  space  at  the  top  of  the 
screw  thread ;  similarly  a  reduction  in  diameter  of  0.02  is  provided  at  the  bottom  of  the 
screw  thread  as  clearance  for  the  nut. 

The  depth  of  thread  is  nominally  the  same  as  for  a  square  thread  screw  of  equivalent 
diameter,  to  which  is  added  0.01  inch  on  each  side,  for  clearance.  This  allowance  for 
clearance  at  both  top  and  bottom  of  HIT 

thread  is  shown  in  the  accompanying       ^  N  U  1 

sketch.  As  compared  with  a  square 
thread  screw,  greater  strength  results 
from  the  Acme  form  of  thread  be- 
cause its  bottom  is  much  wider  than 
that  of  a  square  thread  of  equal 
pitch. 

Recapitulation.  —  The     various 
parts     of    the    29°    Screw     Thread, 


Acme    Standard,    are    obtained    as    follows: 


Width  of  point  of  tool  for  screw  or  tap  thread  =  ^ j—r1 — -5 : — t 

No.  of  threads  per  inch 

Width  of  screw  or  nut  thread  =  ^ ^— =J — 3 : — r 

No.  of  threads  per  inch 

Diameter  of  tap  =  diameter  of  screw  +  .020. 
Diameter  of  tap  or  screw  at  root 


-  .0052. 


diameter  of  screw 


\No.  of  li 


linear  threads  per  inch 


+  .020. 


Depth  of  thread  =  0      'XT j-r ^ r— 7  +  .010. 

2  X  No.  of  threads  per  inch 


TABLE  OF  THREAD  PARTS 


No.  of  Thds. 
per  In. 
Linear 

Depth 
of 
Thread 

Width  at 
Top  of 
Thread 

Width  at 
Bottom 
of  Thread 

Space  at 
Top  of 
Thread 

Thickness 
at  Root 
of  Thread 

1 

.5100 

.3707 

.3655 

.6293 

.6345 

H 

.3850 

.2780 

.2728 

.4720 

.4772 

2 

.2600 

.1853 

.1801 

.3147 

.3199 

3 

.1767 

.1235 

.1183 

.2098 

.2150 

4 

.1350 

.0927 

.0875 

.1573 

.1625 

5 

.1100 

.0741 

.0689 

.1259 

.1311 

6 

.0933 

.0618 

.0566 

.1049 

.1101 

7 

.0814 

.0529 

.0478 

.0899 

.0951 

8 

.0725 

.0463 

.0411 

.0787 

.0839 

9 

.0655 

.0413 

.0361 

.0699 

.0751 

10 

.0600 

.0371 

.0319 

.0629 

.0681 

[359] 


BASTARD  THREAD  SCREWS 


BASTARD  THREAD  SCREWS 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 


BOLT 

SCREW  THREADS 

Nut 
Depth 

Outside 
Diam. 

Area 
Sq.  In. 

Threads 
Per 
Inch 

Pitch 
P 

Depth 
d 

Width 
f 

Diam. 
at 
Root  of 
Thread 

Effective 
Area 
Sq.  In. 

i 

0.196 

6 

.167 

.083 

.042 

0.333 

0.087 

I 

I 

.307 

5 

.200 

.100 

.050 

.425 

.142 

1 

3. 

4 

.442 

5 

.200 

.100 

.050 

.550 

.238 

1 

.601 

4£ 

.222 

.111 

.056 

.653 

.335 

if 

1 

.785 

4 

.250 

.125 

.063 

.750 

.442 

U 

H 

.994 

4 

.250 

.125 

.063 

.875 

.601 

ii 

H 

1.227 

3f 

.286 

.143 

.071 

.964 

.730 

if 

if 

1.485 

31 

.286 

.143 

.071 

1.090 

.933 

H 

if 

.767 

3 

.333 

.167 

.083 

1.167 

1.070 

2 

if 

2.074 

3 

.333 

.167 

.083 

1.290 

1.307 

2| 

if 

2.405 

3 

.333 

.167 

.083 

1.417 

1.577 

2f 

if 

2.761 

?| 

.400 

.200 

.100 

1.475 

1.709 

3 

2 

3.142 

2* 

.400 

.200 

.100 

1.600 

2.011 

2| 

2i 

3.976 

21 

.400 

.200 

.100 

1.850 

2.688 

3 

2£ 

4.909 

2 

.500 

.250 

.125 

2.000 

3.142 

31 

2| 

5.940 

2 

.500 

.250 

.125 

2.250 

3.976 

3f 

3 

7.069 

2 

.500 

.250 

.125 

2.500 

4.909 

4 

3| 

8.296 

2 

.500 

.250 

.125 

2.750 

5.940 

41 

81 

9.621 

2 

.500 

.250 

.125 

3.000 

7.069 

41 

3f 

11.045 

2 

.500 

.250 

.125 

3.250 

8.296 

5 

4 

12.566 

1J 

.667 

.333 

.167 

3.335 

8.736 

51 

41 

14.186 

1| 

.667 

.333 

.167 

3.580 

10.066 

51 

4| 

15.904 

H 

.667 

.333 

.167 

3.830 

11.520 

6 

4| 

17.721 

H 

.667 

.333 

.167 

4.080 

13.074 

6| 

5 

19.635 

li 

.667 

.333 

.167. 

4.330 

14.725 

61 

5* 

23.758 

1J 

.667 

.333 

.167 

4.580 

16.475 

7f 

6 

28.274 

11 

.667 

.333 

.167 

4.830 

18.323 

81 

BASTARD  THREAD  SCREWS 

As  the  name  implies,  these  screws  are  somewhat  irregular,  therefore,  difficult  of 
standardization.  In  general,  they  serve  as  substitutes  for  square  thread  screws.  A 
coarse  pitch  of  thread  gives  rapid  movement,  and  the  tapering  sides  of  thread  facilitate 
the  operation  of  a  closing  and  disengaging  nut. 

[360] 


SQUARE  THREAD  SCREWS 

The  proportions  are  always  assumed  by  the  designer,  who  adapts  each  screw  to  the 
service  for  which  it  is  intended.  The  accompanying  table,  prepared  for  the  use  of  the 
Navy  Department,  is  intended  to  supply  its  own  needs  without  reference  to  commercial 
application. 

SQUARE  THREAD  SCREWS 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 


BOLT 

SCREW  THREADS 

Nut 
Depth 

Outside 
Diam. 

Area 
Sq.  In. 

Threads 
per 
Inch 

Pitch 
P 

Depth 
d 

Width 
£ 

Diam. 
at 
Root  of 
Thread 

Effective 
Area 
Sq.  In. 

\ 

0.196 

6 

.167 

.083 

.083 

0.333 

0.087 

1 

1 

.307 

5 

.200 

.100 

.100 

.425 

.142 

1 

.442 

5 

.200 

.100 

.100 

.550 

.238 

H 

! 

.601 

4£ 

.222 

.111 

.111 

.653 

.335 

U 

i 

.785 

4 

.250 

.125 

.125 

.750 

.442 

11 

U 

.994 

4 

.250 

.125 

.125 

.875 

.601 

if 

If 

1.227 

81 

.286 

.143 

.143 

.964 

.730 

U 

H 

1.485 

31 

.286 

.143 

.143 

1.090 

.933 

2 

U 

1.767 

3 

.333 

.167 

.167 

1.167 

1.070 

2* 

if 

2.074 

3 

.333 

.167 

.167 

1.290 

1.307 

2| 

if 

2.405 

3 

.333 

.167 

.167 

1.417 

1.577 

2f 

H 

2.761 

2| 

.400 

.200 

.200 

1.475 

1.709 

2f 

2 

3.142 

2| 

.400 

.200 

.200 

1.600 

2.011 

3 

*\ 

3.976 

2£ 

.400 

.200 

.200 

1.850 

2.688 

3| 

2| 

4.909 

2 

.500 

.250 

.250 

2.000 

3.142 

3f 

2f 

5.940 

2 

.500 

.250 

.250 

2  .  250 

3.976 

4* 

3 

7.069 

2 

.500 

.250 

.250 

2.500 

4.909 

4£ 

3J 

8.296 

2 

.500 

.250 

.250 

2.750 

5.940 

41 

3| 

9.621 

2 

.500 

.250 

.250 

3.000 

7.069 

5i 

3| 

11.045 

2 

.500 

.250 

.250 

3.250 

8.296 

5f 

4 

12.566 

H 

.667 

.333 

.333 

3.335 

8.736 

6 

4* 

14.186 

if 

.667 

.333 

.333 

3.580 

10.066 

6| 

41 

15.904 

If 

.667 

.333 

.333 

3.830 

11.520 

6f 

4| 

17.721 

i* 

.667 

.333 

.333 

4.080 

13.074 

71 

5 

19.635 

H 

.667 

.333 

.333 

4.330 

14.725 

7£ 

5% 

23.758 

H 

.667 

.333 

.333 

4.580 

16.475 

8i 

6 

28.274 

li 

.667 

.333 

.333 

4.830 

18.323 

9 

[361 


SQUARE  THREAD  SCREWS 


SQUARE  THREAD  SCREWS 

This  form  of  screw  thread  is  much  used  in  machine  construction  by  reason  of  the  large 
bearing  surface  presented  by  the  sides  of  the  screw;  its  coarser  pitch,  than  a  standard 
screw,  permits  rapid  motion  to  the  piece  requiring  to  be  moved.  The  absence  of  oblique 
pressure  tending  to  burst  a  solid  nut,  or  to  open  a  disengaging  nut,  is  in  its  favor. 

The  number  of  threads  per  inch  is  commonly  half  that  of  a  standard  screw  of  the 
same  diameter,  but  this  proportion  is  not  closely  followed;  see  table  of  Square  Thread 
Screws,  Navy  Department.  The  thickness  of  thread  and  width  of  face  are  generally 
half  the  pitch,  but  this  is  subject  to  modification,  for  the  required  pitch  may  be  greatly 
in  excess  of  these  proportions. 

Rules  for  square  thread  screws  for  ordinary  service  as  given  by  Unwin  are: 

Pitch  =p  =0.16  +  0.08 


Threads  per  inch  =  n  =  ~ 
Diameter  at  bottom  of  thread 
Depth  of  thread  =  ^ 


d1=d  — —  =  0.85d  — 0.075 
n 


To  protect  the  sharp  corners  of  square  thread  screws  from  injury,  they  are  some- 
times slightly  rounded,  varying  with  the  amount  of  protection  afforded  by  the  machine 
in  which  the  screw  is  to  be  used.  Some  designers  give  the  side  of  thread  a  slight  angle; 
this  facilitates  manufacture,  as  also  the  entrance  of  jaws  of  a  disengaging  nut. 

The  bearing  pressure  allowable  on  a  square  thread  is  subject  to  wide  variation.  In 
general  the  problem  is  not  one  of  strength  of  material,  as  it  is  of  lubrication.  Slow 
moving  screws,  intermittent  in  action,  well  lubricated,  may  carry  a  pressure  of  1,000 
pounds  per  square  inch.  If  the  service  is  continuous,  the  speed  moderately  high,  say 
300  feet  per  minute,  the  pressure  should  in  no  case  exceed  150  pounds  per  square  inch  of 
surface  contact.  Thrust  bearin  s  for  torpedo  boats  are  analogous  in  some  respects  to 
square  thread  screws;  the  allowable  pressure  for  naval  vessels  approximates  50  pounds 
per  square  inch  of  collar  surface. 

MULTIPLE  THREAD  SCREWS 

Screws  having  double  or  triple  threads  are  chiefly  used  to  transmit  motion.  When 
the  pitch  of  a  screw  is  required  to  be  much  greater  than  the  customary  proportions  a 
serious  loss  of  strength  may  result  through  an  unnecessary  reduction  of  its  diameter. 


|<-prr<W*  TRIPLE 


This  is  overcome  hi  practice  by  making  such  a  screw  double  or  triple  threaded  without 
change  of  pitch.  A  deep  thread  weakens  a  screw  because  the  effective  diameter  at 
root  of  thread  is  less  than  would  be  the  case  with  a  shallow  thread.  The  progressive 
depths  for  three  screws  of  the  same  pitch  are  shown  in  the  sketch. 

[362] 


BUTTRESS  THREAD  SCREWS 


BUTTRESS  THREAD  SCREWS 

This  form  of  screw  thread  is  a  modification  of  both  the  triangular  and  square  threads; 

the  intent  being  to  combine  the  smaller  friction  of  a  square  thread  with  the  greater 

strength  of  a  triangular  thread. 

Like  the  square  thread,  it  has  one  surface  normal  to  the  axis  of  the  screw,  and  this  is  the 

surface  which  receives  the  thrust.     Designed  for  resisting  a  force  acting  in  one  direction 

only,  this  form  of  thread  is  well  adapted 
for  breech  blocks  in  heavy  ordinance. 
The  shearing  strength  for  a  given  length 
of  nut  is  twice  that  of  a  square  thread. 

As  to  pitch  and  depth  of  thread  they 
may  follow  the  tabular  dimensions  for 
U.  S.  standard  threads,  or,  as  usually  is 
the  case,  specially  designed  for  the  work. 
The  rear  angle  of  a  section  of  the  thread 
is  45°.  Tops  and  bottoms  of  threads  are 
cut  off  and  filled  in  as  shown  at  b  in  the 

sketch.     In  amount  b  may  be  one-sixth  to  one-eighth  of  the  total  depth  A.     If  points 

and  roots  are  not  left  flat,  as  in  the  U.  S.  threads,  they  may  be  slightly  rounded,  but  less 

in  amount  than  shown  for  Whitworth  threads. 


KNUCKLE  THREAD  SCREWS 

This  form  of  thread  is  sometimes  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  screw  jacks  in- 
tended for  the  use  of  contractors,  builders,  etc.  Screw  jacks  are  commonly  subjected 
to  rough  usage  and  receive  but  little 

care  at  best;  the  excessive  rounding  u       w         y 

of  the  outer  corners  of  the  threads  is  J  j        ' 

thought  to  lessen  the  possible  injury         ^~~  --*'-  - 
to  the  screw  in  service.     The  half- 
round  bottom  of  the  thread,  as  shown  'V>^^jy   '  'fot^Jy  '  '^^^/^ 
in  the  sketch,  serves  only  to  make  '?/9w'         ''%&/  4%W" 
the  screw   symmetrical    in    appear- 
ance, inasmuch  as  the  bottom  of  a 

screw  thread  is  not  liable  to  injury.     Threads  per  inch  are  commonly  the  same  as  for 
square  thread  screws  of  corresponding  diameter. 


KNUCKLE  THREADS 


AREA  IN  SQUARE  INCHES 

Diameter 

Threads 

Diameter 

Depth 

in 
Inches 

Imsh 

at  Bottom 
of  Thread 

Bottom 

Outside 

of 

Nut 

of  Thread 

Diameter 

2 

2£ 

1.60 

2.01 

3.14 

3 

2* 

2£ 

1.85 

2.69 

3.98 

3| 

2* 

2 

2.00 

3.14 

4.91 

31 

2i 

2 

2.25 

3.98 

5.94 

41 

3 

2 

2.50 

4.91 

7.07 

ii 

8i 

2 

2.75 

5.94 

8.30 

41 

31 

2 

3.00 

7.07 

9.62 

5J 

3* 

2 

3.25 

8.30 

11.05 

5f 

4 

ti 

3.34 

8.74 

12.57 

6 

[363 


SHARP  V-THREAD  SCREWS 


SHARP  V-THREAD  SCREWS 

These  screws  are  not  in  general  use  and  are  not  standardized.  The  following  table 
relating  to  V-thread  screws  indicates  the  number  of  threads  per  inch  for  taps  and  dies 
meeting  ordinary  commercial  requirements.  The  dimensions  of  bolt  heads  and  nuts 
are  Manufacturers'  Standard. 


No.  threads  per  inch 


d  =  depth  =  p  X  .866 


SHARP  V-THREAD  SCREWS 

This  Table  is  not  United  States  standard 


Diam. 
Screw 
A 

Thds. 

Im:h 
C 

Thread 
Const. 

Diam. 
at 
Root  of 
Thread 
B 

SQUARE  HEAD  AND  NUT 

HEXAGON  HEAD  AND  NUT 

Long 
Diam. 
E 

Short 
Diam. 
F 

Head 
Thick. 
C 

Nut 
Thick. 
H 

Long 
Diam. 

Short 
Diam. 

Head 
Thick. 

Nut 
Thick. 

1 

20 

.0866 

.1634 

ft 

I 

ft 

ft 

ft 

t 

ft 

ft 

& 

18 

.0962 

.2163 

If 

it 

H 

i 

H 

H 

M 

i 

I 

16 

.1083 

.2667 

Ii 

ft 

ft 

ft 

Ii 

ft 

ft 

ft 

ft 

14 

.1236 

.3139 

tt 

li 

fi 

f 

f 

Ii 

H 

1  ' 

i 

12 

.1443 

.3557 

i& 

i 

t 

ft 

1 

f 

f 

ft 

ft 

12 

.1443 

.4182 

ift 

H 

H 

1 

B 

M 

H 

i 

1 

11 

.1575 

.4675 

an 

H 

H 

ft 

1ft 

M 

if 

ft 

I 

10 

.1732 

.5768 

m 

11 

ft 

H 

Ml 

H 

ft 

H 

i 

9 

.1924 

.6826 

iff 

ift 

Ii 

H 

II! 

i* 

Ii 

H 

i 

8 

.2165 

.7835 

2| 

ii 

I 

H 

m 

U 

1 

if 

i| 

7 

.2474 

.8776 

2H 

1H 

H 

H 

iii 

1H 

M 

H 

it 

7 

.2474 

.0026 

2ft 

H 

H 

n 

2H 

U 

H 

U 

H 

6 

.2887 

.0863 

2H 

2ft 

ift 

If 

2|f 

2ft 

Ift 

H 

ii 

6 

.2887 

.2113 

3ft 

21 

H 

H 

2M 

21 

H 

ii 

it 

5 

.3465 

.2785 

3*i 

2ft 

1ft 

l| 

2H 

2ft 

1ft 

If 

1! 

5 

.3465 

.4035 

3ff 

2f 

ift 

l! 

3^ 

2| 

1ft 

If 

11 

4i 

.3849 

.4901 

3ft 

2H 

1H 

II 

31 

2M 

1H 

Ii 

2 

4* 

.3849 

.6151 

41 

3 

H 

2 

3M 

3 

H 

2 

2i 

4i 

.3849 

.7401 

4i 

3ft 

1H 

21 

3H 

3ft 

IH 

a* 

21 

4| 

.3849 

.8651 

4ff 

3| 

1H 

21 

3H 

31 

iH 

21 

2f 

4| 

.3849 

1.9901 

5^ 

3^ 

1M 

2f 

4^ 

3ft 

iff 

2| 

2i 

4 

.4330 

2.0670 

5H 

31 

H 

21 

4H 

3f 

if 

2| 

2f 

4 

.4330 

2.1920 

5ft 

3H 

IB 

2f 

4ff 

m 

i» 

21 

2! 

4 

.4330 

2.3170 

5H 

41 

2ft 

21 

4H 

4i 

2ft 

2f 

2| 

4 

.4330 

2.442 

6& 

4A 

2A 

21 

4H 

4ft 

2& 

21 

3 

3| 

.4949 

2.5051 

6H 

41 

21 

3 

6M 

4i 

21 

3 

[364] 


S.  A.  E.  STANDARD  SCREWS 


S.  A.  E.  STANDARD  SCREWS 

The  form  of  screw  thread  adopted  by  the  Society  of  Automobile  Engineers  is  the 
same  as  in  the  Franklin  Institute  Standard,  that  is,  the  contained  angle  of  the  flat 
sides  of  the  thread  is  60°,  with  a  flat  top  and  flat  bottom  equal  to  one-eighth  of  the 
pitch.  The  number  of  threads  per  inch  is  greater  than  in  the  Franklin  Institute 
Standard. 

The  threaded  portion  of  the  bolt  equals  one  and  a  half  times  the  diameter  of  screw. 

Bolts  and  nuts  to  be  made  of  steel,  not  less  than  100,000  pounds  tensile  strength, 
with  an  elastic  limit  of  60,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Screw  threads,  bolt  heads,  and  plain  nuts  are  to  be  left  soft;  castle  nuts  are  to  be 
case-hardened. 

Standard  details  and  corresponding  dimensions  relating  to  head,  nut,  and  castle 
nut  are  given  in  the  accompanying  illustration  and  table. 

S.  A.  E.  STANDARD  SCREWS 


SCREW 


BOLT  HEAD  AND  NUT  DETAILS 


Diam. 
A 

Thds. 
per 
Inch 

B 

c 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

K 

L 

M 

Diam. 
Drfi 

t 

I 

28 

A 

I 

A 

& 

& 

A 

A 

A 

A 

^6 

A 

A 

24 

i 

li 

H 

A 

A 

B 

li 

ft 

X 

A 

H 

1 

24 

A 

& 

A 

A 

1 

li 

H 

1 

i 

A 

li 

& 

20 

I 

-B 

li 

A 

i 

1 

i 

1 

1 

A 

t 

i 

20 

I 

H 

I 

A 

1 

A 

* 

A 

1 

A 

A 

& 

18 

1 

IA 

li 

A 

1 

li 

M 

A 

A 

1 

i 

I 

18 

H 

IA 

H 

A 

1 

If 

ft 

i 

& 

l 

li 

» 

16 

i 

1* 

H 

A 

1 

B 

I 

i 

A 

i 

If 

1 

16 

1A 

l& 

A 

A 

1 

B 

H 

i 

A 

1 

H 

1 

14 

li 

1A 

B 

A 

1 

If 

If 

i 

A 

1 

If 

l 

14 

IA 

IB 

i 

A 

1 

1 

l 

i 

A 

i 

If 

li 

12 

if 

u 

H 

& 

A 

H 

1A 

A 

A 

li 

1A 

if 

12 

1« 

IA 

H 

A 

& 

IA 

li 

A 

A 

H 

1A 

H 

12 

2 

1A 

IA 

A 

L 

4 

IB 

IB 

1 

i 

H 

IB 

M 

12 

2& 

IB 

II 

A 

i 

1A 

li 

f 

1 

H 

IB 

WfflTWORTH  STANDARD  THREADS 

The  form  of  thread  proposed  by  Sir  J.  Whitworth  and  adopted  by  English  engineers 
is  one  with  flat  sides,  at  an  angle  to  each  other  of  55°,  with  a  rounded  top  and  bottom. 
The  proportions  for  the  rounded  top  and  bottom  are  obtained  by  dividing  the  depth  of  a 
sharp  thread  having  sides  of  55°  into  six  equal  parts,  and  within  the  lines  formed  by 

[3651 


WHITWORTH  STANDARD  SCREW  THREADS 

the  sides  of  the  thread  and  the  top  and  bottom  dividing  lines,  inscribing  a  circle,  which 
determines  the  form  of  top  and  bottom  of  thread,  thus: 


p  =  pitch  = 


1 


No.  threads  per  inch 


d  =  depth  =  pX  .6403 
r  =  radius  =  p  X  .1373 


WHITWORTH  STANDARD  SCREW  THREADS,  NUTS,  AND  BOLTS 


Diameter 
of 
Bolt 

HEAD  AND  NUT 
OVER 

Height 
Nut 

Height 
of  Head 
for 
Bolts 

Threads 
Inch 

Area  at 
Bottom  of 
Thread 

Thick, 
of  Check 

Nut 

Size  of 
Split  Pin 
L.  S.  G. 

Flats 

Angles 

i 

4 

\ 

1 

i 

A 

20 

0.027 

A 

No.      14 

I 

H 

if 

1 

A 

16 

.068 

1 

13 

\ 

if 

1ft 

i 

ft 

12 

.121 

f 

12 

I 

If 

t| 

f 

£ 

11 

.203 

ft 

11 

I 

ift 

II 

i 

H 

10 

.303 

A 

10 

i 

It 

Hi 

1 

i 

9 

.421 

f 

9 

1 

lit 

IH 

1 

7 
1 

8 

.554 

f 

8 

U 

H 

21- 

li 

1 

7 

.697 

H 

7 

H 

2ft 

2f 

H 

& 

7 

.894 

H 

6 

if 

2ft 

2ft 

H 

1& 

6 

1.059 

Ift 

5 

ri 

2ft 

2H 

If 

Ift 

6 

1.300 

H 

4 

it 

2ft 

3 

H 

tft 

5 

1.471 

11 

3 

if 

21. 

3A 

U 

i* 

5 

1.752 

i& 

2 

11 

3 

3^ 

U 

if 

4* 

1.986 

if 

1 

2 

3i 

3f 

2 

if 

4£ 

2.311 

H 

1 

2* 

3ft 

4^ 

2| 

2 

4 

2.925 

A 

2* 

31 

^ 

2i 

2A 

4 

3.732 

A 

21 

4ft 

4H 

2f 

2^ 

3* 

4.463 

.  .  . 

f 

3 

4 

54 

3 

2f 

3| 

5.449 

f 

31 

41 

5f 

31 

2H 

31 

6.406 

... 

f 

3* 

5ft 

6 

3^ 

3^6 

31 

7.572 

A 

3f 

5ft 

6f 

3| 

31 

3 

8.656 

A 

4 

5H 

61 

4 

3^ 

3 

10.026 

.  .  . 

1 

41 

61 

7f 

41 

3f 

21 

11.370 

i 

4| 

6M 

71 

4^ 

3H 

21 

12.913 

... 

ft 

4f 

71 

8& 

4! 

4| 

2f 

14.413 

ft 

5 

7H 

9 

5 

4f 

2f 

16.145 

... 

f 

The  above  table  is  from  Seaton  and  Rounthwaite's  "  Pocket-Book  of  Marine  En- 
gineering," as  is  also  the  following  table  on  the  strengths  of  studs  and  bolts.  The 
table  is  based  on  the  relation: 

Working  stress  per  sq.  in.  =  (Area  at  bottom  of  thread)^  X  C;  where  C  =  5,000 
,for  iron  or  mild  steel,  and  1,000  for  Muntz  or  gun-metal.  For  iron  or  steel  bolts  above 

[366] 


WHITWORTH  STANDARD  SCREW  THREADS 


2  inches  diameter,  and  gun-metal  or  bronze  ones  above  3£  inches  diameter,  the  moment 
of  the  twisting  stress  is  so  small,  proportionately,  that  it  may  be  neglected. 

Studs  and  bolts  may  be  loaded  to  the  figures  given  in  the  table  whether  the  load 
is  daad  (as  in  the  case  of  a  joint),  or  live  (as  in  the  case  of  a  connecting-rod  bolt),  as  in 
the  latter  case  mild  steel  will  always  be  used,  and  the  shearing  stress  due  to  tightening 
up  is  practically  absent. 

Mild  steel  studs  and  bolts  should  always  be  fitted  with  iron  nuts,  as  steel  ones  have  a 
much  greater  tendency  to  seize,  and  so  greatly  increase  the  twisting  stress;  for  the  same 
reason  Muntz  metal  or  naval  brass  studs  should  always  have  iron  nuts  if  possible. 

Gun-metal  and  the  various  bronzes  are  unsatisfactory  materials  for  small  studs  and 
bolts,  not  because  of  any  lack  of  tensile  strength — which  is  often  high — but  because 
of  their  very  low  elastic  limit  under  a  shearing  stress. 

When  iron  or  steel  studs  are  used  in  connection  with  gun-metal  steam  or  water 
valves,  etc.,  they  must  not  be  allowed  to  penetrate  into  the  steam  or  water  space,  or 
they  will  apidly  corrode  and  come  loose. 

The  part  of  a  stud  that  is  screwed  into  the  work  should  be:  Not  less  than  1£  diame- 
ters long  when  screwed  into  cast  iron,  and  1|  diameters  when  not  inconvenient. 

Nor  less  than  1  diameter  long  when  screwed  into  gun-metal,  wrought  iron,  or  cast  steel. 

STRENGTH  OF  STUDS  AND  BOLTS.     WHITWORTH  THREADS 


Diameter 
Stud  or 
Bolt 

IRON  OR  MILD  STEEL 

MUNTZ  OK  GUN-METAL 

Working  Stress 
in  Pounds  per 
Square  Inch 

Effective  Strength 
of  1  Bolt  or  Stud 
in  Pounds 

Working  Stress 
in  Pounds  per 
Square  Inch 

Effective  Strength 
of  1  Bolt  or  Stud 
in  Pounds 

f 

2,000 

250 

400 

50 

I 

2,500 

500 

500 

100 

1 

3,000 

900 

600 

180 

1 

3,400 

1,450 

680 

290 

1 

3,900 

2,150 

780 

430 

tj 

4,300 

3,000 

860 

600 

t| 

4,700 

4,200 

940 

840 

If 

5,100 

5,400 

1,020 

1,080 

1* 

5,500 

7,100 

1,100 

1,420 

H 

5,800 

8,500 

1,160 

1,700 

H 

6,300 

11,000 

1,260 

2,200 

if 

6,600 

13,100 

1,320 

2,620 

2 

7,000 

16,100 

1,400 

3,220 

2i 

7,000 

20,400 

1,560 

4,560 

2| 

7,000 

26,100 

1,730 

6,450 

2f 

7,000 

31,200 

1,860 

8,300 

3 

7,000 

38,100 

2,030 

11,000 

3i 

7,000 

44,800 

2,170 

13,900 

3| 

7,000 

53,000 

2,350 

17,800 

3! 

7,000 

60,500 

2,500 

21,600 

4 

7,000 

70,100 

2,500 

25,000 

4J 

7,000 

79,500 

2,500 

28,400 

4* 

7,000 

90,300 

2,500 

32,200 

4| 

7,000 

100,800 

2,500 

36,000 

5 

7,000 

113,000 

2,500 

40,300 

51 

7,000 

124,600 

2,500 

44,500 

5£ 

7,000 

138,000 

2,500 

49,200 

[367] 


BRITISH  ASSOCIATION  SCREW  THREADS 


BRITISH  ASSOCIATION  STANDARD  THREAD 

This  standard  has  been  adopted  in  England  by  manufacturers  of  small  screws  used 
by  electrical  and  other  instrument  makers. 

The  form  of  thread  is  similar  to  Whitworth's,  the  angle  of  the  V  is  47|°,  the  top 
and  bottom  of  threads  are  rounded  off  to  two-elevenths  of  the  pitch  thus: 


I 


p  =  pitch  = 


No.  thrds.  per  mm. 
depth  =  p  X  .6 
2  Xp 


r  =  radius 


11 


From  Unwin:  Let  d  =  diameter  of  screw,  and  p  =  pitch  in  millimeters.  Then 
for  screws  less  than  6  mm.  in  diameter  a  series  of  pitches  are  assumed  0.9°,  0.91,  0.92 
.  .  .  and  each  screw  pitch  is  characterized  by  a  number  which  is  the  index  of  0.9  in 
that  series.  For  each  of  these  pitches  a  standard  diameter  is  selected,  given  by  the 
equation  d  =  6  pf .  The  rounding  at  top  and  bottom  of  threads  is  j2T  of  the  pitch; 
the  depth  of  thread  is  |  of  the  pitch.  The  dimensions  being  in  millimeters. 

BRITISH  ASSOCIATION  STANDARD  SCREW  THREADS 


DIMENSIONS  i 

NT  MILLIMETERS 

DIMENSIONS 

IN  INCHES 

Threads 

Number 

Diameter 

Pitch 

Diameter 

Pitch 

per  Inch 

0 

6.0 

1.00 

.236 

.0394 

25.4 

1 

5.3 

.90 

.209 

.0354 

28.2 

2 

4.7 

.81 

.185 

.0319 

31.4 

3 

4.1 

.73 

.161 

.0287 

34.8 

4 

3.6 

.66 

.142 

.0260 

38.5 

5 

3.2 

.59 

.126 

.0232 

43.0 

6 

2.8 

.53 

.110 

.0209 

47.9 

7 

2.5 

.48 

.098 

.0189 

52.9 

8 

2.2 

.43 

.087 

.0169 

59.1 

9 

1.9 

.39 

.075 

.0154 

65.1 

10 

.7 

.35 

.067 

.0138 

72.6 

11 

.5 

.31 

.059 

.0122 

81.9 

12 

.3 

.28 

.051 

.0110 

90.7 

13 

.2 

.25 

.047 

.0098 

101.0 

14 

.0 

.23 

.039 

.0091 

110.0 

15 

.90 

.21 

.035 

.0083 

121.0 

16 

.79 

.19 

.031 

.0075 

134.0 

17 

.70 

.17 

.028 

.0067 

149.0 

18 

.62 

.15 

.024 

.0059 

169.0 

19 

.54 

.14 

.021 

.0055 

181.0 

20 

.48 

.12 

.019 

.0047 

212.0 

21 

.42 

.11 

.017 

.0043 

231.0 

22 

.37 

.098 

.015 

.0039 

259.0 

23 

.33 

.089 

.013 

.0035 

285.0 

24 

.29 

.080 

.011 

.0031 

317.0 

25 

.25 

.072 

.010 

.0028 

353.0 

[368] 


INTERNATIONAL  STANDARD  SCREW  THREADS 


p  -  pitch  -  NQ    threads  per  inch 

d  =  depth  =  p  X  .6403 
r  =  radius  =  p  X  .1373 


Diameter, 
Inches 

Threads 
per  Inch 

Diameter, 
Inches 

Threads 
per  Inch 

Diameter, 
Inches 

Threads 
per  Inch 

Diameter, 
Inches 

Threads 
per  Inch 

i 

25 

u 

9 

2 

7 

3f 

4* 

& 

22 

1A 

9 

2| 

7 

3| 

4* 

1 

20 

11 

9 

2i 

6 

4 

4* 

& 

18 

1A 

9 

2| 

6 

4* 

4 

1 

16 

H 

8 

2| 

6 

4| 

4 

& 

16 

l* 

8 

2| 

6 

4| 

4 

I 

14 

l| 

8 

2| 

6 

5 

4 

H 

14 

1A 

8 

2| 

6 

5* 

3| 

! 

12 

U 

8 

3 

5 

5* 

3* 

H 

U 

HI 

8 

3* 

5 

51 

H 

i 

11 

If 

7 

3* 

5 

6 

3* 

if 

11 

in 

7 

31 

5 

l 

10 

u 

7 

3* 

41 

l& 

10 

IH 

7 

3f 

4* 

INTERNATIONAL  STANDARD  SCREW  THREADS 

SYSTEM  INTERNATIONAL 

The  form  of  thread  used  is  similar  to  the  Franklin  Institute  Standard;  that  is,  the 
thread  has  flat  sides,  the  contained  angle  between  any  two  threads  is  60°;  the  width 
of  flat  at  top  and  bottom  of  thread  is  one-eighth  of  the  pitch.  A  clearance  at  the 
bottom  of  thread — not  exceeding  one-sixteenth  of  the  height  of  the  original  triangle — is 
included  in  the  specifications — and  it  is  recommended  that  the  clearance  occurring  at 
the  bottom  of  the  screw  shall  be  rounded.  The  clearance  is  obligatory,  but  the  bottom 
of  the  screw  may  or  may  not  be  flat,  inasmuch  as  the  rounded  bottom  is  left  to  the 
discretion  of  the  manufacturer. 

This  standard  differs  in  some  respects  from  the  French  Standard,  and  the  later 
French  Standard  differs  from  that  formulated  by  Armengaud. 

In  the  following  table  the  standard  dimensions  are  in  terms  of  the  Metric  System; 
English  equivalents  are  supplied  in  parallel  columns  for  reference  only. 

INTERNATIONAL  AND  FRENCH  STANDARD  THREAD — (Metric  System) 


J/V 

T^ 

/      \ 

S-i 

/ 

\             i 

z=4  a 

_/ 

\        / 

6    8 

v~ 

—  8  ^ 

/->> 

pitch 


No.  threads  per  inch 
d  =  depth  =  p  X  .6495 

f=flat     =| 


r369 


INTERNATIONAL  STANDARD  SCREW  THREADS 


INTERNATIONAL  STANDARD  SCREW  THREADS 

System  International 
Dimensions  in  millimeters  and  inches 


OUTSIDE 

Pitch 

Root  Diameter 

Root  Area 

Diameter 

Area 

Mm. 

Inches 

Mm. 

Inches 

Mm. 

Threads 
per 
Inch 

Mm. 

Inches 

Mm. 

Inches 

3 

0.1181 

7.07 

0.011 

0.55 

46.18 

2.29 

0.090 

4.12 

0.006 

4 

.1575 

12.57 

.019 

.70 

36.29 

3.09 

.122 

7.50 

.012 

5 

.1968 

19.63 

.030 

.85 

29.88 

3.90 

.153 

11.95 

.019 

6 

.2362 

28.27 

.044 

.00 

25.40 

4.70 

.185 

17.35 

.027 

7 

.2756 

38.48 

.060 

.00 

25.40 

5.70 

.225 

25.52 

.040 

8 

.3150 

50.27 

.078 

.25 

20.32 

6.38 

.251 

31.97 

.050 

9 

.3543 

63.62 

.099 

.25 

20.32 

7.38 

.290 

42.78 

.066 

10 

.3937 

78.54 

.122 

.50 

16.93 

8.05 

.317 

50.90 

.079 

11 

.4331 

95.03 

.147 

.50 

16.93 

9.05 

.356 

C4.33 

1.100 

12 

.4724 

113.10 

.175 

1.75 

14.51 

9.73 

.383 

74.36 

.115 

14 

.5512 

153.94 

.239 

2.00 

12.70 

11.40 

.449 

102.07 

.158 

16 

.6299 

201.06 

.312 

2.00 

12.70 

13.40 

.528 

141.03 

.219 

18 

.7087 

254.47 

.394 

2.50 

10.16 

14.75 

.581 

170.87 

.265 

20 

.7874 

314.16 

.487 

2.50 

10.16 

16.75 

.660 

220.35 

.342 

22 

.8661 

380.13 

.589 

2.50 

10.16 

18.75 

.738 

276.12 

.428 

24 

.9449 

452.39 

.701 

3.00 

8.47 

20.10 

.792 

317.31 

.493 

27 

1.0630 

572.56 

.887 

3.00 

8.47 

23.10 

.910 

419.10 

.650 

30 

1.1811 

706.86 

1.096 

3.50 

7.26 

25.45 

1.002 

508.71 

.789 

33 

1.2992 

855.30 

1.326 

3.50 

7.26 

28.45 

1.120 

635.70 

.985 

36 

1.4173 

1017.88 

1.578 

4.00 

6.35 

30.80 

1.213 

745.06 

1.155 

39 

1.5354 

1194.59 

1.852 

4.00 

6.35 

33.80 

1.331 

897.27 

1.391 

42 

1.6535 

1385.44 

2.147 

4.50 

5.64 

36.15 

1.423 

1026.38 

1.591 

45 

1.7716 

1590.43 

2.465 

4.50 

5.64 

39.15 

1.541 

1203.80 

1.866 

48 

1.8898 

1809.56 

2.805 

5.00 

5.08 

41.51 

1.634 

1353.31 

2.098 

52 

2.0472 

2123.72 

3.292 

5.00 

5.08 

45.51 

1.792 

1626.69 

2.521 

56 

2.2047 

2463.01 

3.818 

5.50 

4.62 

48.86 

1.924 

1874.99 

2.906 

60 

2.3622 

2827.43 

4.383 

5.50 

4.62 

52.86 

2.081 

2194.55 

3.402 

64 

2.5197 

3216.99 

4.986 

6.00 

4.23 

56.21 

2.213 

2481.52 

3.846 

68 

2.6772 

3631.68 

5.629 

6.00 

4.23 

60.21 

2.371 

2847.27 

4.413 

72 

2.8346 

4071.50 

6.311 

6.50 

3.91 

63.56 

2.502 

3172.92 

4.918 

76 

2.9921 

4536.46 

7.032 

6.50 

3.91 

67.56 

2.660 

3584.84 

5.557 

80 

3.1497 

5026.55 

7.791 

7.00 

3.63 

70.91 

2.792 

3949.17 

6.121 

[370] 


CASTLE  NUTS 

CASTLE  NUTS 


Diatn 
Bolt 
A 

Threads 
Inch 

Short 
Diam. 
B 

Long 
Diam. 
C 

Depth 
D 

Depth 
E 

Width 
F 

Diam. 
G 

Diam. 
Hole  in 
Blank 
Nut 
H 

i 

13 

8 

1 

I 

A 

i 

i 

If 

A 

12 

ft 

H 

«| 

1 

6 

A 

H 

I 

11 

I* 

i* 

H 

A 

A 

A 

If 

f 

10 

H 

iA 

» 

H 

A 

A 

If 

7 
8 

9 

1A 

ill 

i* 

If 

A 

A 

ti 

1 

8 

U 

if 

U 

A 

i 

1 

If 

U 

7 

ill 

2& 

m 

1 

A 

A 

If 

i\ 

7 

2 

2A 

1A 

A 

A 

A 

1A 

if 

6 

2& 

2H 

iff 

If 

H 

H 

IA 

i* 

6 

2| 

2| 

if 

H 

1 

1 

1A 

if 

5* 

2& 

2ft 

2^ 

If 

H 

H 

i|f 

if 

5 

2f 

3A 

2A 

If 

A 

A 

if 

if 

5 

2H 

3M 

2^ 

H 

H 

H 

if 

2 

4| 

3* 

3M 

2^ 

«     1 

i 

i 

m 

2i 

4| 

3£ 

4^ 

2M 

i 

A 

A 

m 

2* 

4 

31 

4M 

3| 

it 

! 

1A 

CAP  NUTS 


A 

B 

c 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

i 

K 

Diam. 
Hole 
U.  S.  Th. 

\ 

A 

f 

1 

H 

IA 

U 
1A 

l 
II 
IA 
IA 
ift 

7 

¥ 

1 
1A 
H 
1A 

A 

A 

\ 
A 

i 
A 
f 
f 
1 

? 

H 

7 
8 

1 

A 

A 
A 
A 
A 

1 
H 
1A 

H 

i^ 

H 
H 
H 
U 
iH 

If 
If 
If 
If 
H 

[371 


STEEL  BOLTS  AND  NUTS 

CAP  NUTS — (Continued) 


A 

B 

c 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

i 

K 

Diam. 
Hole 
U.  S.  Th. 

1 

H 

ii 

iH 

H 

1 

H 

1 

if 

2A 

H 

U 

iH 

2& 

H 

1 

H 

U 

I 

if 

21 

H 

H 

2 

2A 

2A 

H 

It 

if 

A  ' 

lit 

2^ 

iA 

if 

2A- 

2M 

2i 

1 

if 

H 

A 

2A 

2f 

1A 

H 

2f 

2| 

2A 

if 

l| 

IH 

A 

2A 

3 

iA 

if 

2A 

2& 

2f 

1 

if 

IH 

A 

2A 

31 

lit 

H 

2| 

3A 

2H 

1A 

if 

1« 

H 

2f 

3A 

ii 

i| 

2H 

3H 

aft 

1A 

if 

2f 

H 

2H 

3H 

if 

2 

3i 

3H 

3i 

H 

2 

21 

f 

3 

31 

iff 

STEEL  BOLTS  AND  NUTS 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 
BOLTS 

Bolts  shall  be  made  of  a  good  quality  of  medium  steel,  and  shall  conform  to  the 
United  States  standard  for  both  heads  and  threads,  unless  otherwise  specified  as  given 
in  Table  I  below. 

All  threads  are  to  be  United  States  standard,  and  where  blanks  are  not  specially 
called  for  bolts  will  be  threaded,  and  nuts  will  be  tapped  and  fitted  thumb-tight  to  the 
bolt. 

The  length  of  the  bolt  will  be  measured  from  under  the  head  to  the  first  thread  at 
the  end  of  the  bolt. 

Heads  of  bolts  will  be  square,  hexagonal,  or  button  head,  and  plain  or  chamfered, 
as  specified  in  requisition.  The  nuts  will  be  square  or  hexagon,  either  plain  or  cupped, 
or  double-cupped,  as  specified  in  requisition. 

Unless  otherwise  specified,  to  be  delivered  in  100-pound  boxes. 

All  kegs,  boxes,  or  commercial  packages  to  be  plainly  marked  with  the  manufac- 
turer's name  and  contract  number. 

Boxes  to  be  made  of  new  pine  or  spruce,  planed  on  the  outside,  f  inch  when  finished. 
Boxes  to  be  exactly  17  inches  long,  10  inches  high,  11  inches  wide,  outside  measurements, 
and  must  be  securely  put  together. 

Boxes  to  be  neatly  stenciled  on  one  end  only  with  the  net  weight,  size,  and  name  of 
contents,  as: 

100  pounds 

|  by  1|  inches 

Bolts  and  nuts,  steel 

Hexagon  heads  and  nuts. 

The  manufacturer's  name,  contract  number,  and  any  other  marks  to  be  on  one 
only;  one  side,  one  end,  top,  and  bottom  to  be  free  from  marks. 

[372J 


STEEL  BOLTS  AND  NUTS 


TABLE  I 

STANDARD  DIMENSIONS  OF  BOLTS  AND  NUTS  FOR  THE  UNITED  STATES  NAVY 


Diameter 

Area 

Thrds 

Long  Diam. 

Short 
Diam. 

Depth 

Diam- 
eter of 
Holes  In 
Blank 
Nuts 

Norn. 

Eflf. 

Eflf. 

No. 

Hex. 

Sq. 

W. 

Head 

Nut 

I 

0.185 

0.026 

20 

A 

ft 

.i 

1 

1 

A 

A 

.240 

.045 

18 

H 

tt 

H 

if 

A 

1 

f 

.294 

.067 

16 

If 

H 

H 

H 

f 

H 

A 

.345 

.093 

14 

f* 

** 

M 

If 

A 

H 

i 

.400 

.125 

13 

i 

H 

f 

A 

1 

If 

A 

.454 

.162 

12 

i| 

H 

B 

H 

A 

H 

f 

.507 

.202 

11 

1* 

H 

ia 

H 

f 

H 

.620 

.302 

10 

1* 

if 

H 

f 

f 

M 

1 

.731 

.419 

9 

m 

2^ 

i* 

H 

1 

H 

l 

.837 

.550 

8 

n 

2A 

If 

if 

i 

If 

IJ 

.940 

.694 

7 

2& 

2A 

iH 

M 

H 

H 

U 

1.065 

.891 

7 

2A 

2M 

2 

i 

11 

1A 

if 

1.160 

1.057 

6 

2M 

3& 

2A 

I* 

if 

i& 

IJ 

.284 

1.294 

6 

2| 

3H 

2f 

!A 

If 

1* 

if 

.389 

1.515 

51 

m 

3f 

2A 

1* 

if 

iff 

U 

.491 

1.746 

5 

3A 

31 

2| 

if 

H 

H 

H 

.616 

2.051 

5 

3ft 

4& 

2H 

Itt 

H 

if 

2 

.712 

2.302 

4£ 

OJJ 

4M 

3* 

1* 

2 

m 

21 

.962 

3.023 

4i 

4& 

4H 

3* 

if 

21 

1H 

2* 

2.176 

3.719 

4 

m 

5M 

31 

m 

2| 

i* 

2| 

2.426 

4.622 

4 

4ff 

6 

41 

2| 

2f 

2A 

All  bolts  3  inches  in  diameter  and  above  to  have  four  threads  per  inch  of  standard 
form,  except  in  special  cases,  which  will  be  submitted  for  approval. 

Variations  of  Blank  Bolts. — The  variations  in  size  of  blank  bolts  shall  not  exceed 
that  allowed  under  Table  II  below: 

TABLE  II 


Nominal 
Diam. 

Maximum 
Diameter 

Minimum 
Diameter 

Maximum 
Variation 

Nominal 
Diameter 

Maximum 
Diameter 

Minimum 
Diameter 

Maximum 
Variation 

Inch 

Inch 

Inch 

Inch 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

Inch 

A 

0.1925 

0.1825 

0.010 

tt 

.9465 

.9285 

0.018 

1 

.2550 

.245 

.010 

1 

1.0095 

.9905 

.019 

A 

.3180 

.307 

.011 

14 

1.1350 

1.115 

.020 

f 

.3810 

.369 

.012 

U 

1.2605 

1.2395 

.021 

ft 

.444 

.431 

.013 

if 

1.3855 

1.3645 

.021 

i 

.507 

.493 

.014 

II 

1.5105 

1.4895 

.021 

A 

.570 

.555 

.015 

if 

1.6355 

1.6145 

.021 

f 

.633 

.617 

.016 

if 

1.7605 

1.7395 

.021 

H 

.6955 

.6795 

.016 

H 

1.886 

1.864 

.022 

f 

.7585 

.7415 

.017 

2 

2.011 

1.989 

.022 

H 

.821 

.804 

.017 

21 

2.261 

2.239 

.022 

1 

.8840 

.866 

.018 

2* 

2.511 

2.489 

.022 

[373] 


STEEL  BOLTS  AND  NUTS 

Form  and  Surface. — Bolts  must  be  true  to  form,  concentric,  and  free  from  scale, 
fins,  seams,  and  all  other  injurious  or  unsightly  defects. 

Tests. — A  number  of  bolts,  at  the  discretion  of  the  inspector,  will  be  taken  from  each 
size  of  each  delivery,  enough  to  satisfy  the  inspector  as  to  the  quality  of  the  entire 
lot,  and  will  be  subjected  to  the  following  tests: 

One-half  of  these  bolts  shall  be  bent  cold  on  unthreaded  portion  through  180°  around 
a  diameter  equal  to  one-half  the  diameter  of  the  bolts,  and  they  must  stand  this  test 
without  breaking,  and  only  a  slight  fracture  of  the  skin  on  one  side  will  be  allowed. 

The  remainder  of  the. bolts  will  be  tested  hot.  They  will  be  heated  to  redness  and 
hammered  out  flat  to  one-half  their  original  thickness.  They  will  then  be  reheated 
to  redness  and  bent  around  flat  to  an  angle  of  180°,  and  they  must  stand  this  test  without 
breaking  off. 

When  bolts  are  not  of  sufficient  length  in  the  plain  part  to  admit  of  being  bent  cold, 
the  threaded  part  must  stand  bending  cold  without  fracture  as  follows : 

If  of  £  inch  diameter  or  less 35° 

If  above  £  inch  diameter  and  under  1  inch 30 

If  1  inch  diameter  or  over 25 

Bolts  and  Nuts  Ordered  Together. — When  bolts  and  nuts  are  ordered  together  the 
nuts  shall  conform  to  the  requirements  for  medium  steel  or  wrought-iron  nuts,  as  stated 
hereinafter.  The  threads  must  be  clean  and  sharp;  the  nuts  must  fit  thumb-tight, 
and  be  delivered  on  bolts. 

NUTS 

Nuts  shall  be  hot  pressed  or  cold  punched  and  of  a  good  quality  of  medium  steel  or 
wrought  iron.  They  shall  conform,  unless  otherwise  specified,  to  the  United  States 
standard  dimensions  as  given  in  Table  I  under  "Bolts."  The  allowable  variations 
from  these  dimensions  shall  not  exceed  those  given  in  Table  II.  When  nuts  are  ordered 
separately  they  shall  be  threaded  unless  otherwise  specified  in  the  contract. 

Form  and  Surface. — Nuts  shall  be  true  to  form,  concentric,  and  free  from  scale, 
fins,  seams,  and  all  other  injurious  or  unsightly  defects. 

Hammer  Test. — A  number  of  nuts,  at  the  discretion  of  the  inspector,  to  be  taken 
from  each  size  of  each  delivery,  enough  to  satisfy  the  inspector  as  to  the  quality  of  the 
entire  lot. 

One-half  of  these  shall  be  placed  on  their  sides  and  hammered  out  cold,  so  that 
they  break.  The  fracture  on  steel  nuts  must  indicate  medium  steel  of  good  quality. 
The  fracture  in  the  case  of  wrought-iron  nuts  must  show  the  grain  to  run  normally  to 
the  plane  through  the  hole. 

•  The  remaining  nuts  shall  be  heated  to  redness  and  hammered  under  a  power  hammer 
to  one-sixth  their  original  thickness,  and  there  must  be  few  cracks  around  the  edges, 
and  no  signs  of  large  splits  or  flaws. 

TENSILE  TEST  OF  BOLTS  AND  NUTS  COMBINED 

When  practicable,  tensile  test  of  bolts  and  nuts  combined  shall  be  made.  In  making 
the  tensile  test,  the  head  and  nut  shall,  without  previous  reduction  of  sectional  area  of 
bolt,  be  held  in  opposite  jaws  of  the  testing  machine  and  pulled  to  fracture. 

Bolts  so  tested,  to  be  satisfactory,  must  in  every  case  fracture  at  threads,  and  not 
at  juncture  with  head,  and  shall  withstand  a  tensile  stress  of  at  least  58,000  pounds, 
find  have  an  elastic  limit  of  not  less  than  30,000  pounds  per  square  inch  sectional  area. 


[374 


BOLTS  AND  NUTS— WEIGHT 


BOLTS  AND  NUTS.     ROUGH  SIZES 

United  States  Standard 
Weight  in  pounds  per  100  bolts 


Length 
in 
Inches 

SQUARE  HEADS  AND  SQUARE  NUTS 

HEXAGON  HEADS  AND  HEXAGON  NUTS 

1 

I 

i 

i 

l 

i 

I 

1 

1 

1 

2 

27 

45 

67 

101 

144 

24 

40 

63 

93 

132 

a* 

30 

49 

74 

109 

155 

27 

45 

69 

101 

143 

3 

33 

54 

80 

117 

167 

30 

49 

75 

109 

154 

3£ 

35 

58 

86 

126 

178 

33 

54 

82 

118 

165 

4 

38 

62 

92 

134 

189 

35 

58 

88 

126 

176 

4| 

41 

66 

98 

142 

198 

38 

62 

94 

134 

186 

5 

43 

71 

104 

151 

209 

41 

66 

100 

143 

197 

51 

46 

75 

111 

159 

220 

44 

71 

106 

151 

208 

6 

49 

79 

117 

168 

232 

46 

75 

112 

160 

219 

6* 

52 

84 

123 

176 

243 

49 

79 

119 

168 

230 

7 

55 

88 

129 

185 

254 

52 

84 

125 

177 

241 

7* 

57 

92 

136 

193 

265 

55 

88 

131 

185 

252 

8 

60 

97 

142 

202 

276 

58 

92 

137 

194 

264 

8* 

63 

101 

148 

210 

287 

60 

96 

143 

202 

274 

9 

65 

105 

154 

218 

298 

63 

100 

149 

210 

285 

9* 

68 

110 

161 

227 

309 

66 

105 

156 

219 

296 

10 

71 

114 

167 

235 

320 

68 

109 

162 

227 

307 

10| 

74 

118 

173 

244 

331 

71 

114 

168 

236 

318 

11 

77 

123 

180 

252 

343 

74 

118 

174 

244 

329 

iH 

79 

127 

186 

261 

354 

77 

122 

181 

253 

341 

12 

82 

131 

192 

269 

364 

80 

127 

187 

261 

352 

13 

88 

140 

205 

285 

387 

85 

135 

199 

278 

374 

14 

93 

148 

217 

303 

409 

91 

144 

212 

295 

396 

15 

99 

157 

230 

320 

432 

96 

152 

225 

312 

418 

16 

104 

165 

242 

337 

451 

102 

161 

237 

329 

441 

17 

110 

174 

255 

354 

476 

107 

170 

250 

346 

463 

18 

116 

183 

267 

371 

499 

113 

177 

262 

364 

485 

19 

121 

192 

280 

388 

521 

119 

187 

275 

381 

507 

20 

127 

200 

292 

405 

543 

124 

196 

287 

398 

530 

21 

132 

209 

305 

422 

565 

130 

205 

300 

415 

552 

22 

138 

218 

317 

439 

588 

136 

213 

313 

432 

575 

23 

143 

226 

330 

456 

610 

141 

222 

325 

449 

597 

24 

149 

236 

342 

473 

632 

147 

231 

338 

466 

619 

[375] 


BOLTS  AND  NUTS— U.   S.   NAVY  SPECIFICATIONS 

MACHINERY  BOLTS  AND  NUTS  AND  MATERIAL  FOR  THE  SAME 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

NOTE. — These  specifications  are  to  be  used  only  when  finished  or  semi-finished  bolts 
and  nuts  are  required,  as  around  machinery  or  for  flanges. 

1.  Machinery  bolts  and  nuts  to  be  of  two  grades:  Semi-finished  (faced  under  head 
and  nut,  body  trued);  finished  (machined  throughout).     Material  to  be  of  domestic 
manufacture.     For  use  on  machinery,  Class  A  rods;  for  minor  purposes,  Class  B  rods; 
for  anti-corrosive  purposes,  rolled  naval  brass,  manganese  bronze,  or  monel  metal  rods, 
as  stated  on  the  order. 

STEEL  RODS 

2.  The  physical  and  chemical  characteristics  of  steel  rods  for  bolts  are  to  be  in 
accordance  with  the  following  table: 


Class 

Material 

Mini- 
mum 
Tensile 
Strength 

Mini- 
mum 
Elastic 
Limit 

Mini- 
mum 
Elonga- 
tion^ 

Maximum 
Amount  of  — 

Bends' 

P. 

s. 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Per  Cent 

per 

per 

in  8 

Sq.  In. 

Sq.  In. 

Inches 

A.... 

Open-hearth 

75,000 

40,000 

23 

0.04 

0.035 

Cold  bend  180°  about 

nickel       or 

an    inner    diameter 

carbon 

equal  to  one-half  the 

steel. 

thickness  of  the  test 

piece  for  diameters 

up  to  and  including 

1  inch,  and  equal  to 

the  thickness  for  di- 

ameters over  1  inch; 

quench    bend    180° 

about  an  inner  di- 

ameter equal  to  the 

thickness  of  the  test 

piece  for  diameters 

up  to  and  including 

1  inch,  and  equal  to 

1£  times  the  thick- 

ness   for    diameters 

over  1  inch. 

B.... 

Open-hearth 

58,000 

30,000 

28 

0.04 

0.035 

Cold  bend  flat  back 

carbon 

through  180°;  quench 

steel. 

bend    180°  through 

an    inner    diameter 

equal  to  one-half  the 

thickness  of  the  test 

piece  for  diameters 

up  to  and  including 

1  inch,  and  equal  to 

the  thickness  for  di- 

ameters over  1  inch. 

1  Elongation  for  rounds  J  inch  and  less  in  diameter  shall  be  measured  in  an  original  length  equal  to  16 
times  the  diameter  of  the  test  piece;  for  material  over  i  inch  up  to  and  including  1  inch  in  diameter,  the 
elongation  shall  be  measured  in  a  length  of  8  inches;  and  for  material  over  1  inch  in  diameter  up  to  and 
including  2  inches  in  diameter,  the  required  percentage  of  elongation,  measured  in  a  length  of  8  inches, 
shall  be  reduced  by  one  for  each  increase  in  diameter  of  \  inch  or  a  fraction  thereof  above  1  inch. 

2  Quench  test  pieces  to  be  heated  to  a  dark  cherry  red,  as  seen  in  daylight,  and  plunged  into  fresh, 
clean  water  of  80°  to  90°  F. 

[376] 


BOLTS  AND  NUTS— U.  S.  NAVY  SPECIFICATIONS 

3.  If  the  contractor  desires,  and  so  states  on  his  orders,  or  if  inspection  at  the  place 
of  manufacture  of  the  rods  is  considered  impracticable  to  the  bureau  concerned,  the 
bureau  will  direct  that  the  inspection  of  the  rods  be  made  at  the  place  of  manufacture 
of  the  bolts,  instead  of  at  the  place  where  the  rods  are  rolled. 

4.  Surface  and  Other  Defects. — The  rods  must  be  true  to  form,  free  from  seams, 
hard  spots,  brittleness,  injurious  sand,  or  scale  marks,  and  injurious  defects  generally. 

5.  Tensile  Test. — One  tensile-test  piece  shall  be  taken  from  each  ton  or  fraction 
thereof  of  rods  rolled  from  the  same  heat.     If,  however,  the  rods  in  one  heat  are  not  of 
the  same  diameter,  then  the  inspector  will  take  such  additional  test  pieces  as  he  may 
consider  necessary  according  to  the  number  of  different  sizes  of  rods  in  the  heat.     When 
practicable,  but  one  piece  will  be  cut  from  each  rod  selected  for  the  test.     Should  any 
test  piece  be  found  too  large  in  diameter  for  the  testing  machine,  the  piece  may  be 
prepared  for  test  in  the  manner  prescribed  for  forgings. 

6.  Bending  Tests. — If  the  total  weight  of  the  rods  rolled  from  the  same  heat  amounts 
to  6  tons  or  more,  four  cold-bending  test  pieces  and  four  quench-bending  test  pieces 
will  be  taken;  but  if  the  weight  is  less  than  6  tons,  one-half  that  number  of  test  pieces 
will  suffice. 

7.  Upsetting  Tests. — From  each  heat  of  rounds  as  rolled  there  shall  be  cut  six  test 
specimens  about  H  inches  long,  which  shall  stand  hammering  down  cold,  longitudinally, 
to  one-half  their  original  length  without  showing  seams  or  other  defects  which  would 
tend  to  produce  imperfections  in  the  finished  product. 

FINISHED  BOLTS   (CLASSES  A  AND  B) 

8.  After  the  rods  to  be  made  up  into  bolts  have  been  tested  as  previously  described, 
the  finished  articles  shall  be  tested  by  lots  of  500  pounds  or  fraction  thereof,  one  piece 
being  taken  to  represent  the  lot.     The  failure  of  10  per  cent  of  the  lots  of  500  pounds 
to  stand  the  specified  tests  in  a  satisfactory  manner  will  render  the  whole  of  any  delivery 
liable  to  rejection. 

9.  When  the  bolts  are  of  sufficient  length  in  the  plain  part  to  admit  of  being  bent 
cold,  they  must  stand  bending  double  to  a  curve  of  which  the  inner  radius  is  equal  to 
the  radius  of  the  bolt  without  fracture. 

10.  When  bolts  are  not  of  sufficient  length  in  the  plain  part  to  admit  of  being  bent 
cold,  the  threaded  part  must  stand  bending  cold  without  fracture  as  follows: 

If  of  |  inch  diameter  or  less . .  35° 

If  above  ^  inch  diameter  and  under  1  inch 30° 

If  1  inch  diameter  or  over , . 25° 

11.  Where  the  bending  tests  cannot  be  applied  the  two  following  hammer  tests 
must  be  substituted: 

(a)  The  test  piece  to  stand  flattening  out,  cold,  to  a  thickness  equal  to  one-half  its 
original  diameter  without  showing  cracks. 

(b)  The  test  piece  to  stand  flattening  out,  while  heated  to  a  cherry-red  heat  in 
daylight,  to  a  thickness  equal  to  one-third  its  original  diameter  without  showing  cracks. 

12.  (1)  All  bolts  shall  be  free  from  surface  defects.     (2)  All  bolts  are  to  be  headed 
hot,  and  the  heads  made  in  accordance  with  the  United  States  standard  proportions 
unless  otherwise  specified.     The  head  must  be  concentric  with  the  body  of  the  bolt. 
(3)  The  threads  must  be  of  the  United  States  standard  unless  otherwise  specified, 
and  must  be  clean  and  sharp.     The  threads  of  classes  A  and  B  bolts  may  be  either 
chased  or  cut  with  a  die,  but  the  threads  of  body-bound  bolts  must  be  chased  and 
must  extend  far  enough  down  so  that  when  the  nut  is  screwed  home  there  will  be  not 
more  than  one  and  one-half  threads  under  it.     The  plain  part  of  body-bound  bolts 
must  be  turned  in  a  lathe  to  fit  accurately  in  the  bolt  hole. 

STEEL  AND  IRON  NUTS  (TO  BE  USED  WITH  CLASSES  A  AND  B  BOLTS) 

13.  One  tensile  and  one  bending  test  bar  from  each  lot  of  1,000  pounds  of  material 
or  less  from  which  nuts  are  to  be  made  shall  be  selected  by  the  inspector  for  test. 

[377] 


BOLTS  AND  NUTS— U.  S.  NAVY  SPECIFICATIONS 

14.  The  material,  whether  steel  or  iron,  shall  show  a  tensile  strength  of  at  least 
48,000  pounds  per  square  inch  and  an  elongation  of  at  least  26  per  cent  in  8  inches. 
A  bar  £  inch  square  or  \  inch  in  diameter  shall  bend  back,  cold,  through  an  angle  of 
180°  without  showing  signs  of  fracture. 

15.  The  nuts  must  be  free  from  surface  defects,  and  the  threads  clean,  sharp,  and 
well  fitting. 

16.  The  dimensions  of  threads  must  be  in  conformity  with  the  United  States  standard 
unless  otherwise  specified. 

STANDARD  DIMENSIONS  OF  BOLTS  AND  NUTS  FOR  THE  UNITED  STATES  NAVY 


Diameter 

Area 

Thrds. 

Long  Diameter 

Short 
Diam. 

Depth. 

Diam- 
eter of 
Holes  in 
Blank 
Nuts 

Norn. 

Eff. 

Eff. 

No. 

Hex. 

Sq. 

W. 

Head 

Nut 

1 

4 

0.185 

0.026 

20 

A 

M 

* 

\ 

i 

A 

A 

.240 

.045 

18 

H 

H 

tt 

H 

A 

i 

1 

.294 

.067 

16 

If 

M 

H 

H 

I 

H 

* 

.345 

.093 

14 

H 

i& 

If 

H 

A 

H 

i 

.400 

.125 

13 

l 

11 

1 

ft 

^ 

M 

& 

.454 

.162 

12 

U 

H 

H 

M 

A 

H 

f 

.507 

.202 

11 

1A 

i* 

ift 

8 

f 

If 

f 

.620 

.302 

10 

i* 

rt 

i\ 

f 

f 

M 

1 

.731 

.419 

9 

m 

2& 

l& 

H 

1 

H 

l 

.837 

.550 

8 

11 

2& 

if 

H 

l 

If 

H 

.940 

.694 

7 

2& 

2& 

1H 

H 

U 

H 

1$ 

1.065 

.891 

7 

2& 

2fJ 

2 

1 

H 

l* 

if 

1.160 

1.057 

6 

m 

3& 

2& 

1* 

H 

I* 

a 

1.284 

1.294 

6 

2f 

3& 

21 

1* 

H 

i& 

if 

1.389 

1.515 

$ 

m 

3f 

2^ 

1ft 

if 

ill 

H 

1.491 

1.746 

5 

3& 

31 

2f 

U 

U 

M 

II 

1.616 

2.051 

5 

3M 

4& 

2H 

1H 

H 

if 

2 

1.712 

2.302 

41 

3$ 

4H 

3i 

l* 

2 

m 

2* 

1.962 

3.023 

H 

4& 

4H 

3^ 

U 

2i 

ifi 

2* 

2.176 

3.719 

4 

4M 

5H 

31 

m 

2* 

ift 

2f 

2.426 

4.622 

4 

41! 

6 

4i 

2i 

2f 

2& 

17.  The  nuts  must  be  hot-pressed  or  cold-punched,  the  latter  to  be  reamed  before 
threading,  the  holes  to  be  central  and  square  with  the  faces.     All  nuts  must  fit  on  the 
bolts  without  shake. 

18.  Nuts  to  be  used  about  machinery  must  fit  so  tight  that  it  will  be  necessary 
to  use  a  wrench  to  turn  them.     All  other  nuts  must  be  at  least  thumb-tight. 

19.  For  the  purpose  of  test  all  nuts  which  fulfil  the  preceding  requirements  will 
be  divided  into  lots  of  500  pounds  or  less,  and  two  nuts  from  each  lot  selected  by  the 
inspector  for  test  as  follows: 

(a)  One  of  the  two  shall  stand  flattening  out,  cold,  to  a  thickness  equal  to  one-half 
its  original  thickness  without  showing  cracks. 

(b)  The  other  shall  stand  flattening  out,  when  heated  to  a  cherry-red  in  daylight, 
to  a  thickness  equal  to  one-third  its  original  thickness  without  showing  cracks. 

20.  (a)  The  failure  to  stand  these  tests  will  subject  the  lot  represented  by  them 
to  rejection.     The  failure  of  10  per  cent  of  the  lot  to  pass  the  tests  will  render  the 
whole  order  liable  to  rejection. 


[378] 


BOLTS  AND  NUTS— XT.  S.  NAVY  SPECIFICATIONS 

NON-CORROSIVE  RODS 

21.  The  composition  must  be  made  of  such  materials  as  will  give  the  required  chem- 
ical analysis.  Scrap  will  not  be  used  except  such  as  may  result  from  the  process  of 
manufacture  of  articles  of  similar  composition. 


Let- 
ter 

Name 

COMPOSITION  BY  PERCENTAGE 

Miscellaneous 

Cop- 
per 

Tin 

Zinc 

Lead, 
Maxi- 
mum 

Iron, 
Maxi- 
mum 

Mn-r. 
Mo-r  . 

N-r... 

Manganese  bronze 
Monel  metal. 

57-60 
Rem. 

0.5-1.5 

37-40 

0.0 
.2 

2.5 
3.5 

.06 

Manganese,  0.30. 
Nickel,  60  (min.)  ;  alu- 
minium, 0.5  (max.). 

Rolled  naval  brass.  . 

59-63 

.5-1.5 

Rem. 

22.  One  test  piece  for  every  lot  of  400  pounds  or  less  shall  show  the  following  results: 


Name 

Ultimate 

Let- 
ter 

Tensile 
Strength  per 
Square  Inch 

Yield  Point 
(Minimum) 

Elongation 
in  2  Inches 
(Minimum) 

(Minimum) 

Pounds 

Per  Cent 

N-r 

Naval  brass  1 

inch  and  below      

62,000 

2  ultimate 

25 

Above  1  inch 

60,000 

^  ultimate 

28 

Mn-r. 

Manganese  bronze,  1  inch  and  below  

72,000 

\  ultimate 

28 

Above  1  inch 

70,000 

3  ultimate 

30 

Mo-r  . 

Monel  metal, 

1  inch  and  below  

84,000 

47,000 

25 

Above  1  inch 

80,000 

45,000 

28 

23.  If  the  contractor  desires,  and  so  states  on  his  orders,  or  if  inspection  at  the 
place  of  manufacture  of  the  rods  is  considered  impracticable  to  the  bureau  concerned, 
the  bureau  will  direct  that  the  inspection  of  the  rods  be  made  at  the  place  of  manufacture 
of  the  bolts  instead  of  at  the  place  where  the  rods  are  rolled. 

24.  Test  pieces  are  to  be  as  nearly  as  possible  of  the  same  diameter  as  the  rounds, 
or  else  they  are  to  be  not  less  than  £  inch  in  diameter  and  taken  at  a  distance  from 
the  circumference  equal  to  one-half  the  radius  of  the  rounds. 

25.  Test  specimens  for  rounds  and  bars,  or  N-r,  Mn-r,  Mo-r,  will  stand: 

(a)  Being  hammered  hot  to  a  fine  point. 

(b)  Being  bent  cold  through  an  angle  of  120°  and  to  a  radius  equal  to  the  diameter 
or  thickness  of  the  bars. 

(c)  The  bending  bar  may  be  the  full-sized  bar,  or  the  standard  bar  of  1  inch  width 
and  \  inch  thickness.     In  the  case  of  bending  test  pieces  of  rectangular  section,  the 
edges  may  be  rounded  off  to  a  radius  equal  to  one-fourth  of  the  thickness. 

Fractures  of  specimens  must  show  throughout  uniform  color  and  grain. 

26.  Various  composition   materials,    otherwise   conforming  to   the   specifications, 
but  manufactured  under  proprietary  processes  or  having  proprietary  names,  will  be 
accepted  as  rolled  naval  brass  provided  the  ingredients  are  approved  by  the  bureau. 

27.  The  rods  must  be  free  from  all  surface  defects,  clean  and  straight,  of  uniform 
color,  quality,  and  gauge. 

28.  All  requirements  of  the  specifications  for  steel  bolts  that  are  applicable  in  regard 
to  surface,  material,  and  threading  shall  apply  to  non-corrosive  bolts. 

29.  Non-corrosive  nuts  shall  be  made  of  the  same  material  as  the  bolts. 

NOTE. — All  requirements  for  steel  bolts  and  nuts  that  are  applicable,  such  as  surface, 
threads,  and  fitting,  shall  apply  to  non-corrosive  bolts  and  nuts. 

[379] 


IRON  BOLTS  AND  NUTS 

30.  Should  it  be  impracticable  for  the  bureau  concerned  to  inspect  the  rods  before 
the  manufacture  of  the  bolts,  the  test  specified  for  the  stock  shall  be  made  on  the 
finished  article  as  far  as  practicable. 

31.  Note  for  General  Storekeepers. — Requisitions  will  state  the  material,  size, 
length  over  all,  whether  bolts  and  nuts  are  to  be  semi-finished  or  finished.     If  nuts  are 
to  be  case-hardened,  and  if  nuts  are  to  fit  wrench-tight,  it  will  be  so  noted  on  the  requisi- 
tion.    Length  of  bolt  to  be  measured  from  under  side  of  the  head  to  the  first  thread  at 
the  end  of  bolt.    Requisitions  should  state  whether  bolts  and  nuts  are  to  have  hexagon 
heads  or  square  heads. 

32.  Correspondence  relative   to  interpretation   or   modification   of  specifications 
should  be  addressed  to  the  bureau  concerned,  via  the  naval  inspector  of  .material  of 
the  district. 

IRON  BOLTS  AND  NUTS 
NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

NOTE. — This  specification  to  be  used  only  when  steel  bolts  and  nuts  are  considered 

unsuitable  for  the  purpose. 

1.  To  be  of  best  quality  neutral  iron  and  to  be  bought  in  three  grades,  as  follows,  viz. : 

(a)  Blanks  (not  machined). 

(b)  Semi-finished  (face  under  head  and  nut,  body  trued). 

(c)  Finished  (machined  throughout). 

2.  These  must  conform  to  the  dimensions  of  the  table  marked  "I,"  except  such  small 
variations  as  are  allowed  by  the  table  marked  "II."     The  value  of  both  hexagon  and 
square  nuts  and  heads  is  compiled  from  the  following: 

Nuts,  Blank  or  Semi-finished. — D  equals  one  and  one-half  tunes  diameter  of  bolt 
plus  |  inch.  B  equals  diameter  of  bolt. 

Nuts,  Finished. — D  equals  one  and  one-half  times  diameter  of  bolt,  plus  ^  inch. 
B  equals  diameter  of  bolt,  less  ^  inch. 

Heads,  Blank  or  Semi-finished. — D  equals  one  and  one-half  times  diameter  of 
bolt,  plus  |  inch.  B  equals  one-half  short  diameter  of  head. 

Heads,  Finished. — D  equals  one  and  one-half  times  diameter,  plus  ^  inch.  B 
equals  diameter  of  bolt,  less  ^  inch. 

The  long  diameter  of  a  hexagon  nut  may  be  obtained  by  multiplying  the  short 
diameter  by  1.155  and  the  long  diameter  of  a  square  nut  by  multiplying  the  short 
diameter  by  1.414. 

3.  All  threads  are  to  be  United  States  standard,  and,  where  blanks  are  not  specially 
called  for,  bolts  will  be  threaded,  and  nuts  will  be  tapped  and  fitted  thumb-tight  to 
the  bolt  to  within  three  threads  of  the  shank. 

4.  The  length  of  the  bolt  will  be  measured  from  under  the  head  to  the  first  thread 
at  the  end  of  the  bolt. 

5.  Heads  of  bolts  will  be  square,  hexagonal,  or  button  head,  and  plain  or  chamfered. 
The  nuts  will  be.  square  or  hexagon,  either  plain  or  cupped,  or  double-cupped.     All 
nuts  to  be  cold  punched  or  hot  pressed  as  required. 

6.  All   kegs,   boxes,    or   commercial   packages   to   be   plainly   marked   with   the 
manufacturer's  name. 

MATERIAL  AND  TEST  FOR  MACHINE  BOLTS  AND  NUTS  OF  WROUGHT  IRON 

1.  The  material  to  be  known  as  a  good  commercial  grade  of  American  refined  iron. 

2.  Tensile  Strength. — Material  to  be  tested  in  full  size  when  practicable.     Specimen 
bars  of  not  less  than  ^  square  inch  sectional  area  must  show  an  ultimate  strength 
of  not  less  than  48,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  an  elongation  of  not  less  than  26 
per  cent  in  2  inches. 

3.  Test  of  Bolts. — From  each  lot  of  bolts  of  the  same  diameter  the  inspector  will 
select  a  sufficient  number  of  test  specimens  to  determine  the  quality  and  uniformity 
of  the  material  used,  and  the  lot  will  be  accepted  or  rejected  according  to  the  results 
obtained 

[380] 


IRON  BOLTS  AND  NUTS 

4.  Fiber  Test. — One-half  of  the  test  specimens  thus  selected  shall  be  nicked  with 
a  sharp  chisel  about  20  per  cent  of  the  diameter  of  the  specimen,  and  bent  back  flat 
at  this  point  to  an  angle  of  180°,  the  fracture  showing  clean  fiber  for  at  least  60  per  cent 
of  the  area. 

5.  Cold  Short  Test. — A  number  of  the  remaining  test  specimens  shall  be  bent  180° 
to  a  radius  of  one  and  one-half  times  the  radius  of  the  hole,  without  showing  a  sign  of 
fracture  on  outer  curve. 

When  the  specimens  are  not  of  sufficient  length  in  the  plain  part  of  the  bolt  to 
admit  of  the  above  test,  the  following  will  be  substituted:  Break  the  specimen  through 
the  threaded  parts  without  nicking,  the  result  to  be  the  same  as  required  for  fiber  test. 


TABLE  I 


Diame- 
ter of 
Finished 
Bolt 

Nearest 
Size  Drill 
for  Use  in 
Blank. 
(Blank 
Nuts  Must 
Not  Be 
Smaller) 

Exact 
Dimen- 
sions at 
Root  of 
Thread 

Threads 
per    In. 
on  U.S. 
Stand. 

HEXAGON  OR  SQUARE  NUTS 

HEXAGON  OR  SQUARE  HEADS 

Blank  or 
Semi-finished 

Finished 

Blank  or 
Semi-finished 

Finished 

D 

B 

D 

B 

D 

B 

D 

B 

7ns. 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

A 

No.  25 

.1469 

32 

H 

A 

H 

i 

H 

if 

H 

i 

1 

A 

.1850 

20 

\ 

i 

& 

& 

1 

i 

A 

A 

A 

i 

.2403 

18 

H 

A 

M 

i 

H 

if 

H 

i 

1 

H 

.2936 

16 

H 

1 

f 

A 

H 

H 

f 

A 

A 

H 

.3447 

14 

If 

£ 

If 

f 

If 

If 

If 

f 

1 

H 

.4001 

13 

I 

£ 

H 

tk 

1 

& 

H 

A 

A 

H 

.4542 

12 

& 

A 

If 

1 

H 

li 

If 

\ 

f 

H 

.5069 

11 

1A 

f 

l 

& 

IA 

H 

i 

A 

U 

fi 

.5694 

11 

IA 

H 

i& 

f 

i* 

li 

t* 

f 

f 

f 

.6201 

10 

ii 

i 

1A 

H 

H 

f 

1A 

H 

H 

tt 

.6826 

10 

li* 

H 

i& 

i 

4 

itt 

If 

1A 

f 

1 

li 

.7307 

9 

iA 

1 

U 

H 

1A 

M 

if 

H 

tt 

li 

.7932 

9 

Ui 

H 

1M 

1 

1H 

If 

1H 

1 

1 

H 

.8376 

8 

if 

i 

1A 

H 

if 

H 

IA 

H 

U 

li 

.9394 

7 

m 

H 

U 

i^ 

iff 

If 

if 

IA 

H 

** 

.0644 

7 

2 

H 

1H 

1A 

2 

1 

lil 

IA 

H 

itt 

.1585 

6 

2A 

if 

2i 

1A 

2fV 

i& 

2| 

1A 

li 

lit 

.2835 

6 

521 

H 

2A 

1^ 

2f 

1A 

2^ 

IA 

H 

iff 

.3888 

5£ 

2A 

if 

2f 

1A 

2& 

i& 

2 

IA 

if 

U 

.4902 

5 

2f 

H 

2H 

1H 

2f 

if 

2H 

1H 

U 

if 

.6152 

5 

2H 

U 

21 

1H 

2H 

1H 

21 

1H 

2 

iff 

.7113 

4* 

31 

2 

3A 

Itt 

at 

IA 

3^r 

iH 

2i 

Ift 

.9613 

4* 

3f 

2i 

3^ 

2A 

3* 

H 

3^ 

2A 

2* 

2A 

2.1752 

4 

31 

2* 

3H 

2^ 

31 

1H 

3H 

2A 

6.  Hot  Test. — A  number  of  the  samples  shall  be  heated  to  redness  and  flattened 
out  to  one-half  the  original  thickness,  and  then  reheated  to  red  heat  and  bent  to  an 
angle  of  180°,  and  the  bend  must  show  no  sign  of  fracture. 

7.  Test  of  Nuts. — A  number  of  nuts,  at  the  discretion  of  the  inspector,  to  be  taken 
from  each  size  of  each  delivery,  to  determine  the  quality  and  uniformity  of  the  material 

The  surface  of  the  nuts  should  be  free  from  defects;  the  nuts  to  be  of  correct 

[381] 


DECK  BOLTS  AND  NUTS 


size  and  proper  finish,  and  the  lot  will  be  accepted  or  rejected  according  to  the  results 
obtained. 

8.  Cold  Tests. — A  number  of  nuts,  at  the  discretion  of  the  inspector,  shall  be  tested 
cold  as  follows:  The  nuts  shall  be  placed  on  their  sides  and  hammered  out  so  they  will 
break;  the  fracture  must  show  the  grain  or  fiber  to  run  normally  to  the  plane  through 
the  hole. 

The  following  table,  marked  "II,"  gives  the  variations  in  gauge  allowed  for  blank 
nuts  and  bolts: 

TABLE  II 


Nominal 
Diam. 

Maximum 
Diameter 

Minimum 
Diameter 

Maximum 
Variation 

Nominal 
Diameter 

Maximum 
Diameter 

Minimum 
Diameter 

Maximum 
Variation 

Inch 

Inch 

Inch 

Inch 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

A- 

.1925 

.1825 

0.010 

H 

.9465 

.9285 

0.018 

\ 

.2550 

.245 

.010 

i 

.0095 

.9905 

.019 

A 

.3180 

.307 

.011 

U 

.1350 

1.115 

.020 

I 

.3810 

.369 

.012 

U 

.2605 

1.2395 

.021 

A 

.444 

.431 

.013 

H 

.3855 

1.3645 

.021 

i 

.507 

.493 

.014 

H 

.5105 

1.4895 

.021 

A 

.570 

.555 

.015 

H 

.6355 

1.6145 

.021 

i 

.633 

.617 

.016 

U 

.7605 

1.7395 

.021 

H 

.6955 

.6795 

.016 

if 

1.886 

1.864 

.022 

i 

.7585- 

.7415 

.017 

2 

2.011 

1.989 

.022 

it 

.821 

.804 

.017 

21 

2.261 

2.239 

.022 

1 

.8840 

.866 

.018 

2| 

2.511 

2.489 

.022 

DECK  BOLTS  AND  NUTS 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

All  deck  bolts  and  nuts  to  be  made  of  the  best  quality  of  neutral  iron  or  mild  steel. 
The  bolts  shall  be  well  and  evenly  galvanized  to  insure  a  good  fit  for  the  nut;  to  be 
square  necked,  with  round  heads,  and  to  have  hexagon  nuts,  galvanized  and  fitted 
thumb-tight  to  bolts  which  will  be  threaded  for  one-third  of  their  length;  bolts  and 
nuts  to  conform  to  the  following  table  of  dimensions;  lengths  of  bolts  to  be  measured 
over  all: 


Diameter  of 
Bolt 

Length  of  Bolt 
Over  All 

Diameter  of 
Head 

Thickness 
of  Head 

Diameter  of 

Nut 

Thickness 
of  Nut 

Inch 

Inches 

Inches 

Inch 

Inch 

Inch 

i 

3 

1 

A 

H 

A 

A 

3 

1 

\ 

ft 

£ 

A 

3* 

1 

\ 

ft 

\ 

1 

4 

li 

I 

1 

A 

TESTS  OF  BOLTS  AND  NUTS 

A  number  of  bolts,  at  the  discretion  of  the  inspector,  will  be  taken  from  each  size 
of  each  delivery,  enough  to  satisfy  the  inspector  as  to  the  quality  of  the  entire  lot, 
and  will  be  subjected  to  the  following  tests: 

1.  Cold  Tests. — One-half  of  these  bolts  shall  be  bent  cold  through  180°  around 
a  diameter  equal  to  one-half  the  diameter  of  the  bolts,  and  they  must  stand  this  test 
without  breaking,  and  only  a  slight  fracture  of  the  skin  on  one  side  will  be  allowed. 

-[382]  ' 


BOLTS  FOR  ORDNANCE  WORK 

2.  Hot  Test. — The  remainder  of  the  bolts  will  be  tested  hot.  They  will  be  heated 
to  redness  and  hammered  out  flat  to  one-half  their  original  thickness.  They  will  then 
be  reheated  to  redness  and  bent  around  flat  to  an  angle  of  180°,  and  they  must  stand 
this  test  without  breaking  off. 

HOLDING-DOWN  BOLTS  FOR  GUN  MOUNTS,  TORPEDO  TUBES, 
AND  TURRET  TRACKS 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  The  "Specifications  for  Inspection  of  Steel  and  Iron  Material,  General  Speci- 
fications, Appendix  I,"  issued  June,  1912,  shall  form  a  part  of  these  specifications,  and 
must  be  complied  with  as  to  material,  methods  of  inspection,  and  all  other  requirements 
therein. 

2.  Holding-down  bolts  and  their  nuts  for  gun  mounts,  torpedo  tubes,  upper  and 
lower  turret  roller  tracks  and  holding-down  clips,  shall  be  made  of  either  forged  or  rolled 
bafs,  and  shall  conform  to  the  physical  and  chemical  requirements  of  the  following  table. 

All  material  shall  be  free  from  injurious  surface  defects  and  have  a  workmanlike 
finish: 


M?^rial 

Treatment 

Mini- 
mum 
Tensile 
Strength 

Mini- 
mum 
Yield 
Point 

Mini- 
mum 
Elonga- 
tion 
in  2" 

MAXIMUM 
AMOUNT  OF 

Cold  Bend 
Without 
Cracking 

P. 

s. 

O.H.  nickel 
steel. 

Annealed, 
oil  temper- 
ing optional 

Lbs.  per 
Sq.  In. 
80,000 

Lbs.  per 
Sq.  In. 
50,000 

Per  Cent 
25 

PerGt. 
.05 

PerCt. 
.05 

180°  to  inner 
diameter    of 
£  inch. 

In  8" 
20  Per 

Cent 

3.  At  least  two  test  pieces  for  tensile  test  and  one  test  piece  for  bending  shall  be 
tested  from  different  bars  from  each  lot  of  50  bars  or  less  made  from  the  same  heat  and 
subjected  to  the  same  treatment. 

4.  Finished  bolts  shall  conform  also  to  the  following  requirements: 

(a)  Where  the  bolts  are  not  turned  down  from  the  solid  rod,  but  when  the  rod  is 
upset  to  form  the  head,  the  bolts  are  to  be  annealed  after  such  working. 

(b)  In  all  cases  bolts  are  to  have  small  fillet  under  head  and  not  to  be  cut  sharp. 

(c)  Bolts  are  to  have  the  head  rounded  by  a  radius  equal  to  about  H  diameters 
of  bolt  to  insure  striking  directly  over  the  center  of  the  bolt  when  driving  the  same  in 
position. 

(d)  The  United  States  standard  thread  to  be  used  unless  otherwise  ordered;  care  to 
be  taken  that  the  threads  shall  be  slightly  flattened  at  root  and  point,  as  required  by 
said  standard. 

(e)  Threads  to  be  chased,  and,  in  finishing,  care  to  be  exercised  that  the  depth  of 
any  one  cut  taken  by  the  finishing  tool  shall  not  be  sufficient  to  injure  the  bolt. 

5.  Turret-track  bolts  shall  be  body-bound  turned  bolts,  with  points  rounded  to 
radius  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  bolt,  and  must  be  a  driving  fit.     The  thickness  and 
diameter  of  turret-track  bolt-heads  shall  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  nut;  the  head  to  be 
faced  underneath  in  all  cases. 


[383] 


STEEL  OR  COMPOSITION  BOLTS  AND  NUTS 


BOLTS  OF  STEEL  OR  COMPOSITION  METALS,  AND  NUTS  OF 

IRON,  STEEL,  OR  COMPOSITION  METALS;  STUDS  AND 

NUTS  AND  BARS  FOR  BOLTS  AND  NUTS 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT  SPECIFICATIONS 
43B9  September  1,  1914 

NOTE. — These  specifications  do  not  refer  to  machine  bolts  and  nuts  which  are 
covered  by  Specification  43B5  of  latest  issue. 

1.  General. — The  General  Specifications  for  inspection  of  material  shall  form  part 
of  these  specifications. 

BARS  FOR  BOLTS  AND  NUTS 

2.  Material. — The  material  from  which  bolts  are  manufactured  shall  be  medium  or 
commercial  steel,  rolled  naval  brass,  monel  metal,  manganese  bronze,  etc.,  as  may  be 
specified. 

3.  Tests  of  Bars  for  Steel  Bolts  when  Bars  are  Ordered. — To  be  in   accordance 
with  the  following  requirements: 

(a)  PHYSICAL  AND  CHEMICAL  CHARACTERISTICS: 


MAXIMUM 

Material 

Minimum 
Tensile 
Strength 

Minimum 
Yield  Point 

Minimum 
Elongation 

AMOUNT  OF 

Purpose  for  Which 
Used 

P. 

s. 

Lbs.  per 

Lbs.  per 

Per  Cent 

Open  -  hearth   car- 
bon medium  steel 
Commercial  steel. 

Sq.  In. 
58,000 

Sq.  In. 
30,000 

in  8  In.1 

28 

0.04 

0.045 

JFor  general  structu- 
|  ral  and  machine  work. 
f  For        miscellaneous 
I  work  where  strength 

1  is  not  important. 

1  NOTE. — For  bars  over  li  inches  in  diameter  add  two  (2)  units  of  per  cent  to  figures  stated  for  two- 
inch  gauge  length  and  type  one  test  specimen;  for  bars  1 }  inches  in  diameter  or  less  type  three  test  speci- 
mens shall  be  used. 

(b)  TENSILE  TESTS. — Bars  rolled  from  any  melt  shall  be  tested  by  sizes,  two  tensile 
tests  to  be  taken  from  each  ton  or  less  of  each  size.     If  the  results  of  such  tests  from  the 
various  sizes  indicate  that  the  material  is  of  uniform  quality,  not  more  than  eight  such 
specimens  shall  be  taken  to  represent  the  melt.     In  such  cases  the  eight  specimens  shall 
be  fully  representative  of  the  various  sizes  in  the  melt  offered  for  test.     The  tensile 
strengths  specified  shall  be  based  on  the  effective  sectional  area  in  the  threaded  portion 
of  the  bolt  given  in  Table  I. 

(c)  BENDING  TESTS  FOR  MEDIUM  STEEL. — From  each  size  of  each  melt  one  cold- 
bend  test  shall  be  taken  as  finished  in  the  rolls,  but  not  less  than  two  such  bends  shall 
be  made  from  any  melt.     These  cold-bend  specimens  shall  be  bent  180°  flat  on  themselves 
without  showing  any  cracks  or  flaws  in  the  outer  round. 

COMPOSITION  RODS 

4.  General. — (a)  All  bars  shall  be  clean  and  straight,  of  uniform  quality,  color,  and 
size,  and  shall  meet  the  requirements  of  the  latest  issue  of  the  leaflet  specifications 
for  the  material  ordered,  i.e.,  rolled  manganese  bronze,  rolled  naval  brass,  rolled  monel 
metal,  etc. 

(b)  Bars  will  not  be  tested  when  bolts  are  ordered.  All  tests  shall  be  then  be  made 
of  the  finished  product  as  required  by  paragraph  6  except  when  length  of  bolt  is  less 
than  three  diameters  when  tests  in  the  bar  shall  be  made. 

[384] 


STEEL  OR  COMPOSITION  BOLTS  AND  NUTS 


MANUFACTURED  BOLTS 

5.  Material. — To  be  manufactured  from  medium  or  commercial  steel,  rolled  naval 
brass  rod,  rolled  manganese  bronze  rod,  rolled  monel  metal  rod,  etc.,  as  specified,  and 
shall  conform  to  the  following: 

6.  Physical  Tests. — (a)  BENDING. — From  each  lot  of  bolts  medium  steel  having 
the  same  diameter  and  ready  for  final  inspection,  there  will  be  selected  not  less  than 
two  specimens  or  one  for  every  500  pounds  or  portion  thereof.     One-half  of  this  number 
selected  shall  be  bent  cold  180°  to  an  inner  diameter  equal  to  one-half  the  diameter  of 

TABLE  I 

DIMENSIONS  OF  BOLTS  AND  NUTS 


HEADS 

NUTS 

Nominal 
Diameter 

Number 
of 
Threads 
per  Inch 

Effective 
Area  of 
Threaded 
Portion 

Wrench 
Width  of 
Square  and 
Hexagonal 
Head  and 

Depth  of 
Head 

Depth  of 

Nut 

Wrench 
Width  of 
Square 
and 

Diameter 
at  Bottom 
of  Thread 
of  Bolts  and 

Diameter 

Hexagonal 

of  Hole  of 

of  Round 

Nuts 

Blank  Nuts 

Head 

a 

b 

c 

d 

e 

f 

g 

h 

Inches 

Sq.  In. 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

i 

20 

0.037 

f 

A 

& 

A 

0.185 

18 

.060 

H 

if 

£ 

H 

.240 

f 

16 

.088 

A 

A 

iV 

f 

.294 

14 

.119 

¥ 

li 

f 

M 

.344 

i 

13 

.159 

f 

A 

H 

.400 

A 

12 

.203 

ii 

H 

i 

If 

.454 

f 

11 

.252 

H 

H 

* 

i 

.507 

f 

10 

.368 

H 

TS 

!A 

.620 

7 
8 

9 

.506 

1A 

f^ 

If 

if 

.731 

1 

8 

.662 

f 

H 

1A 

.837 

M 

7 

.836 

itt 

ft 

H 

lit 

.940 

li 

7 

1.051 

U 

U 

2 

.065 

if 

6 

1.261 

2rs 

1^ 

if 

2& 

.160 

U 

6 

1.522 

2£ 

H 

ii 

2f 

.284 

if 

5£ 

1.784 

2A 

1A 

if 

2^ 

.389 

if 

5 

2.061 

2f 

1A 

if 

2f 

.491 

li 

5 

2.392 

2H 

IH 

if 

2if 

.616 

2 

41 

2.705 

3 

H 

2 

3| 

.712 

21 

4* 

3.483 

3f 

Hi 

2i 

3^ 

.962 

2| 

4 

4.293 

3f 

H 

2^ 

31 

2.176 

4 

5.260 

4* 

2^ 

2f 

4*        . 

2.426 

J|. 

FORMULA 

V 

_j_  "* 

HH 

T^      «\ 

«S- 

"c? 

^    |     ^ 

V        +     ^        + 

i 

3 

«{oi 

llli 

37  |T 

1 

« 

II 

a  M  ^  M 

NOTE.     The  dimensions  given  in  Table  I  are  commercial  sizes;  they  are  not 
United  States  standard. 

[385] 


STEEL  OR  COMPOSITION  BOLTS  AND  NUTS 

the  bolt,  without  fracture  on  the  convex  side  of  the  bend.  If  the  bolt  is  too  short  to 
permit  this  test  to  be  made  on  the  unthreaded  portion  of  the  shank,  the  bolt  shall  bo 
flattened  hot  to  a  thickness  equal  to  one-fourth  of  its  diameter  and,  when  cold,  this 
specimen  shall  be  bent  180°  flat  on  itself  transversely  to  the  direction  of  the  length  of 
the  bolt  without  fracture. 

(b)  TENSILE. — The  remaining  specimens  selected  as  specified  in  paragraph  6  (a) 
shall  be  subject  to  a  tensile  tess  with  the  nut  in  place,  unless  the  length  of  the  bolt  is 
less  than  three  diameters  the  stress  to  be  applied  on  the  bearing  faces  of  the  head  and 
nut.  The  bolt  must  meet  the  tensile  strength  specified  in  paragraph  3  (a)  and  fracture 
must  in  all  cases  occur  in  the  threaded  portion  of  the  bolt.  Specimens  selected  for  tensile 
test  but  which  are  too  short  to  permit  this  test  to  be  made  must  satisfy  the  bending  test 
specified  for  short  bolts  under  paragraph  6  (a).  Bolts  larger  than  1£  inches  in  diameter 
shall  be  tested  by  turning  therefrom  If -inch  studs.  These  studs  shall  be  tested  in  a 
like  manner  as  specified  for  testing  bolts  by  fitting  a  If -inch  nut  at  each  end. 

7.  Heads. — The  heads  will  be  plain,  chamfered,  faced  on  their  lower  side,  or  faced 
and  chamfered  as  specified  in  the  requisition.     Chamfering  must  be  at  an  angle  of  30° 
with  the  prolongation  of  the  upper  face  of  the  head,  leaving  a  circle  on  its  face,  whose 
diameter  must  be  equal  to  the  wrench  width  as  illustrated  in  the  sketch  accompanying 
these  specifications.     The  heads  will  conform  to  the  dimensions  of  Table  I  and  must 
be  concentric  with  the  body  of  the  bolt,  and  square  with  the  body  of  the  bolt. 

8.  Dimensions. — Bolts  shall  conform  to  the  dimensions  given  in  Table  I   and 
shall  have  United  States  standard  threads.    The  length  of  the  bolts  is  to  be  measured 
from  under  the  head  to  the  first  thread  at  the  point,  and  to  the  end  of  the  cylindrical 
shank  in  blank  bolts. 

9.  Threading. — (a)  Unless  blanks  are  specifically  called  for  in  the  order,  the  length 
of  the  threaded  portion  of  the  shank  must  be  in  accordance  with  Table  II,  if  possible, 
and  if  not,  the  shank  is  to  be  threaded  to  the  head. 

(b)  Bolts  over  20  inches  in  length  and  over  1£  inches  in  diameter  are  to  be  threaded 
for  a  length  equal  to  three  tunes  the  diameter,  if  not  otherwise  specified. 

(c)  Bolts  shall  be  provided,  unless  otherwise  specified,  with  clean,  sharp,  and  well- 
fitting  tlnited  States  standard  threads,  which  may  be  either  chased  or  cut  with  a  die. 
Nuts  to  be  used  on  machinery  shall  fit  wrench-tight.    Other  nuts  must  be  either  thumb- 
tight  without  shake,  or  a  spinning  fit,  as  specified. 

10.  Workmanship. — Bolts  must  be  hot  forged  or  upset  cold;  all  bolts  made  by  cold 
upsetting  process  must  be  annealed  after  the  heading  operation;  all  bolts  must  be  free 
from  scales,  abnormal  fins,  or  other  unsightly  defects  and  must  have  clean,  smooth 
threads,  fitting  as  specified  in  the  requisition. 

11.  Finish. — Bolts  will  be  specified  as  rough,  semi-finished,  or  finished. 

(a)  Semi-finished  bolts  and  nuts  require  machining  only  on  the  under  side  of  the 
bolt-head  and  nut,  and  the  under  side  of  the  head  shall  face  square  with  the  body  of 
the  bolt. 


[386] 


STEEL  OR  COMPOSITION  BOLTS  AND  NUTS 

TABLE  II 
LENGTH  OF  THREADED  PORTION  OF  BOLTS 


Length  of  Bolt 

DIAMETER 

OP  BOLT 

• 

(Inches) 

i 

A 

I 

A 

i 

A 

l   to  H 

| 

£ 

| 

1 

i 

i 

If  to  2      

| 

1 

1 

1 

i 

i 

21  to  2|  .  . 

1 

i 

1 

1 

i 

l 

2f  to  3 

1 

1 

1 

1 

i 

l 

3ito4  
4|  to  8  

1 
1 

i 
1 

it 
if 

H 
11 

H 
li 

11 
11 

8|  to  12 

1 

i 

11 

u 

l| 

li 

12i  to  20  

1 

i 

11 

H 

2 

2 

Length  of  Bolt 

DIAMETER 

OP  BOLT 

(Inches) 

f 

3 

A 

7 

I 

1 

H 

H 

1   to  H  

H 

If  to  2 

u 

U 

If 

2i  to  1\  
2f  to  3  

11 

li 

H 

H 

U 
if 

U 
2 

21 

•  '• 

3i  to  4 

u 

u 

11 

2 

24 

24 

4|  to  8  
8i  to  12  
12|to20  

4 
H 

2 

if 

2 
2 

2 

21 
2| 

21 
2* 
3 

21 
3 
31 

3 
31 
31 

(b)  Finished  bolts  and  nuts  require  machining  throughout. 

12.  Variations  of  Blank  Bolts. — The  Variations  in  size  of  blank  bolts  shall  not  exceed 
that  allowed  under  Table  III  below: 


TABLE  III 


Nominal 
Diameter 

Maximum 
Diameter 

Minimum 
Diameter 

Maximum 
Variation 

Nominal 
Diameter 

Maximum 
Diameter 

Minimum 
Diameter 

Maximum 
Variation 

IncH 

Inch 

Inch 

Inch 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

Inch 

A 

0.1925 

0.1825 

0.010 

H 

.9465 

.9285 

0.018 

1 

.2550 

.245 

.010 

l 

.0095 

.9905 

.019 

A 

.3180 

.307 

.011 

H 

.1350 

1.115 

.020 

t 

.3810 

.369 

.012 

11 

.2605 

1.2395 

.021 

A 

.444 

.431 

.013 

U 

.3855 

1.3645 

.021 

i 

.507 

.493 

.014 

A 

.5105 

1.4895 

.021 

A 

.570 

.555 

.015 

if 

.6355 

1.6145 

.021 

.633 

.617 

.016 

if 

.7605 

1.7395 

.021 

\ 

i 

.6955 

.6795 

.016 

if 

.886 

1.864 

.022 

.7585 

.7415 

.017 

2 

2.011 

1.989 

.022 

1 

.821 

.804 

.017 

21 

2.261 

2.239 

.022 

.8840 

.866 

.018 

2J 

2.511 

2.489 

.022 

[3871 


STEEL  OR  COMPOSITION  BOLTS  AND  NUTS 

NUTS 

13.  Manufactured  Nuts. — The  nuts  for  use  with  steel  bolts  may  be  either  steel  or 
iron  as  specified,  and  shall  conform  to  the  following: 

14.  Workmanship. — Nuts  shall  be  either  hot  pressed  or  cold  punched  from  a  solid 
bar.     They  must  be  free  from  scales,  fins,  seams,  or  other  injurious  or  unsightly  defects 
and  must  have  cleanly  and  smoothly  threaded  holes  of  nominal  size,  square  to  the 
end  faces  of  the  nuts.     All  cold-punched  nuts,  whether  blank  or  tapped,  must  be  reamed 
square  to  their  endjaces  before  tapping;  this  reaming  process  may  be  omitted  in  hot- 
pressed  nuts. 

15.  Dimensions. — Nuts  shall  conform  to  the  dimensions  given  in  Table  I  above 
and  shall  have  United  States  standard  threads,  unless  blanks  are  specifically  called 
for.     They  shall  be  square  or  hexagonal,  either  plain  or  chamfered,  or  double  chamfered, 
or  faced  on  their  lower  sides,  or  counter-bored  (recessed),  as  specified  in  the  requisition. 
The  chamfering  to  be  as  specified  in  paragraph  7. 

16.  Tests. — From'each  lot  of  steel  or  iron  nuts  having  the  same  size  and  ready  for 
final  inspection  there  will  be  selected  not  less  than  two  specimens  or  one  for  every  200 
pounds  or  fraction  thereof.     One-half  of  the  number  selected  shall  be  drifted  cold 
until  they  break,  the  fracture  to  indicate  either  homogeneous  steel  or  wrought  iron. 
If  fracture  indicates  wrought  iron,  the  fibers  must  run  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the 
hole.     The  remaining  specimens  shall  be  heated  to  redness  and  flattened  to  one-sixth 
of  their  thickness.    Under  this  test,  flaws  or  splits,  due  to  defective  steel  or  badly  welded 
wrought  iron,  must  not  develop. 

17.  Composition  Nuts. — To  be  made  of  the  same  material  as  required  for  com- 
position rods  under  paragraph  4  and  to  conform  as  far  as  applicable  to  the  requirements 
for  steel  nuts,  including  surface,  threads,  and  fit. 

STUDS 

18.  General. — The  length  ~of  threads  on  studs,  including  taper,  shall  be  1£  times 
the  diameter  of  the  stud.    The  length  of  the  taper  shall  not  exceed  two  threads.     The 
thread  on  one  end  of  the  stud  shall  be  a  steam-tight  fit  and  the  end  of  the  stud  shall 
be  faced  square  with  the  axis;  the  thread  on  the  other  end  of  the  stud  shall  be  a  thumb- 
tight  nut  fit  and  the  end  shall  be  rounded  to  a  radius   approximately  equal   to  the 
diameter  of  the  bolt.     When  specified  for  use  on  machinery,  the  nut  on  the  stud  shall 
be  a  wrench  fit. 

19.  Split  Pin. — When  a  split  pin  is  required,  the  diameter  and  the  material  of  the 
pin  will  be  specified. 

MISCELLANEOUS  REQUIREMENTS 

20.  Fit. — When  bolts  and  nuts  are  ordered  together,  one  nut  shall  be  delivered  on 
each  bolt,  which  must  fit  the  bolt  as  specified  in  the  requisition  (see  paragraph  22). 
Bolts  ordered  separately  must  fit  a  nut  of  standard,  nominal  size,  as  specified  in  the 
requisition.     Nuts  ordered  separately  must  be  of  standard,  nominal  size. 

21.  Packing. — Unless  otherwise  specified,  all  bolts  and  nuts  must  be  packed  in 
100-pound  boxes,  made  of  new,  sound  boards  of  f-inch  thickness,  well  nailed  together 
and  strapped  at  both  ends  with  £-inch  flat  band  iron.     The  boxes  must  have  mill- 
dressed  outside  surfaces.     Each  box  must  be  clearly  stenciled  on  one  end  only,  show- 
ing the  net  weight,  the  size,  and  name  of  the  contents.     The  manufacturer's  name, 
contract  number,  and  any  other  marks  may  appear  on  one  side  only.     One  side,  one  end, 
the  top,  and  bottom  of  the  box  shall  be  left  free  from  marks. 

22.  Instructions  to  General  Storekeepers. — The  requisition  for  bolts  and  nuts  should 
specify: 

(a)  The  kind  and  class  of  material  required. 

(b)  The  form  of  the  head,  whether  square,  hexagonal,  round,  plain,  chamfered,  etc. 

(c)  Whether  or  not  the  nut,  when  semi-finished  or  machined,  is  to  be  counter-bored 
(recessed).    This  expression  should  be  used  in  lieu  of  the  word  "cupped." 

(d^  Whether  the  bolts  are  to  be  threaded  or  blank. 

[388] 


STANDARD  TAPER  BOLTS 

STANDARD  TAPER  BOLTS 
C 


American  Locomotive  Practice 


FOR  NEW  WORK 


FOR  REPAIR  WORK 


Bolt 
No. 

Length  C 

Diam.  Under 
HeadB 

Bolt 
No. 

Length  C 

Diam.  Under 
HeadB 

4 

4  in.  and  less 

D  _i_  JL  jn 

4i 

4  in  and  less 

D  _|_  ^L  in 

8 

8  in.  to  4  in.  not 
including  4  in 

D  4.  JL.  jn 

8* 

8  in.  to  4  in.  not 
including  4  in 

D  _L  JL  in 

12 

12  in.  to  8  in.  not 
including  8  in  

D  _i_    s    in 

12* 

12  in.  to  8  in.  not 
including  8  in 

D  _i_  j_  m> 

16 

16  in.  to  12  in.  not 
including  12  in 

D  +  |  in 

16J 

16  in.  to  12  in.  not 
including  12  in 

D  _i_  £.  ^ 

20 

20  in.  to  16  in.  not 
including  16  in  

D  _j_  J&  in. 

20| 

20  in.  to  16  in.  not 
including  16  in 

D  _i_  ii  in. 

This  table  relating  to  standard  taper  bolts  for  locomotives  is  an  adaptation  of 
dimensions  given  on  drawings  in  the  Locomotive  Dictionary.  The  dimensions  in 
table  of  reamers,  given  below,  apply  to  the  above  table  of  taper  bolts.  As  a  standard 
this  table  has  its  limitations,  inasmuch  as  other  tapers  are  in  use,  notably  the  bolts 
in  main  and  side  rods  for  certain  locomotives,  Lehigh  Valley  design,  the  taper  =  ^ 
in.  in  12  inches;  for  similar  rods  |  in.  in  12  inches  is  employed  by  the  American  Locomo- 
tive Co.,  and  other  variations  could  be  given. 


[389] 


STANDARD  TAPER  REAMERS 
STANDARD  TAPER  REAMERS 
L- 


American  Locomotive  Practice 


D 

L 

A 

B 

c 

E 

F 

G 

s 

T 

Mark  Reamer 

i 

8 

i 

f 

ft 

\ 

i 

a 

4 

\ 

\ 

*No.    4 

i 

12 

\ 

f 

A 

i 

i 

f 

'  \ 

\ 

\    "      8 

I 

8 

f 

1 

4 

A 

i 

i 

! 

\ 

i 

1    "      4 

1 

12 

! 

1 

A 

i 

i 

f 

\ 

\ 

f    "      8 

i 

8 

f 

ift 

H 

i 

i 

i 

I 

\ 

f    "      4 

i 

12 

1 

ift 

H 

1 

i 

i 

f 

i 

I    "      8 

i 

16 

f 

ift 

ii 

i 

i 

i 

3. 

4 

\ 

f    "    12 

i 

20 

i 

ift 

H 

1 

i 

i 

f 

1 

I    "    16 

i 

8 

i 

if 

if 

i 

i 

H 

f 

\ 

1    "      4 

i 

12 

i 

H 

H 

\ 

i 

11 

1 

\ 

1    "  :    8 

i 

16 

i 

H 

if 

\ 

\ 

H 

1 

\ 

1    "    12 

i 

20 

i 

H 

if 

i 

i 

H 

1 

\ 

1    "    16 

i 

8 

i 

H 

if 

\ 

i 

H 

1 

\ 

1      "      4 

i 

12 

i 

H 

if 

\ 

1 

11 

1 

\ 

1      "      8 

i 

16 

i 

11 

if 

1 

1 

H 

1 

\ 

1      "    12 

i 

20 

i 

H 

if 

1 

i 

U 

1 

\ 

1      "    16 

li 

8 

H 

H 

1ft 

i 

1 

U 

1 

\ 

H    "      4 

ii 

12 

H 

ii 

ift 

i 

i 

U 

1 

\ 

H    "      8 

H 

16 

H 

ii 

1ft 

i 

1 

H 

1 

i 

li   "    12 

li 

20 

ii 

H 

ift 

1 

} 

11 

1 

1 

li   "    16 

it 

8 

11 

ii 

Wk 

i 

\ 

U 

1 

\ 

H    "      4 

H 

12 

H 

ft 

ift 

i 

i 

U 

1 

\ 

11    "      8 

U 

16 

H 

ii 

ift 

i 

i 

H 

1 

\ 

11    "    12 

H 

20 

li 

Ii 

ift 

i 

i 

H 

1 

\ 

11    "    16 

H 

8 

if 

Ii 

i& 

1 

^ 

11 

1 

\ 

If    "      4 

if 

12 

if 

li 

ift 

i 

i 

H 

1 

\ 

If    "      8 

if 

16 

if 

ti 

ift 

i 

i 

n 

1 

\ 

If    "    12 

if 

20 

if 

H 

ift 

i 

i 

11 

1 

\ 

If    "    16 

Si 

8 

li 

H 

ift 

i 

i 

U 

1 

i 

H    "      4 

i* 

12 

11 

Ii 

ift 

\ 

i 

11 

1 

i 

H    "     8 

li 

16 

li 

li 

ift 

\ 

i 

U 

1 

1 

li   "   12 

H 

20 

If 

« 

ift 

i 

i 

H 

1 

\ 

li   "    16    . 

NOTE.- — 1  inch  reamers  taper  ^  in.  per  foot. 

To  allow  for  grinding,  each  reamer  is  made  4  in.  longer  than  longest  bolt  of  its  class. 
When  a  No.  12  reamer  has  been  reduced  ^  in.  in  diameter  and  goes  in  up  to  the  top 
of  flutes  when  reaming  for  longest  bolt  of  its  class,  by  cutting  4  in.  from  the  small  end 
it  can  be  used  as  a  No.  8  reamer,  and  afterwards  as  a  No.  4. 

[390] 


WEIGHT  OF  BOLTS  AND  NUTS 


MACHINE  BOLTS  WITH  SQUAKB  HEADS  AND  SQUARE  NUTS 

Manufacturer's  Standard 
Average  weight  per  hundred 


Lgth. 
in 
Ins. 

DIAMETERS 

i 

•  A 

I 

1 

I 

l 

H 

?M 

3 

26 

38 

45 

72 

106 

157 

211 

286 

3* 

29 

42 

49 

78 

115 

167 

226 

303 

4 

31 

46 

53 

83 

123 

176 

240 

320 

4£ 

34 

50 

57 

89 

131 

18. 

255 

337 

5 

37 

54 

60 

95 

139 

196 

269 

354 

51 

39 

58 

64 

101 

148 

206 

284 

371 

6 

42 

61 

68 

106 

156 

216 

298 

388 

6| 

45 

65 

72 

112 

164 

225 

313 

405 

7 

47 

69 

75 

118 

172 

235 

327 

422 

7| 

50 

73 

79 

124 

181 

245 

342 

439 

8 

53 

77 

83 

129 

189 

255 

356 

456 

9 

58 

84 

90 

141 

205 

274 

385 

490 

10 

63 

92 

98 

152 

222 

294 

414 

524 

11 

69 

100 

105 

164 

238 

314 

443 

558 

12 

74 

107 

113 

175 

255 

333 

472 

592 

13 

79 

115 

120 

187 

271 

352 

501 

626 

14 

84 

122 

128 

198 

288 

372 

530 

660 

15 

89 

129 

135 

210 

304 

391 

559 

694 

16 

95 

137 

143 

221 

320 

410 

588 

728 

17 

100 

144 

150 

233 

336 

429 

617 

762 

18 

105 

152 

157 

244 

353 

448 

646 

796 

19 

110 

159 

165 

256 

369 

468 

675 

830 

20 

115 

166 

172 

267 

385 

487 

704 

864 

BOLTS  OF  UNIFORM  STRENGTH 

The  effective  area  of  a  bolt  is  that  corresponding  to  its  diameter  at  the  bottom  of 
thread.  A  bolt  that  is  subject  to  repeated  shock  or  stress  suffers  a  slight  temporary 
elongation  every  time  the  shock  occurs.  In  a  solid  bolt  the  smallest  area  which  is  under 
stress  is  at  the  base  of  the  threads  between  the  nut  and  the  body  of  the  bolt  and  the  slight 
elongation  due  to  each  shock  is  largely  localized  at  this  point,  causing  the  metal  to  crys- 
tallize and  give  way.  By  reducing  the  area  of  the  body  of  the  bolt  until  it  is  equal 
to  or  less  than  the  area  at  the  base  of  the  threads  the  elongation  distributes  itself  more 
uniformly  through  the  entire  length  of  the  bolt,  and  thus  the  strain  on  each  particle  of 
metal  is  less  than  when  it  is  all  located  between  the  nut  and  the  body  of  the  bolt. 

The  area  of  the  bolt  can  be  reduced  either  by  drilling  out  the  center  or  by  turning 
off  the  outside,  but  as  the  latter  method  weakens  the  bolt  more  torsionally  the  drilling 
is  preferable.  C.  L.  Thompson. 

When  computing  the  table  on  page  392,  the  nearest  ^-inch  drill  was  selected; 
in  ordinary  shop  practice  a  drilled  hole  is  slightly  larger  than  the  drill  used  to  make  it, 
the  net  area  of  a  hollow  bolt  at  E  (see  sketch)  may,  therefore,  be  slightly  less  than 
given. 


391 


BOLTS  OF  UNIFORM  STRENGTH 


BOLTS  OF  UNIFORM  STRENGTH 


United  States  Standard  Threads 


SCREW 

HOLE 

WEIGHT  PER  INCH 

Outside 

Root  of  Thread 

length 

Net 

Neck 
C 

Diam. 

Area 

Area 
of 

Solid 

Solid 

Hollow 
Section 

Dia. 
A 

Area 

Diam. 
B 

Area 

D 

Bolt  at 
E 

A 

B 

E 

1 

.785 

.837 

.550 

\ 

H 

.222 

.563 

.222 

.156 

.160 

It 

.994 

.940 

.694 

i 

I 

.307 

.687 

.282 

.197 

.195 

U 

1.227 

1.065 

.891 

A 

H 

.338 

.889 

.348 

.252 

.252 

If 

1.485 

1.160 

1.057 

A 

1 

.442 

1.043 

.421 

^299 

.296 

H 

1.767 

1.284 

1.294 

A 

If 

.479 

1.288 

.501 

.367 

.065 

If 

2.074 

.389 

1.515 

! 

H 

.559 

1.515 

.588 

.429 

.429 

If 

2.405 

.491 

1.746 

1 

If 

.645 

1.760 

.681 

.495 

.499 

II 

2.761 

.616 

2.051 

I 

H 

.690 

2.071 

.782 

.581 

.587 

2 

3.142 

.712 

2.302 

I 

i 

.785 

2.357 

.890 

.652 

.668 

2i 

3.976 

.962 

3.023 

1 

II 

.994 

2.982 

1.127 

.857 

.845 

2* 

4.909 

2.176 

3.719 

! 

1A 

1.108 

3.801 

1.391 

1.054 

1.077 

2! 

5.940 

2.426 

4.622 

I 

1* 

1.353 

4.587 

1.683 

1.310 

1.300 

3 

7.069 

2.676 

5.624 

I 

I* 

1.623 

5.446 

2.000 

1.594 

1.543 

3i 

8.296 

2.879 

6.509 

I 

H 

1.767 

6.529 

2.351 

1.844 

1.850 

8| 

9.621 

3.100 

7.549 

I 

if 

2.074 

7.547 

2.726 

2.139 

2.138 

31 

11.05 

3.317 

8.641 

I 

H 

2.405 

8.64 

3.131 

2.448 

2.448 

4 

12.57 

3.567 

9.993 

i 

Itt 

2.580 

9.99 

3.562 

2.831 

2.831 

[392] 


HEADLESS  SET  SCREWS 


COLLAR  SCREWS  WITH  SQUARE  HEADS 


SCREW 

WRENCH 

Counter 

Diam 
A 

B 

C 

Square 
D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

i 

K 

L 

bore 
M 

i 

1 

i 

f 

i 

f 

li 

f 

1 

1 
« 

H 

H 

f 

1ft 

A 

f 

A 

1ft 

1ft 

H 

i 

A 

1 

H 

i 

11 

A 

H 

f 

ii 

1ft 

f 

if 

f 

H 

f 

f 

1ft 

f 

M 

H 

fft 

H 

i 

4 

•••» 

f 

i* 

i 

i 

H 

f 

Ift 

f 

li 

1» 

H 

if 

ft 

U 

H 

H 

1H 

ft 

1ft 

H 

m 

ft 

1 

1ft 

i 

if 

n 

a 

2 

A 

1ft 

1 

H 

2f 

H 

1ft 

i 

3tft 

ift 

if 

2A 

i 

1ft 

H 

2 

3ft 

i 

if 

Vk 

Jft 

tft 

ii 

2f 

i 

11 

1 

2i 

21 

i 

if 

f 

If 

i| 

HEADLESS  SET  SCREWS 

A  set  screw  with  projecting  head,  such  as  sometimes  seen  in  a  collar  or  hub  of  a  wheel 
fixed  upon  a  revolving  shaft,  is  always  to  be  regarded  as  a  hazard  because  of  the  con- 
stant liability  of  the  projecting  head  engaging  the  clothing  of  an  attendant;  to  eliminate 
this  hazard  is  the  purpose  of  the  headless  and  non-projecting  set  screw. 


NOTE. — By  slightly  rounding  the  corners  in  a  square  socket  a  shortening  of  its  long 
diameter  is  had  without  materially  affecting  the  action  of  the  wrench,  provided  the 
latter  snugly  fits  the  socket.  Wrenches  for  hollow  set  screws  are  usually  furnished  by 
the  manufacturers  of  the  screws. 


[393] 


CAP  SCREWS 


HEADLESS  SET  SCREWS 
United  States  Standard  Threads 


SCREW 

HOLE 

SLOT 

Outside  Diam. 

Root  of  Thread 

Diameters 

A 

Area 

Diam. 

Area 

Thds. 

K 

Min. 
Length 

Square 

Hexagon 

Depth 
F 

G 

H 

Short 

Long 

Short 

Long 

D 

E 

D 

E 

* 

.049 

.185 

.027 

20 

A 

& 

& 

7 
T* 

i 

A 

ft 

i 

ft 

.077 

.240 

.045 

18 

A 

£ 

A 

A 

A 

A 

ft 

A 

1 

.111 

.294 

.068 

16 

I 

A 

H 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

ft 

.150 

.335 

.093 

14 

A 

& 

H 

i 

if 

i 

4 

ft 

A 

I 

.196 

.400 

.126 

13 

i 

i 

If 

A 

If 

A 

A 

tt 

A 

.249 

.454 

.162 

12 

A 

A 

if 

H 

H 

A 

ft 

ft 

I 

.307 

.507 

.202 

11 

I 

A 

ft 

1 

A 

i 

i 

A 

1 

.442 

.620 

.302 

10 

I 

t 

H 

n 

H 

A 

A 

•  A 

1 

.601 

.731 

.419 

9 

1 

* 

H 

if 

H 

f 

A 

i 

i 

.785 

.838 

.550 

8 

i 

I 

H 

H 

H 

H 

H 

if 

H 

.994 

.939 

.694 

7 

H 

A 

tt 

If 

If 

f 

if 

A 

if 

1.227 

1.065 

.891 

7 

H 

t 

H 

f 

tt 

H 

A 

A 

if 

1.485 

1.159 

1.057 

6 

if 

H 

H 

H 

H 

1 

& 

A 

U 

1.767 

1.284 

1.294 

6 

If 

I 

Ift 

If 

ift 

i 

i 

1 

CAP  SCREWS 

Threads,  in  general,  follow  the  United  States  Standard;  in  the  case  of  half-inch 
screws,  however,  there  seems  to  be  a  preference  for  12  threads,  rather  than  13,  the 
standard  number. 

Cap  screws  are,  ordinarily,  milled  from  square  or  hexagon  bars  of  the  dimensions 
given  for  heads  in  the  table.  Square  and  hexagon  heads  requiring  to  be  finished  are 


ground  and  polished  from  the  rough;  they  are  not  milled  to  size,  hence,  the  dimensions 
given  are  approximate  only. 

Length  of  thread  is  ordinarily  cut  three-fourths  of  the  length  under  the  head  for  cap 
screws  1  inch  and  less  in  diameter,  when  not  over  4  inches  in  length;  when  longer  than 
4  inches,  the  threads  are  commonly  half  the  length. 

[394] 


CAP  SCREWS 


Round  head  cap  screws  are  milled  to  dimensions  given  in  the  table;  the  heads  are 
therefore  true  to  size  and  accurately  centered. 

Flat  and  button  head  cap  screws  are  milled  from  bars  slightly  larger  than  the  diameter 
of  head;  they  are  not  upset  heads. 

CAP  SCREWS 
Commercial  sizes.     Not  United  States  Standard 


SCREW 

SQUARE  HEAD 

HEXAGON  HEAD 

ROUND  AND  FILJSTER  HEAD 

Slot 

Diam. 
A 

Thds. 
Inch 

Short 
Diam. 
B 

Long 

Diam. 
C 

Height 
D 

Short 
Diam. 
B 

Long 
Diam. 
C 

Height 

Diam. 
B 

Height 
C 

Width 

Depth 

D 

E 

I 

4 

20 

1 

ii 

i 

& 

i 

i 

1 

i 

^ 

i 

A 

18 

& 

f 

A 

i 

H 

A 

A 

A 

ft 

A 

I 

16 

i 

H 

f 

A 

li 

1 

A 

1 

A 

A 

* 

14 

A 

li 

& 

I 

H 

A 

f 

A 

A 

A 

12 

f 

H 

i 

f 

1 

i 

1 

i 

A 

ii 

A 

12 

tt 

li 

A 

H 

if 

A 

H 

A 

A 

A 

! 

11 

f 

l& 

f 

1 

I* 

1 

1 

f 

i 

A 

f 

10 

1 

HI 

f 

i 

t* 

f 

l 

1 

A 

A 

1 

9 

H 

i» 

1 

U 

1H 

1 

li 

1 

A 

i 

i 

8 

ii 

i 

H 

1& 

i 

H 

i 

H 

H 

11 

7 

it 

1H 

ii 

if 

lit 

ii 

U 

H 

if 

A 

t| 

7 

H 

2i 

li 

11 

iti 

H 

H 

H 

* 

A 

CAP  SCREWS 


FLAT  HEAD 


NEAJLFSI 


Commercial  Sizes.     Not  United  States  Standard 


SCREW 

FLAT  HEAD 

BUTTON  HEAD 

Slot 

Slot 

Diam. 
A 

Threada 
per 

Diam. 
B 

Height 

Diam. 

Height 

Inch 

Width 
D 

Depth 

Width 
D 

Depth 
E 

i 

40 

i 

A 

& 

A 

if 

A 

A 

A 

A 

24 

1 

A 

& 

A 

4 

A 

A 

A 

i 

20 

if 

i 

A 

i 

A 

if 

A 

IT 

A 

18 

f 

A 

A 

A 

A 

i 

A 

64 

f 

16 

f 

A 

A 

f 

if 

A 

& 

A 

14 

if 

A 

A 

A 

f 

If 

A 

A 

12 

I 

i 

A 

ii 

if 

H 

A 

A 

A 

12 

1 

A 

A 

if 

If 

A 

A 

11 

H 

A 

i 

A 

l 

i 

i 

if 

f 

10 

H 

1 

A 

A 

li 

m 

A 

i 

395] 


SET  SCREWS 


SET  SCREWS 

Commercial  set  screws  do  not  have  upset  or  forged  heads.     The  diameter  of  screw, 
the  short  diameter  of  head,  and  the  height  of  head  are  the  same  or  nearly  so.     When 


DOG 


OVAL 


CUP 


FLAT 


CONICAL 


the  short  diameter  of  head  exceeds  that  of  the  screw  diameter  by  more  than  &  inch, 
it  is  not  then  classed  as  a  set  screw  but  as  a  cap  screw. 

Points  of  set  screws  vary  in  shape,  depending  upon  the  uses  to  which  the  screws 
are  to  be  put;  the  leading  varieties  of  points  are  shown  in  the  accompanying  sketches. 
Cup  and  oval  point  set  screws  are  regular;  others  are  special  and  made  to  order. 

Heads  are  commonly  square;  should  hexagon  heads  be  required  they  will  be  made 
to  order  at  about  25  per  cent  advance  over  the  square  head  net  prices. 


SET  SCREWS 


Commercial  Sizes.     Not  United  States  Standard 


SCREW 

SQUARE  HEAD 

HEXAGON  HEAD 

Diam. 
A 

Threads 
per 
Inch 

Short 
Diam. 
B 

Long 
Diam. 
C 

Height 
D 

Short 
Diam. 
B 

Long 
Diam. 
C 

Height 
D 

1 

20 

1 

H 

i 

i 

H 

i 

A 

18 

A 

H 

A 

& 

if 

A 

I 

16 

1 

H 

1 

1 

A 

1 

& 

14 

A 

! 

A 

ft 

\  ' 

A 

i 

12 

* 

tt 

i 

i 

H 

i 

A 

12 

A 

ft 

A 

A 

B 

A 

I 

11 

! 

H 

f 

1 

H 

f 

f 

10 

f 

1* 

1 

f 

1 

f 

1 

9 

1 

a 

1 

1 

l* 

7 
8 

1 

8 

l 

itt 

i 

i 

l* 

1 

If 

7 

a 

1H 

H 

H 

1H 

H 

H 

7 

H 

iff 

H 

a 

1ft 

U 

[396J 


STUDS 


STUDS 


\ 

«VAVvW 

/ 

\ 

i/VWWA 

I 

Commercial  Sizes.    United  States  Standard  Thr  ads 


AREAS 

Diameter 
A 

Threads 
per 
Inch 

Diameter 
at  Root 
of  Thread 
B 

Length 
of 
Tap  End 
C 

Blank 
D 

Length 
of 
Nut  End 
E 

Length 
of 
Stud 
F 

Outside 
Diameter 

Root  of 
Thread 

A 

B 

j 

13 

.400 

.196 

.125 

i 

0 

1 

If 

Jfe 

12 

.454 

.249 

.162 

H 

0 

H 

iff 

| 

11 

.507 

.307 

.202 

H 

0 

H 

iff 

I 

10 

.620 

.442 

.302 

H 

0 

I* 

2rs 

1 

9 

.731 

.601 

.419 

1A 

0 

1A 

2ff 

1 

8 

.837 

.785 

.550 

H 

0 

If 

2| 

i| 

7 

.940 

.994 

.694 

1H 

0 

1H 

3^ 

n 

7 

1.065 

1.227 

.892 

i& 

0 

if 

3^ 

if 

6 

1.160 

1.485 

1.057 

iff 

0 

2j^ 

3ff 

il 

6 

1.284 

1.767 

1.294 

H 

0 

21 

4i 

The  distance  D  in  the  table  is  zero,  and  F  =  C  +  O  +  E.     As  F  is  the  working 
distance,  whatever  length  is  added  to  F  is  also  to  be  added  to  D. 


HOOK  BOLTS 


Diam. 
A 


SQUARE  NECK 


HEAD 


1 

H 
if 
if 
H 


[397] 


COACH  AND  LAG  SCREWS 


COACH  AND  LAG  SCREWS 
Manufacturers'  Standard 


"POINT 


J4-C-* 


Average  weight  per  100  screws 


Diameter  A 

1 

i7s 

* 

I9e 

I 

* 

i 

1 

Threads  per  Inch 

8 

i 

6 

6 

5 

5 

4 

4 

Length 

Length 
of  Thread 
C 

Head 
Axffe 

Head 
Hxf 

Head 

IfA 

Head 

K* 

Head 

HxH 

Head 
U*f 

Head 
lAxf 

Head 

Hx| 

2 

H 

8 

11 

15 

23 

25 

2| 

H 

9 

13 

18 

26 

29 

43 

3 

H 

11 

15 

19 

29 

33 

48 

75 

3* 

2 

12 

17 

22 

33 

37 

54 

79 

90 

4 

2i 

14 

19 

24 

36 

41 

60 

82 

99 

4£ 

2£ 

15 

21 

27 

39 

45 

66 

86 

108 

5 

2f 

17 

23 

29 

43 

49 

72 

90 

118 

5* 

3 

18 

25 

32 

46 

53 

78 

98 

128 

6 

31 

20 

27 

34 

50 

57 

84 

106 

138 

7 

3f 

31 

39 

56 

65 

96 

123 

158 

8 

41 

v. 

35 

44 

63 

73 

108 

139 

178 

9 

4f 

49 

70 

81 

120 

156 

198 

10 

5 

.  . 

.  . 

54 

77 

89 

131 

172 

219 

11 

5 

.  . 

t  . 

.Vv 

84 

97 

143 

189 

240 

12 

5 

•• 

•••:.. 

•V 

91 

105 

156 

205 

261 

BOLT-HEADS,  LENGTH  FOR  UPSET 


BOLT-HEADS 


Length  oi  Bar  for  Upset.    United  States  Standard  Heads 


BAR 

HEXAGON  HEADS 

SQUARE  HEADS 

Diam. 
A 

Area 

Short 
Diam. 
B 

Long 
Diam. 
C 

Area 
Square 
Inches 

Height 
of 
Head 
D 

Length 
of 
Bar 
E 

Short 
Diam. 
B 

Long 
Diam. 
C 

Area 
Square 
Inches 

Height 
of 
Head 
D 

Length 
of 
Bar 
E 

i 

.049 

f 

iV 

.217 

1 

Mk 

f 

If 

.250 

A 

1& 

ft 

.077 

If 

H 

.305 

1A 

if 

If 

.353 

If 

1 

.110 

ft 

If 

.409 

if 

l^ 

ii 

ff 

.473 

H 

If 

ft 

.150 

If 

If 

.529 

H 

if 

If 

.610 

n 

m 

i 

.196 

1 

l 

.663 

iV 

H 

1 

if 

.766 

TV 

m 

A 

.249 

If 

H 

.813 

!! 

iff 

If 

If 

.938 

ft 

1H 

f 

.307 

Ift 

i& 

.979 

ift 

1.129 

iff 

f 

.442 

ft 

iiV 

1.353 

t 

lM 

ft 

If 

1.563 

i 

1 

.601 

Ift 

1.791 

if 

ift 

2.066 

if 

2ff 

i 

.785 

If 

i! 

2.287 

i! 

2f 

if 

2A 

2.641 

i! 

2f 

H 

.994 

113 

2^. 

2.847 

If 

2i| 

IT! 

2^ 

3.285 

If 

3 

U 

1.228 

2 

2j\ 

3.464 

l 

2if 

2 

2¥ 

4.000 

l 

3V 

if 

1.485 

2i^ 

2if 

4.146 

l^ 

3ir 

2& 

4.785 

i& 

H 

1.767 

2f 

2f 

4.885 

ift 

3^ 

2f9 

3H 

5.641 

iiV 

3¥ 

if 

2.074 

2& 

2ff 

5.689 

3£ 

3f 

6.566 

i& 

if 

2.405 

2f 

3A 

6.549 

if 

3f 

2fs 

31 

7.563 

if 

4iV 

11 

2.761 

2H 

3|f 

7.475 

iff 

4 

8.629 

iff 

4|f 

2 

3.142 

3| 

3|f 

8.457 

1ft 

4^- 

3f 

4ff 

9.766 

i& 

413 

21 

3.976 

3£ 

4y? 

10.609 

if 

4H 

3f 

4if 

12.250 

ifs 

2| 

4.909 

31 

4H 

13.004 

IM 

5& 

31 

5M 

15.016 

5il 

2f 

5.940 

41 

4ff 

15.642 

2i 

5|| 

41 

6 

18.063 

21 

6M 

3 

7.069 

4f 

5H 

18.524 

2j^ 

61^ 

4f 

6ff 

21.391 

7 

3| 

8.296 

5 

5M 

21.650 

2f 

6|f 

5 

7iV 

25.000 

1\ 

7|f 

3£ 

9.621 

5f 

6^- 

25.019 

2ii 

7 

5| 

7ff 

28.891 

2H 

8y^ 

3| 

11.045 

5| 

6f 

28.632 

21 

7ff 

5f 

8i 

33.063 

21 

8fs 

4 

12.566 

61 

7^ 

32.489 

7tt 

8|f 

37.516 

[399] 


SCREW  ENDS,  LENGTH  FOR  UPSET 


SCREW  ENDS  UPSET  ROUND  AND  SQUARE  BARS 

American  Bridge  Co.  Standard 

C «  * C 


United  States  Standard  Threads 


SCREW 

ROUND  BARS  UPSET  FOR  A 

SQUARE  BARS  UPSET  FOR  A 

Diameter 

Length 

Weight 

Weight 

Area  at 

Area 

Area 

Root  of 

Diam. 

of 

Side 

of 

A 

Root  of 
Thread 
B 

Thread 
B 

Round 
C 

Square 

D 

Round 
Bar 

Screw 
End 
1st  Ft. 

Round 
Bar  per 
Foot 

£ 

Square 
Bar 

Screw 
End 
1st  Ft. 

Square 
Bar  per 
Foot 

1 

.84 

.55 

4 

| 

.44 

2.00 

1.50 

H 

94 

69 

4 

l 

.56 

2.55 

1  91 

U 

1.06 

.89 

4 

4 

1 

.60 

2.89 

2.04 

1 

.77 

3.36 

2.60 

1  16 

1  05 

4 

1 

79 

3.57 

2.67 

M 

1.28 

1.29 

4 

4 

U 

.99 

4.51 

3.38 

1 

1.00 

4.53 

3.40 

H 

1.39 

1.52 

4 

4 

u 

1.23 

5.57 

4.17 

U 

1.27 

5.56 

4.30 

If 

1.49 

1.74 

4 

if 

1.48 

6.74 

5.05 

u 

1.62 

2.05 

•1  • 

u 

1  56 

7.30 

531 

2 

1.71 

2.30 

4* 

*i 

H 

1.77 

6.95 

6.01 

If 

1.89 

8.57 

6.43 

V\ 

1  84 

2.65 

4* 

if 

2  07 

9.41 

7.05 

2i 

1.96 

3.02 

5 

5 

i! 

2.41 

10.91 

8.18 

If 

2.25 

10.84 

7.65 

2f 

2.09 

3.42 

5 

5 

li 

2.76 

12.51 

9.39 

if 

2.64 

12.34 

8.98 

2* 

2.18 

3.72 

5* 

5* 

2 

3.14 

14.24 

10.68 

if 

3.06 

14.31 

10.41 

21 

2.30 

4.16 

5i 

2i 

3.55 

15.58 

12.06 

2f 

2.43 

4.62 

5* 

t| 

3.52 

16.93 

11.95 

2J 

2.55 

5.11 

6 

6 

2J 

3.98 

18.60 

13.52 

2 

4.00 

19.27 

13.60 

3 

2.63 

5.43 

6 

6 

2| 

4.43 

20.71 

15.07 

2i 

4.52 

21.11 

15.35 

3i 

2.88 

6.51 

6* 

6* 

2* 

4.91 

24.34 

16.69 

2J 

5.06 

25.11 

17.21 

3* 

3.10 

7.55 

7 

7 

2i 

5.94 

29.45 

20.20 

2| 

5.64 

29.57 

19.18 

3* 

3.32 

8.64 

7 

7 

2| 

6.49 

33.10 

22.07 

2| 

6.25 

33.65 

21.25 

4 

3.57 

9.99 

7* 

7* 

3i 

7.67 

39.11 

26.08 

2f 

7.56 

39.63 

25.71 

[400] 


UPSET  SCREW  END  DETAILS 


UPSET  SCREW  END  DETAILS 
American  Bridge  Company  Standard 


United  States  Standard  Threads 


ROUND 
BARS 

SCREW 

SQUARE 
BARS 

SCREW 

Diameter 

Area 

tAddi- 

Diameter 

Area 

Addi- 

A.'       _ 

Diam. 
A 

Area 

Out- 
side 
B 

Root 
of 
Thd. 

Root 
of 
Thd. 

Ex. 
over 
BarA 

Lgth. 

c 

tion. 
Lgt. 
for 
Upset 

Side 
A 

Area 

Out- 
side 
B 

Root 
of 
Thd. 

Root 
of 
Thd. 

Excess 
over 
BarA 

Lgth. 
C 

tion. 
Lgt. 
for 
Upset 

4-10% 

f 

.44 

1 

.84 

.55 

24.7 

4 

4 

4 

1 

.56 

lj 

.94 

.69 

23.2 

4 

4 

1 

.60 

U 

1.06 

.89 

48.0 

4 

5 

1 

.77 

U 

1.06 

.89 

16.2 

4 

31 

1 

.79 

U 

1.16 

1.05 

34.2 

4 

4 

1 

1.00 

U 

1.28 

1.29 

29.4 

4 

4 

li 

.99 

li 

1.28 

1.29 

30.2 

4 

4 

U 

1.27 

If 

1.39 

1.52 

19.7 

4 

31 

H 

1.23 

If 

1.39 

1.52 

23.5 

4 

4 

11 

1.56 

U 

1.62 

2.05 

31.1 

4* 

4i 

if 

1.49 

H 

1.49 

1.74 

17.5 

4 

4 

If 

1.89 

2 

1.71 

2.30 

21.7 

41 

4 

li 

1.77 

2 

1.71 

2.30 

30.2 

41 

41 

U 

2.25 

21 

1.96 

3.02 

34.3 

5 

5 

if 

2.07 

21 

1.84 

2.65 

27.7 

41 

4 

If 

2.64 

2f 

2.09 

3.42 

29.5 

5 

4* 

if 

2.41 

21 

1.96 

3.02 

25.6 

5 

4 

If 

3.06 

2.18 

3.72 

21.3 

51 

41 

U 

2.76 

2f 

2.09 

3.42 

23.8 

5 

4 

U 

3.52 

2f 

2.43 

4.62 

31.4 

51 

5 

2 

3.14 

21 

2.18 

3.72 

18.3 

51 

4 

2 

4.00 

21 

2.55 

5.11 

27.7 

6 

5 

2f 

3.55 

2f 

2.30 

4.16 

17.2 

51 

31 

21 

4.52 

3 

2.63 

5.43 

20.2 

6 

41 

21 

3.98 

21 

2.55 

5.11 

28.4 

6 

21 

5.06 

31 

2.88 

6.51 

28.6 

61 

51 

2f 

4.43 

3 

2.63 

5.43 

22.5 

6 

41 

2f 

5.64 

31 

3.10 

7.55 

33.8 

7 

6* 

2* 

4.91 

31 

2.88 

6.51 

32.6 

61 

51 

21 

6.25 

3J 

3.32 

8.64 

38.3 

7 

7 

2f 

5.41 

31 

2.88 

6.51 

20.3 

61 

41 

2f 

6.89 

3f 

3.32 

8.64 

25.4 

7 

51 

2f 

5.94 

31 

3.10 

7.55 

27.1 

7 

51 

2f 

7.56 

4 

3.57 

9.99 

32.1 

71 

61 

21 

6.49 

3f 

3.32 

8.64 

33.1 

7 

6 

21 

8.27 

41 

3.80 

11.3 

37.1 

8 

71 

3 

7.07 

3f 

3.32 

8.64 

22.2 

7 

5 

3 

9.00 

41 

3.80 

11.3 

25.9 

8 

6 

31 

7.67 

4 

3.57 

9.99 

30.3 

71 

6 

31 

9.77 

41 

4.03 

12.7 

30.5 

81 

7 

31 

8.30 

4 

3.57 

9.99 

20.5 

7* 

5 

31 

10.6 

4.26 

14.2 

34.6 

81 

71 

[401] 


TURNBUCKLES 


TURNBUCKLES 


United  States  Standard  Threads 


Diam. 
of 
Screw 
A 

LENGTH 

Diam. 
E 

WIDTH 

SECTION 

Thread 
K 

Weight 

v- 

Thread 
C 

Overall 
D 

F 

G 

H 

i 

| 

6 

f 

7| 

1 

1* 

f 

l 

f 

4 

1 

A 

6 

if 

7H 

1 

H 

A 

f 

4 

Ii 

f 

6 

H 

71 

I* 

1^ 

H 

A 

f 

4 

Ii 

f 

6 

ii 

81 

117 

If 

1ft 

ii 

1 

4 

2 

1 

6 

1A 

8f 

2 

t 

1 

4 

3 

i 

6 

ii 

9 

If 

2JL 

i& 

JL 

H 

4 

4 

Is 

6 

m 

9| 

ijf 

2^ 

1A 

i 

U 

4 

5 

11 

6 

H 

2 

2  A 

1ft 

^ 

ii 

4 

6 

If 

6 

2A 

10| 

2j^ 

2H 

1 

if 

4 

7 

ii 

-6 

2i 

2| 

3 

if 

f 

if 

4 

8 

if 

6 

2A 

101 

2A 

31 

2 

f 

H 

4 

10 

if 

6 

2f 

HI 

2f 

3| 

2i 

f 

2 

4 

11 

il 

6 

2H 

Hf 

2ft 

3A 

2A 

H 

21 

4£ 

12 

2 

6 

3 

12 

3| 

3f 

2f 

21 

4| 

14 

2i 

6 

3A 

12f 

3A 

3H 

II 

4i 

17 

21 

6  ' 

3| 

12f 

31 

4A 

2H 

H 

2£ 

5 

20 

2f 

6 

3A 

131 

31 

4| 

21 

2f 

5 

22 

2* 

6 

3f 

13? 

31 

II 

3 

5£         25 

2f 

6 

4? 

141 

41 

5i 

31 

H 

31 

5£         33 

21 

6 

4| 

141 

41 

6f 

31 

if 

31 

5i 

33 

21 

6 

4A 

14f 

4| 

Bi 

3JL 

1* 

31 

6 

36 

3 

6 

4| 

15 

4| 

5H 

M: 

lX 

3* 

6           40 

31 

6 

41 

15f 

5 

6 

31 

4 

6i      i    50 

31 

6 

51 

16j 

5f 

6-H 

41 

1* 

4 

7           65 

ii 

6 

5f 

171 

5f 

1* 

5 

7           95 

4 

6 

6 

18 

7^ 

4| 

5 

7|       108 

[402] 


SLEEVE  NUTS 


SLEEVE  NUTS 


United  States  Standard  Threads 


SCREW  ENDS 

Diam. 
Bar 
D 

Thread 
E 

Length 
F 

DIAMETERS 

Weight 

Diameter 
A 

Threads 
per  In. 

Length 
C 

Short 
G 

L«« 

Inside 

I 

1 

9 

4 

f 

If 

7 

If 

11 

H 

3 

1 

8 

4 

1 

if 

7 

If 

11 

u 

3 

H 

7 

4 

f 

if 

7£ 

2 

2A 

If 

4 

H 

7 

4 

1 

if 

7^ 

2 

2^ 

If 

4 

If 

6 

4 

1 

2 

8 

2| 

21 

If 

5 

if 

6 

4 

H 

2 

8 

2f 

2f 

If 

6 

if 

5* 

4 

H 

H 

81 

2f 

3^ 

H 

8 

if 

5 

4 

if 

21 

8* 

2f 

3^ 

H 

9 

il 

5 

4 

if 

2| 

9 

3i 

3f 

2| 

10 

2 

4* 

41 

if 

2| 

9 

31 

3f 

H 

11 

2i 

4* 

4* 

if 

2f 

91 

3* 

4^ 

2| 

14 

2* 

4* 

5 

if 

2f 

9* 

3* 

*& 

2f 

15 

2| 

4* 

5 

if 

3 

10 

31 

4* 

2f 

18 

2| 

4 

5* 

2 

3 

10 

31 

4^ 

2f 

19 

2f 

4 

51 

2i 

31 

10* 

4i 

4H 

21 

23 

21 

4 

6 

2| 

31 

10| 

4i 

4H 

21 

23 

21 

4 

6 

2| 

3* 

11 

4f 

5f 

3| 

27 

3 

3* 

6 

2f 

3* 

11 

4f 

5f 

3i 

28 

31 

31 

6* 

2* 

3f 

HJ 

5 

5M 

3f 

35 

3* 

31 

7 

2f 

4 

12 

5f 

61 

3| 

40 

31 

q 

7 

2| 

41 

12* 

5f 

6H 

31 

47 

4 

3 

n 

3| 

4* 

13 

6| 

7A 

4i 

55 

[4031 


PLATE  WASHERS 

SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  WASHERS 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  Washers  to  be  made  of  wrought  iron  or  mild  steel  and  to  be  of  the  best  commercial 
grade  and  quality,  and  to  be  so  certified  to  by  the  manufacturer. 

2.  Each   commercial   package   to   be   plainly   stamped   with   the   name   of   the 
manufacturer. 

3.  The  diameter  of  the  hole  is  the  necessary  requirement,  and  a  slight  variation  of 
the  gauge  or  outside  diameter  will  be  tolerated  in  the  discretion  of  the  board  of  inspection. 

TABLE  I 
PLATE  WASHERS 


Diam- 
eter 

Thick- 
ness, 
Wire 
Gauge 

Size 
of 
Hole 

Size 
of 
Bolt 

Approx- 
imate 
Number 
in  100 
Pounds 

Diam- 
eter 

Thick- 
ness, 
Wire 
Gauge 

Size 
of 
Hole 

Size 
of 
Bolt 

Approx- 
imate 
Number 
in  100 
Pounds 

Ins. 

No. 

Inches 

Inch 

Inches 

No. 

Inches 

Inches 

& 

18  (3-64) 

I 

A 

44,075 

2| 

9  (5-32) 

If 

H 

520 

i 

16  (1-16) 

A 

i 

13,900 

3 

9  (5-32) 

If 

H 

400 

I 

16  (1-16) 

1 

A 

11,250 

si 

8  (11-64) 

a 

if 

320 

1 

14  (5-64) 

A 

t 

6,570 

3£ 

8  (11-64) 

if 

H 

275 

« 

14  (5-64) 

i 

A 

4,300 

3| 

8  (11-64) 

if 

if 

245 

H 

12  (3-32) 

A 

i 

2,680 

4 

8  (11-64) 

If 

H 

220 

H 

12  (3-32) 

I 

A 

2,250 

4i 

8  (11-64) 

2 

U 

200 

i! 

10  (1-8) 

H 

1 

1,300 

4* 

8  (11-64) 

2i 

2 

180 

2 

10  (1-8) 

H 

1 

1,010 

4f 

6  (7-32) 

2f 

21 

110 

2i 

9  (5-32) 

H 

1 

860 

5 

6  (7-32) 

2f 

21 

91 

2* 

9  (5-32) 

1A 

i 

625 

TABLE   II 
PLATE  WASHERS  (ADDITIONAL  SIZES) 


Diam- 
eter 

Thick- 
ness, 
Wire 
Gauge 

Size 
of 
Hole 

Size 
of 
Bolt 

Approx- 
imate 
Number 
in  100 
Pounds 

Diam- 
eter 

Thick- 
ness, 
Wire 
Gauge 

Size 
of 
Hole 

Size 
of 
Bolt 

Approx- 
imate 
Number 
in  100 
Pounds 

In*. 

No. 

Inch 

Inch 

Inches 

M>. 

Inches 

Inches 

F 

18 

i 

A 

45,500 

li 

12 

f 

A 

3,900 

f 

16 

A 

i 

21,500 

If 

12 

f 

A 

3,000 

f 

16 

f 

A 

16,500 

li 

12 

H 

f 

4,100 

1 

14 

A 

f 

11,500 

If 

12 

H 

f 

3,200 

1 

14 

* 

A 

7,400 

11 

10 

ii 

f 

2,150 

a 

14 

*. 

A 

5,450 

H 

10 

if 

i 

4 

2,200 

a 

12 

A 

\ 

4,800 

if 

10 

H 

f 

1,400 

H 

12 

A 

\ 

3,650 

2 

9 

M 

1 

1,150 

if 

12 

A 

\ 

2,000 

2i 

9 

1A 

1 

940 

[404] 


&RASS  WASHERS 


TABLE  III 
PLATE  WASHERS  (EXTRA  SIZES) 


Diam- 
eter 

Thick- 
ness, 
Wire 
Gauge 

Size  of 
Hole 

Size  of 
Bolt 

Diam- 
eter 

Thick- 
ness, 
Wire 
Gauge 

Size  of 
Hole 

.  :  i 

Size  of 
Bolt 

Inches 

No. 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

No. 

Inches 

Inches 

i 

& 

16 

T6 

I 

2 

9 

1ft 

1 

f 

16 

ft 

f 

2 

9 

H 

1| 

1 

14 

i 

A 

2j 

9 

it 

« 

1 

14 

* 

i 

2| 

9 

U 

u 

1ft 

12 

i 

2| 

9 

H 

i^ 

it 

12 

H 

1 

2f 

9 

if 

ii. 

10 

H 

f 

3or3i 

9 

H 

if 

10 

it 

f 

3 

8 

if 

li 

10 

f 

3^  or  3£ 

8 

if 

10 

H 

1 

3* 

8 

M 

U 

10 

H 

1 

3f 

8 

H 

if 

if 

10 

1ft 

i 

4 

8 

2i 

2 

TABLE  IV 
SQUARE  WASHERS 


Approx- 

Approx- 

imate 

imate 

Wide 

Thick. 

Hole 

Bolt 

Number 

Wide 

Thick. 

Hole 

Bolt 

Number 

in  100 

in  100 

Pounds 

Pounds 

7ns. 

Inch 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

Inch 

Inches 

Inches 

li 

i 

ft 

f 

1,300 

4 

f 

n 

H 

65 

If 

i 

i 

7 
TF 

1,100 

4| 

f 

H 

U 

48 

2 

A 

ft 

1 

500 

5 

f 

if 

H 

40 

21 

i 

H 

f 

315 

6 

f 

U 

U 

28 

21 

i 

H 

f 

250 

6* 

f 

if 

if 

24 

3 

-i 

Ii 

1 

165 

7 

1 

2i 

2 

21 

3| 

f 

1A 

1 

87 

BRASS  WASHERS 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  To  be  made  from  sheet  brass,  smoothly  punched,  without  burrs. 

2.  Sizes  to  be  as  specified.     The  following  sizes  are  those  most  commonly  used: 


Outside 
Diameter 

Inside 
Diameter 

Thickness 

Outside 
Diameter 

Inside 
Diameter 

Thickness 

Inches 

Inch 

Inch 

Inches 

Inch 

Inch 

1 

ft 

0.065 

H  . 

ft 

.083 

ft 

i 

.042 

If 

f 

.083 

f 

A 

.053 

If 

H 

.106 

1 

f 

.053 

2 

f 

.103 

H 

i 

.063 

2* 

7 
8 

.115 

[405] 


CAST  IRON  WASHERS 

3.  To  be  packed  in  well-made  wooden  boxes,  one  size  of  washer  per  box,  each  box 
marked  with   the  name  of  the  material,  the  quantity,  size,  and  the  name   of   the 
manufacturer. 

4.  Each  delivery  to  be  marked  with  the  name  of  the  material,  the  name  of  the  con- 
tractor, and  the  requisition  or  contract  number  under  which  the  delivery  is  made. 


CAST  IRON  WASHERS 
C 


Diameter 
of 
Bolt 
A 

Diameter 
Hole 
B 

Diameter 
Top 

Diameter 
Bottom 
D 

Area 
Bottom 
D 

Thickness 
E 

Approx. 
Weight 
Each 

Approx. 
Number 
in 
100  Pounds 

i 

f 

H 

2 

3.14 

\ 

0.20 

500 

I 

f 

if 

2| 

4.91 

f 

.40 

250 

I 

1 

2 

3 

7.07 

f 

.69 

144 

1 

1 

2i 

31 

9.62 

1 

1.10 

91 

1 

U 

21 

4 

12.57 

1 

1.64 

61 

U 

11 

2| 

4| 

15.90 

U 

2.33 

43 

U 

if 

3 

5 

19.64 

n 

3.20 

31 

H 

ii 

3i 

5* 

23.76 

If 

4.25 

23 

M 

if 

3* 

6 

28.27 

Ii 

5.52 

18 

if 

if 

3f 

6* 

33.18 

If 

7.02 

14 

H 

if 

4 

7 

38.48 

If 

8.76 

11 

U 

2 

4| 

71 

44.18 

U 

10.79 

9 

2 

2| 

4* 

8 

50.27 

2 

13.10 

7 

[406] 


FOUNDATION  BOLTS  AND  WASHERS 

FOUNDATION  BOLTS 
Upset  Screw  and  Cotter  Heads,  and  Cast  Iron  Washers 


SCREW 

Bar 
B 

Dia. 
D 

LENGTH 

Wdt. 
I 

COTTER 

WASHER 

Diam. 
A 

Lgth. 

E 

F 

G 

H 

K 

L 

M 

Dia. 

N 

Dep. 

Th'k 
P 

Dia. 
Q 

* 

1| 

4 

H 

If 

6 

2 

2| 

2 

A 

2 

3f, 

21 

H 

3 

* 

3! 

9 

U 

4 

14 

H 

61 

21 

2f 

2| 

£ 

2T 

4 

2| 

.'2 

31 

* 

4 

10 

if 

4 

if 

21 

71 

21 

21 

21 

i 

2f 

41 

2f 

21 

31 

A 

41- 

11 

3 

4* 

if 

21 

7f 

2| 

3 

2! 

A 

2| 

41 

2| 

2| 

34 

A 

4| 

11 

2 

41 

H 

2| 

8i 

2* 

31 

2K 

A 

2f 

4| 

3 

24 

3! 

f 

4f 

12 

2| 

4* 

U 

24 

81 

2| 

31 

2i 

1 

21 

41 

31 

2| 

31 

f 

41 

13 

21 

5 

U 

2| 

8f 

2f 

3* 

2f 

I 

3 

5 

31 

21 

4 

H 

5 

14 

2| 

5 

H 

2f 

94 

2f 

3f 

2| 

H 

3| 

51 

31 

21 

41 

H 

51 

14 

2* 

5£ 

2 

21 

91 

2f 

3f 

2f 

H 

31 

51 

34 

3 

41 

i 

4 

64 

15 

2f 

5* 

24 

3 

9f 

21 

4 

21 

f 

31 

5f 

3f 

3i 

4| 

f 

5f 

16 

2} 

5| 

24 

34 

101 

3 

41 

3 

f 

3! 

51 

31 

31 

44 

f 

51 

17 

2| 

6 

2* 

3J 

10f 

34 

4| 

31 

H 

3f 

64 

4 

3| 

4| 

H 

64 

17 

3 

6 

2f 

34 

ill 

31 

4f 

31 

1 

4 

61 

41 

31 

4f 

if 

61 

18 

31 

6£ 

21 

3f 

11! 

3f 

5 

31 

if 

41 

6f 

44 

31 

5 

1 

6f 

20 

31 

7 

2f 

4 

12* 

31 

51 

3f 

1 

4f 

74 

41 

4J 

5f 

1 

61 

21 

3f 

7 

2| 

41 

isi 

3f 

5! 

3f 

i& 

5 

71 

51 

4f 

54 

1 

71 

22 

4 

7| 

3* 

41 

14 

4 

6 

4 

14 

51 

8 

54 

4f 

6 

1 

8 

24 

FOUNDATION  BOLTS 

Foundation  bolts  for  heavy  machinery  should  not  be  leaded  into  cap  stones  if  it  can 
be  avoided,  even  though  the  cap  stones  be  of  considerable  depth  or  weight  and  anchored  to 
foundation  below.  If  such  bolts  are  required  merely  to  fix  a  self-contained  machine  in 
position,  no  vibratory  strains  being  transmitted  to  the  bolts,  there  is  no  objection  to 
their  use,  but  foundation  bolts  proper  should  extend  to  bottom  of  masonry  or  concrete. 
The  illustration  at  top  of  page  408  shows  a  bolt  with  tapering  head  much  wider  at  the 
bottom  than  at  the  neck.  The  cavity  in  the  stone  cap  is  similarly  widened  at  the  bot- 
tom. The  bolt-head  is  jagged  to  secure  a  firmer  hold  on  the  lead  filling  which  is  poured 
into  the  cavity  and  around  the  bolt  after  the  latter  has  been  correctly  located*  • 

(407) 


FOUNDATION   BOLTS  AND  WASHERS 


FOUNDATION  BOLTS 


Diam. 


i 

i 
i 

i 
i 

U 
H 


Square 


U 


i 

U 

it 

H 

if 

2 


D 


2 

2* 

3 

3£ 

4 

5 

6 


1 

u 
u 


i 

•11 

H 

if 
H 

21 
2| 


U 

H 
H 

2 

21 
2| 
2f 


FOUNDATION  BOLTS  AND  CAST  IRON  WASHERS 


United  States  Standard  Bolts 


SCREW 

BOLT-HEAD 

WASHEK 

Diam. 
A 

1*2* 

Short 
Diam. 
E 

Thick. 
F 

Side  of 
Square 
G 

Side  of 
Square 

Depth 

Thickness 

Diam. 
Hole 
M 

Side  of 
Square 

K 

L 

I 

fc| 

11 

1 

H 

6 

U 

1 

f 

1 

21 

1 

2* 

i* 

I 

Ift 

6* 

H 

1 

H 

1 

2A 

1 

3 

U 

H 

11 

7 

H 

f 

f 

H 

2| 

U 

31 

i« 

U 

2A 

7* 

U 

i 

H 

H 

2H 

tl 

3* 

2 

i 

2i 

8 

H 

f 

1 

if 

31 

U 

3i 

2& 

U 

2A 

81 

li 

f 

If 

ii 

3* 

U 

4 

2| 

iH 

2| 

9 

2 

i 

i 

if 

3f 

II 

4 

2A 

IA 

2H 

10 

H 

i 

1* 

H 

3H 

U 

4 

at 

if 

3 

11 

21 

i 

H 

H 

4 

if 

4* 

2H 

II 

3& 

11 

2f 

i 

I* 

2 

4& 

2 

41 

31 

IA 

3f 

12 

a* 

i 

U 

2| 

4f 

[408] 


EYE  BOLT  HEAD 


EYE  BOLT  HEAD 


BAR 

SCREW 

EYE  BOLT  HEAD 

Dia. 
A 

Area 

Diam. 
Root  of 
Thread 
B 

Area 

Diam. 

Th'k- 
ness 
E 

Width 
F 

Area 
EXF 

Diam. 

Th'k- 

ness 
I 

Width 
K 

Area 
IXK 

C 

D 

G 

H 

1 

.196 

.400 

.125 

A 

1 

A 

f 

.137 

A 

1 

ft 

f 

.137 

A 

.249 

.454 

.162 

1 

H 

i 

H 

.172 

f 

« 

1 
4 

H 

.172 

I 

.307 

.507 

.202 

1 

U 

A 

H 

.254 

H 

1A 

A 

f 

.234 

I 

.442 

.620 

.302 

1 

if 

I 

H 

.352 

H 

1A 

f 

if 

.352 

7 
8 

.601 

.731 

.419 

1 

11 

& 

11 

.492 

1 

i! 

A 

11 

.492 

1 

.785 

.837 

.550 

H 

2| 

f 

H 

.625 

1 

2 

1 

H 

.625 

11 

.994 

.940 

.694 

1A 

2A 

A 

if 

.773 

U 

21 

A 

if 

.773 

u 

1.227 

1.065 

.891 

1A 

2if 

ii 

U 

.031 

11 

2| 

H 

U 

1.031 

If 

1.485 

1.160 

1.057 

1A 

3A 

f 

1H 

.266 

if 

21 

i 

itt 

1.266 

u 

1.767 

1.284 

1.294 

H 

3f 

H 

1H 

.473 

11 

3| 

itt 

1H 

1.473 

i! 

2.074 

1.389 

1.515 

U 

3! 

1 

ill 

.695 

if 

31 

1 

1H 

1.695 

if 

2.405 

1.491 

1.746 

2 

31 

H 

21 

.992 

if 

3f 

if 

2| 

1.992 

l| 

2.761 

1.616 

2.051 

2A 

4A 

1 

2i 

2.250 

U 

31 

i 

21 

2.250 

2 

3.142 

1.712 

2.302 

2A 

4A 

i& 

2| 

2.523 

2 

41 

1A 

2f 

2.523 

21- 

3.976 

1.962 

3.023 

2f 

5| 

U 

2f 

3.281 

21 

41 

U 

2| 

3.281 

2* 

4.909 

2.176 

3.719 

21 

5f 

if 

3 

4.125 

2* 

51 

if 

3 

4.125 

2f 

5.940 

2.426 

4.622 

3i 

6* 

H 

31 

4.875 

2f 

5f 

U 

31 

4.875 

3 

7.069 

2.676 

5.624 

3| 

6f 

U 

3* 

5.688 

3 

61 

if 

3* 

5.688 

[409] 


EYE  BOLT  PINS 


EYE  BOLT  PINS  IN  DOUBLE  SHEAR 


Without  end  thrust 


Diameter 
A 

B 

c 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

i 

K 

§ 

f 

A 

t 

'  \ 

f 

i 

i 

f 

1 

f 

1 

A 

A 

i 

1 

i 

i 

f 

i 

1 

4 

1 

i 

4 

i 

A 

1 

1 

A 

H 

A 

1 

*A 

If 

A 

A 

1A 

1 

A 

1A 

A 

1 

1A 

A 

1 

f 

1A 

A 

A 

H 

f 

H 

|A 

A 

! 

f 

IA 

A 

A 

if 

f 

H 

fA 

1 

f 

H 

1A 

A 

A 

H 

f 

H 

if 

f 

f 

H 

if 

A 

A 

itt 

7 
Iff 

ii 

U 

A 

f 

f 

H 

A 

A 

1H 

A 

H 

2 

A 

1 

f 

2 

A 

3^ 

2 

i 

U 

2| 

A 

1 

H 

ii 

A 

i 

2| 

f 

H 

21 

i 

i 

H 

2i 

A 

i 

2i 

i 

2 

2f 

1 

i 

I 

2| 

A 

i 

2A 

A 

tl 

2H 

A 

H 

if 

2H 

A 

A 

2f 

I 

2£ 

2H 

1 

H 

i 

2H 

A 

A 

3 

f 

2f 

3i 

H 

if 

1A 

31 

i 

H 

3f 

f 

3 

3J 

I 

1* 

H 

3^ 

i 

f 

3| 

f 

[410] 


BOLTS  FOR  FLANGES 


EYE  BOLTS  FOR  FLANGES 


B. 

VR 

SCR 

EW 

HE 

AD 

c 

!ASTIN< 

3 

Over 

Diam. 
A 

Area 

Root  of 
Thread 
B 

Area 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

I 

K 

L 

All 
M 

1 

.196 

.400 

.126 

A 

1 

A 

f 

tt 

i 

} 

f 

f 

Itt 

I 

.307 

.507 

.202 

H 

1A 

A 

f 

H 

A 

H 

H 

f 

Itt 

f 

.442 

.620 

.302 

H 

1A 

f 

H 

l 

f 

H 

tf 

H 

21 

1 

.601 

.731 

.419 

1 

H 

A 

H 

1A 

tt 

H 

1A 

1A 

2& 

1 

.785 

.838 

.551 

1 

2 

i 

li 

if 

f 

1A 

H 

1A 

21 

H 

.994 

.939 

.693 

H 

21 

A 

if 

H 

H 

1A 

1A 

1A 

31 

li 

1.227 

1.064 

.890 

li 

2| 

H 

li 

if 

1 

1A 

1A 

1A 

3f 

H 

1.485 

1.158 

1.054 

if 

21 

f 

itt 

1H 

tt 

1A 

if 

1A 

3tt 

H 

1.767 

.283 

1.294 

H 

31 

H 

1H 

1H 

i 

if 

H 

itt 

3H 

If 

2.074 

.389 

1.515 

if 

3f 

1 

1H 

2A 

1A 

if 

2 

H 

4A 

U 

2.405 

.490 

1.744 

if 

3f 

H 

2| 

21 

H 

itt 

2A 

2 

4| 

H 

2.761 

.615 

2.049 

li 

3f 

1 

21 

2| 

1A 

2 

2| 

2i 

4f 

2 

3.142 

.711 

2.300 

2 

i| 

1A 

21 

2* 

H 

2i 

2^ 

21 

5 

[411] 


BOLT  ENDS  WITH  SLOT  AND  COTTER 


BOLT  ENDS  WITH  SLOT  AND  COTTER 


Rigid  Connection 


BAR 

COLLAR 

SHANK 

SLOT 

CAST  Boss 

Diam. 

A 

Area 

Dia. 
B 

Thick- 
ness 
C 

Dia. 
D 

Length 

Width 
H 

Depth 
F 

Dia. 
K 

Length 

E 

p 

G 

L 

M 

N 

1 

.785 

H 

H 

H 

1 

li 

1 

A 

li 

2i 

H 

li 

f 

li 

.994 

2| 

1 

li 

1 

itt 

li 

A 

if 

2^ 

li 

Itt 

f 

U 

1.227 

2i 

1 

If 

If 

H 

li 

f 

IA 

21 

1A 

1H 

A 

H 

1.485 

2| 

H 

11 

H 

2^ 

if 

f 

l|i 

3| 

IA 

2 

i 

li 

1.767 

21 

1A 

1» 

IA 

2i 

H 

A 

il 

3| 

1H 

2i 

i 

if 

2.074 

21 

If 

lit 

1A 

2A 

if 

A 

2 

3f 

H 

2A 

A 

if 

2.405 

3i 

if 

1« 

1A 

2f 

if 

i 

2& 

4 

2 

2^ 

A 

if 

2.761 

31 

i& 

2^ 

iH 

2M 

H 

i 

2A 

4| 

2i 

2f 

A 

2 

3.142 

3* 

1A 

2| 

if 

3 

2 

A 

S 

4^ 

21 

2| 

f 

21 

3.976 

4 

if 

2£ 

2 

3f 

2J 

f 

2H 

5| 

2A 

3^ 

H 

2* 

4.909 

41 

H 

2f 

2& 

3f 

2£ 

H 

31 

51 

2H 

3f 

H 

2f 

5.940 

41 

2i 

3& 

2& 

« 

2f 

f 

SA 

6i 

3i 

3H 

f 

3 

7.069 

Si 

24 

3A 

2f 

4| 

3 

If 

31 

6f 

3f 

4 

if 

31 

8.296 

5| 

21 

31 

21 

41 

3J 

H 

4^ 

71 

3f 

4& 

1 

3| 

9.621 

6* 

2|  . 

31 

3 

5i 

3^ 

1 

4f 

71 

3H 

4f 

if 

3f 

11.05 

6* 

21 

4f 

3i 

5f 

3f 

H 

4H 

8| 

4^ 

4H 

i 

4 

12.57 

7 

3 

4£ 

3* 

6 

4 

i 

5 

9 

*i 

51 

i 

Proportions  in  this  table  are  based  on  diameter  of  bar  A  and  corresponding  upset 
screw  ends,  for  which  see  special  table. 


[412] 


BOLT  ENDS  WITH  SLOT  GIB  AND  KEY 
BOLT  ENDS  WITH  SLOT  GIB  AND  KEY  FOR  RESISTING  TENSION  ONLY 


'US 


T 


BAR 

Diam. 
B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

I 

K 

L 

M 

Diam. 
A 

Area 

1 

.785 

if 

1 

if 

A 

1 

2f 

If 

If 

f 

U 

i 

It 

.994 

u 

If 

in 

A 

if 

2f 

If 

Itt 

A 

If 

1 

U 

1.227 

it 

it 

i! 

f 

tf 

2| 

If 

H 

f 

1* 

i 

if 

1.485 

if 

if 

2^ 

f 

if 

si 

if 

2^ 

1 

1« 

A 

tt 

1.767 

Hi 

if 

2i 

A 

if 

3f 

1H 

21 

A 

U 

A 

if 

2.074 

1H 

if 

2^ 

A 

if 

31 

iff 

2A 

f 

2 

f 

if 

2.405 

Iff 

tf 

2f 

1 

U 

4 

l« 

2f 

H 

2^ 

f 

if 

2.761 

2^ 

U 

2H 

1 

if 

4i 

2^ 

2M 

H 

2^ 

f 

2 

3.142 

2| 

2 

3 

ft 

2 

4* 

n 

3 

1 

2| 

A 

2| 

3.976 

2f 

2f 

3f 

f 

2j 

5| 

2^ 

3f 

1 

2H 

A 

2£ 

4.909 

2| 

2i 

31 

B 

2| 

5f 

2| 

3f 

H 

3| 

f 

81 

5.940 

3^ 

2f 

4f 

i 

4 

2f 

61 

3^ 

4i 

1 

3A 

f 

3 

7.069 

3& 

3 

4£ 

ft 

3 

6f 

3A 

4f 

ii 

3| 

A 

af 

8.296 

3f 

3f 

4| 

H 

ai 

7i 

3f 

41 

ii 

4^ 

f 

3f 

9.621 

3| 

3* 

51 

1 

31 

71 

31 

5f 

1A 

4f 

ii 

3f 

11.05 

41 

3f 

5f 

« 

3f 

8f 

4f 

5f 

t» 

4H 

H 

4 

12.57 

4f 

4 

6 

1 

4 

9 

*f 

6 

If 

5 

f 

WRENCHES 

The  open-end  wrench  sketched  for  accompanying  table  of  dimensions  has  the  long 
diameter  of  nut  in  line  with  the  center  of  the  handle;  this  is  a  common  but  not  universal 
practice.  To  meet  service  requirements,  open-end  wrenches  are  made  with  the  center 
line  of  opening  ranging  from  15°  to  45°,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  sketches;  what- 
ever the  angle,  the  proportions  for  the  head  are  not  changed. 

An  open-end  wrench,  with  head  at  45°,  is  frequently  used  in  place  of  a  hammer 
during  erecting  operations,  thereby  subjecting  it  to  distortion  or  breakage.  The  ordinary 
proportions  are  such  that  the  little  surplus  strength  a  wrench  may  have  is  quickly 
dissipated  by  usage  wholly  foreign  to  its  design.  A  wrench  to  withstand  such  service 
must  be  more  liberal  in  its  dimensions  than  indicated  in  the  table,  and  should  be  specially 
forged.  Reference  may  be  here  made  to  those  special  wrenches  (sometimes  called 
flogging  wrenches)  that  are  employed  in  setting  with  a  sledge  such  nuts  as  cannot  be 
properly  tightened  by  means  of  a  standard  wrench.  In  general,  such  wrenches  have  the 
same  dimensions  as  given  in  the  table  for  open-end  wrenches,  excepting  only  that  no 

H131 


WRENCHES 

reduction  is  made  in  the  thickness  of  handle;  that  is,  thickness  of  head  C  continues 
and  takes  the  place  of  G.  This  added  thickness  presents  a  larger  surface  for  the  face  of 
the  sledge  when  driving  a  nut  to  its  final  adjustment.  The  handle  is  always  short, 
seldom  more  than  half  the  tabular  length. 

A  wrench  with  an  opening  at  each  end  is  much  used,  especially  for  medium  and 
small  bolts  and  nuts,  but  for  large  work  such  wrenches  are  too  heavy  and  otherwise 
inconvenient. 

For  extra  heavy  work  box  wrenches  are  best;  a  sketch  and  table  of  proportions  are 
given.  The  eye  at  the  end  of  handle  provides  for  the  use  of  a  rope  enabling  several  men 


to  assist  by  pulling,  or  for  the  insertion  of  a  tackle  hook,  if  unusual  tension  is  required. 
Framed  structures  requiring  dimensioned  timber  in  the  larger  sizes,  such  as  com- 
monly used  in  the  construction  of  bridges,  trestles,  framed  roofs  of  wide  span,  seldom 
have  other  than  square  nuts;  an  efficient  wrench,  easily  forged  in  the  field,  is  shown  in 
accompanying  sketch  together  with  table  of  working  dimensions. 

PROPORTIONING  A  WRENCH  FOR  A   HEXAGON  NUT 

Describe  a  hexagon  corresponding  in  size  to  that  of  the 
nut,  A  being  its  short  diameter.  Draw  a  line  K,  from  the 
center  through  one  corner  of  hexagon.  With  the  corner  L 
as  a  center  and  B  as  a  radius,  describe  a  short  arc  inside 
the  hexagon.  Lay  off  the  width  D  (in  the  accompanying 
table  D  approximates  0.5  A),  and  with  B  as  a  radius, 
describe  a  short  arc  inside  the  hexagon  intersecting  the 
first  one  at  M.  With  M  as  a  center  and  B  as  a  radius, 
describe  the  outer  curve  of  the  jaw  to  the  line  K;  the 
distance  from  this  intersection  to  center  of  hexagon  is  the 
radius  E  for  the  lower  connecting  curve. 


[414] 


WRENCHES 


WRENCHES 


Diameter 
Bolt 

A 

B 

c 

D 

E 

F 

£ 

G 

g 

H 

I 

I 

i 

i 

1 

i 

ti 

\ 

\ 

A 

i 

i 

.4 

A 

if 

A 

i 

A 

H 

A 

A 

& 

i 

A 

5 

1 

H 

I 

A 

& 

f 

f 

f 

i 

& 

6 

ft 

H 

A 

f 

f 

H 

H 

H 

A 

& 

A 

7 

i 

7 
8 

1 

A 

A 

if 

f 

i 

4 

A 

A 

\ 

8 

A 

& 

A 

£ 

i 

1A 

M 

M 

H 

A 

A 

9 

1 

1A 

f 

A 

H 

1A 

H 

if 

H 

& 

f 

10 

f 

H 

I 

f 

f 

1A 

H 

7 
¥ 

f 

i 

f 

Hi 

1 

1A 

H 

H 

If 

1A 

1A 

H 

A 

& 

1 

13i 

1 

if 

If 

if 

H 

if 

H 

i 

A 

A 

i 

15 

H 

1H 

1A 

7 
8 

1! 

1M 

if 

i 

A 

A 

H 

17 

U 

2 

H 

H 

1 

2^ 

1H 

1A 

H 

A 

H 

19 

if 

2A 

H 

1 

1A 

2f 

m 

U 

* 

H 

if 

21 

H 

2| 

if 

1A 

1A 

2A 

2| 

H 

H 

H 

H 

22£ 

if 

2A 

H 

1A 

H 

2f 

21 

1A 

A 

H 

if 

24 

if 

2| 

1A 

H 

if 

3 

2A 

H 

A 

f 

if 

26 

H 

2H 

iH 

1A 

1A 

3| 

2A 

1A 

H 

f 

H 

28 

2 

3i 

1H 

if 

1A 

3f 

2f 

if 

f 

f 

2 

30 

2i 

3* 

2 

H 

if 

3f 

21 

1A 

& 

f 

2| 

32 

2* 

31 

2i 

if 

m 

4A 

3 

H 

B 

M 

2i 

34| 

2f 

4i 

2A 

1M 

2i 

4A 

3A 

1A 

f 

if 

2f 

36f 

3 

4f 

2f 

1H 

2i 

4H 

3f 

Hi 

H 

A 

2i 

39 

3i 

5 

2| 

2 

2A 

5f 

3£ 

if 

M 

A 

2f 

41 

3* 

5f 

3A 

2i 

2f 

5f 

3H 

Hi 

ft 

if 

2f 

43| 

3| 

5f 

3A 

2f 

21 

6A 

3H 

H 

& 

H 

21 

45f 

4 

6i 

3* 

2^ 

3 

6A 

4 

2 

i 

i 

3 

48 

[415] 


WRENCHES 


WRENCHES  FOR  STRUCTURAL  WORK 

For  structural  work,  whether  in  the  mill  or  in  the  field,  open-end  wrenches  with  a 
tang  for  bringing  the  bolt  holes  into  line  are  used  to  the  practical  exclusion  of  every 
other  kind.  When  the  wrench  is  flat  it  is  called  a  Construction  Wrench;  when  the  handle 
is  offset  it  is  called  a  Structural  Wrench.  The  opening  for  nut  may  be  either  straight 
or  at  an  angle;  if  the  latter,  the  angle  is  commonly  15  degrees.  A  table  of  working 
dimensions  for  sizes  in  general  use  is  given. 


WRENCHES  FOR  STRUCTURAL  WORK 


Dia. 
Bolt 

A 

B 

c 

D 

E 

p 

G 

H 

i 

K 

L 

M 

1 

1 

* 

A 

A 

H 

1 

A 

i 

1 

4 

1 

12 

I 

1A 

f 

A 

A 

1A 

i 

1 

1 

i 

4| 

1| 

14 

! 

11 

If 

1 

f 

iH 

a 

f 

i 

f 

5 

U 

15 

i 

1A 

H 

f 

f 

1A 

a 

A 

H 

f 

5J 

If 

16 

1 

if 

H 

1 

H 

U 

a 

i 

H 

1 

6 

If 

18 

a 

iH 

1A 

i 

i 

iH 

if 

i 

H 

1 

6i 

If 

20 

a 

2 

1A 

ii 

l 

2A 

U 

A 

U 

i 

7 

If 

22 

[416] 


WRENCHES 


FIELD  WRENCH  FOR  SQUARE  NUTS 


For  United  States  Standard  Nuts 


Boll, 
Diam. 
A 

Side  of 
Nut 
B 

c 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

K 

1 

H 

H 

1 

E 

M 

1 

H 

A 

15 

1| 

1H 

1 

f 

1 

1 

f 

& 

17 

if 

2 

l 

f 

1 

1 

i 

A 

19 

H 

2^ 

H 

£ 

H 

H 

i 

A 

21 

if 

2f 

H 

i 

H 

H 

i 

f 

22 

if 

2& 

If 

£ 

H 

H 

i 

f 

24 

if 

2| 

if 

f 

if 

U 

H 

f 

26 

U 

2H 

if 

f 

if 

U 

H 

28 

2 

3i 

H 

f 

H 

if 

U 

1 

30 

21 

3^ 

H 

f 

H 

if 

H 

f 

32 

2| 

3| 

2 

f 

2 

H 

H 

f 

34 

2| 

4i 

2 

1 

2 

H 

H 

f 

36 

3 

4f 

2 

1 

2 

if 

H 

f 

39 

[417] 


WRENCHES 
Box  WRENCHES  FOB  HEXAGON  NUTS 


Diam. 
Bolt 

A 

B 

c 

D 

E 

p 

G 

H 

i 

K 

L 

1 

H 

1 

f 

H 

i 

f 

l 

f 

15 

li 

1H 

A 

i 

4 

If 

1 

f 

1 

A 

16 

H 

2 

f 

1 

H 

A 

1 

.  . 

M 

A 

18 

if 

2A 

f 

1 

U 

A 

i 

H 

A 

20 

li 

21 

f 

1 

2 

& 

H 

•• 

U 

i 

22 

if 

2& 

7 
T6 

1 

2| 

-i 

1A 

.  . 

il 

i 

24 

if 

2| 

A 

if 

2i 

f 

if 

il 

1 

26 

11 

2M 

A 

H 

2f 

5 
8 

n 

if 

i 

28 

2 

3| 

£ 

11 

2| 

ii 

If 

if 

A 

30 

21 

31 

1 

if 

2f 

H 

H 

« 

A 

33 

21 

31 

i 

H 

21 

f 

2 

2 

1 

2 

A 

36 

2| 

41 

A 

if 

3 

H' 

21 

2 

1 

2 

A 

38 

3 

4f 

A 

if 

3i 

1 

2f 

21 

1| 

21 

f 

40 

31 

5 

f 

11 

3f 

7 

I 

2f 

21 

H 

21 

f 

42 

31 

5f 

H 

2 

3f 

If 

2H 

21 

U 

21 

f 

44 

3f 

5| 

H 

2i 

3! 

if 

3 

21 

li 

21 

f 

46 

4 

6i 

i 

4 

2i 

4 

1 

31 

21 

If 

21 

1 

48 

41 

6£ 

f 

2f 

41 

1 

3f 

21 

li 

21 

f 

51 

4| 

61 

H 

2i 

4f 

1 

3f 

21 

H 

21 

f 

54 

41 

7f 

if 

2f 

4i 

1 

31 

21 

ii 

21 

f 

57 

5 

7f 

1 

2| 

4f 

1 

4f 

2* 

il 

2* 

H 

60 

51 

8 

1 

2| 

4f 

1 

41 

2* 

il 

2| 

H 

63 

5£ 

8f 

1 

21 

5 

1 

4i 

2| 

il 

2i 

H 

67 

51 

8| 

H 

3 

5 

1 

4f 

i 

H 

2£ 

H 

70 

6 

9i 

1 

3 

51 

1 

41 

2f 

if 

2f 

f 

72 

61 

9£ 

1 

3i 

5i 

1 

5i 

2f 

if 

2f 

f 

72 

8 

91 

1 

3i 

5f 

1 

5f 

2| 

if 

2| 

f 

72 

61 

101 

1 

3f 

51 

1 

5§ 

2| 

if 

2f 

f 

72 

7 

10| 

1 

3| 

6 

1 

5f 

2f 

If 

2i 

f 

72 

7* 

11 

i 

3f 

61 

1 

6 

2| 

if 

2| 

f 

72 

n 

111 

1 

3f 

6| 

1 

61 

2f 

11 

2f 

i 

4 

72 

71 

Hf 

i 

31 

6f 

1 

6f 

2| 

U 

2} 

f 

72 

8 

12| 

H 

4 

6f 

1 

6f 

3 

1} 

3 

1 
4 

72 

8i 

12i 

H 

4i 

7 

1 

61 

3 

H 

3 

f 

72 

81 

121 

H 

4i 

71 

H 

7 

3 

H 

3 

1 

4 

72 

81 

131 

H 

4f 

7f 

H 

71 

3 

H 

3 

1 

4 

72 

[418] 


WRENCHES 
Box  WRENCHES  FOB  HEXAGON  NUTS — (Cont.) 


Diam. 
Bolt 

A 

B 

c 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

i 

K 

L 

9 

13| 

1A 

« 

7| 

ii 

7f 

3 

li 

3 

1 

72 

9i 

14 

IA 

4f 

71 

ii 

7f 

3 

u 

3 

I 

72 

9£ 

14| 

n 

4| 

8 

ii 

7| 

3 

3 

3 

1 

72 

9| 

14f 

li 

4| 

8i 

H 

8 

3 

li 

3 

t 

72 

10 

15| 

I* 

5 

8f 

if 

aft 

3 

li 

3 

1 

72 

10i 

15i 

1* 

5| 

81 

li 

81 

3 

ii 

3 

1 

72 

10* 

15| 

1* 

5i 

8| 

It 

8f 

3 

H 

3 

1 

72 

lOf 

16i 

If 

5f 

9 

H 

81 

3 

H 

3 

1 

72 

11 

16f 

If 

5£ 

9* 

li 

9f 

3 

II 

3 

1 

72 

III 

17| 

n 

5! 

ft 

li 

w 

3 

XI 

3 

f 

72 

12 

18| 

li- 

6 

10 

li 

10 

3 

H 

3 

I 

72 

SOCKET  WRENCH 

When  a  nut  or  tap  bolt  is  situated  so  that  an  ordinary  open-end  or  box  wrench  can 
not  be  used,  a  socket  wrench  as  shown  in  accompanying  sketch  may  be  employed. 
The  design  permits  preliminary  adjustment  of  nut  by  means  of  an  ordinary  wrench 
applied  to  the  square  provided  at  the  free  end,  the  final  tightening  being  accomplished 
by  means  of  a  long  bar  inserted  in  one  or  other  of  the  holes  provided  in  the  square  head. 
A  table  of  working  dimensions  is  given. 

SOCKET  WRENCH 


Bolt 
Dia. 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

P 

H 

I 

K 

L 

M 

N 

0 

1 

If 

2| 

11 

11 

2^ 

1 

If 

H 

7 
8 

If 

3i 

1 

l 

H 

Itt 

w 

H 

m 

2^ 

1 

If 

if 

f 

If 

3i 

1 

1 

u 

2 

2| 

ii 

1H 

3 

H 

2 

l 

1 

li 

3^ 

H 

u 

H 

2& 

2H 

if 

2 

3i 

li 

2 

l 

1 

If 

3^ 

H 

li 

H 

2f 

3^ 

if 

2i 

3A 

11 

2i 

« 

li 

if 

3i 

u 

U 

if 

2& 

3& 

2 

2A 

3M 

H 

24 

ii 

li 

if 

3f 

u 

if 

if 

2f 

31 

2| 

2^ 

4^ 

ii 

2* 

ii 

li 

If 

4i 

li 

U 

H 

2ft 

3! 

1 

2f 

4f 

if 

2| 

1A 

ii 

if 

4f 

li 

H 

2 

31 

4 

2f 

2f 

H 

if 

2f 

if 

if 

If 

4f 

If 

U 

2i 

31 

4^ 

2f 

3 

51 

ii 

2f 

if 

if 

H 

4f 

If 

If 

[419] 


BLACK,  GALVANIZED  AND  COMPOSITION  SPIKES 
SOCKET  WRENCH — (Cant.) 


Bolt 
Dia. 

A 

B 

c 

D 

E 

F 

H 

I 

K 

L 

M 

N 

o 

H«  «N"  i-iN  H«  «Hi 
CM  CM  CO  CO  CO  CO  r* 

31 
41 
4f 
5 
5f 
5f 
6| 

41 
5f 
5H 
61 
6| 
7& 
7f 

21 
3i 
3f 
3f 
4 
41 
4* 

3f 
3H 
4 

4& 
4f 
5 
51 

5f 
6& 
6f 

71 
7f 
8& 
8H 

2 
2| 
21 
2* 
2f 
2f 
3 

3] 
3 
31 
31 
3* 
3f 
4 

U 
If 
U 
H 
if 
H 
if 

H 
H 
if 
if 
if 
U 

2 

2i 

2| 
21 

21 
2* 
2f 

2f 

41 
41 
51 
51 
5f 
61 
61 

H 
H 
if 
if 
if 
H 

2 
i 

2 
2i 
21 
2i 
2f 
2f 
3* 

BLACK,  GALVANIZED,  AND  COMPOSITION  SPIKES 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 
BLACK  AND  GALVANIZED  SPIKES 

1.  Material. — To  be  well  made  of  wrought  iron  or  mild  steel,  and  clean-cut. 

2.  Galvanizing. — Galvanized  spikes  shall  be  properly  protected  by  a  uniform  and 
smooth  coating  of  zinc  applied  by  the  hot  galvanizing  process. 

3.  Heads. — To  have  diamond-shaped  heads  l/i  inch  wider  than  the  width  of  the  spike. 

4.  Tests. — Spikes  shall  be  capable  of  being  bent  through  an  angle  of  180°  to  a  diam- 
eter equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  spike  without  showing  signs  of  cracking. 

COMPOSITION  SPIKES 

5.  Material. — To  be  cast  from  a  good  grade  of  brass  and  be  free  from  blow-holes, 
sand-holes,  slag,  and  dirt. 

6.  Heads. — To  have  square  countersunk  heads  with  a  slightly  convex  top.    Heads 
to  be  %  inch  wider  than  the  widths  of  the  spike. 

7.  Tests. — Spikes  shall  be  capable  of  being  bent  through  an  angle  of  60°  without 
showing  signs  of  cracking.    When  broken,  the  fracture  shall  show  a  homogeneous 
structure. " 

GENERAL 

8.  Points. — All  spikes  shall  be  made  with  wedge-shaped  points. 

9.  Sizes. — The  following  list  shows  the  various  lengths  of  commercial  spikes  for 
the  different  sizes  of  stock: 


Square 
Dimension 

Length  Over  All,  Inches 

Square 
Dimension 

Length  Over  All 

,  Inches 

Inch 

Inch 

1 

3,  3i  4,  4|,  5,  5J,  6,  7,  8 

i 

6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  12, 

14,16 

& 

4,  4|,  5,  5|,  6,  7,  8 

I 

10,  12,  14,  16 

t      ' 

4*,  5,  5i,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  12 

f 

14,  16 

& 

6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  12 

10.  Packing  and  Marking. — All  spikes  to  be  packed  in  kegs  containing  100  pounds 
net.    Each  keg  to  be  marked  with  the  name  of  the  manufacturer,  the  name  of  the 
material,  the  size,  and  net  weight  contained. 

11.  Deliveries. — All  deliveries  to  be  marked  with  the  name  of  the  material,  the 
quantity,  the  name  of  the  contractor,  and  the  requisition  or  contract  number  under 
which  delivery  is  made. 

[420J 


SECTION  6 
GENERAL  SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  INSPECTION  OF  MATERIAL 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General  Specifications. — These  general  specifications  form  part  of  leaflet  specifi- 
cations (when  so  stated  in  the  leaflet)  issued  by  the  Navy  Department.     Further 
instructions  to  govern  special  cases  may  be  issued  by  the  bureau  concerned. 

2.  General  Inspection  and  Test  Requirements. — All  material  for  which  tests  are 
prescribed  shall  be  inspected  and  tested  by  an  inspector  representing  the  bureau  con- 
cerned, subject  to  restrictions  mentioned  herein  or  in  the  leaflet  specifications,  before 
being  finally  accepted  by  the  Navy  Department,  attention  being  invited  to  paragraph 
57.     Shipment  in  advance  of  authority  from  the  inspector  will  be  at  the  risk  of  the 
manufacturer. 

GENERAL  QUALITY 

3.  Uniform  Quality  to  be  Supplied. — All  material  shall  be  of  uniform  quality  through- 
out the  mass  of  each  object,  and  free  from  all  injurious  defects.     The  discarding  of 
inferior  portions  of  ingots,  treatment,  and  manufacture  generally  shall  be  so  conducted 
as  to  insure  uniformity  in  the  quality  of  the  metal  of  each  heat,  lot,  or  object  submitted 
for  inspection. 

4.  Testing. — All  material  for  which  tests  are  prescribed  shall,  when  practicable 
for  the  bureau  so  to  arrange,  be  tested  and  inspected  at  the  place  of  manufacture,  and 
shall  be  passed  by  the  inspector,  subject  to  the  restrictions  mentioned  herein,  as  having 
complied  with   the  particular  specifications  under  which  the  material  was  ordered, 
before  acceptance  at  the  navy-yard  or  ship-yard. 

5.  Special  Material  or  Treatment. — With  the  approval  of  the  bureau  concerned, 
special  material  or  special  treatment,  or  both,  may  be  used  to  obtain  the  qualities  speci- 
fied in  the  leaflet  specifications. 

CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES 

6.  Chemical  Analysis — Analysis  by  Manufacturer. — Drillings,  turnings,  or  cuttings 
for  chemical  analysis  must  be  fine,  clean,  and  dry,  and  must  be  so  taken  as  to  repre- 
sent fairly  the  heat,  lot,  ingot,  or  other  object  for  which  the  analysis  is  taken.     The 
inspector  representing  the  bureau  concerned  may  have  these  drillings,  turnings,  or 
cuttings  taken  from  test  coupons,  or  from  any  part  or  parts  of  the  material  represented 
by  the  analysis,  provided  in  the  latter  case  that  by  so  doing  the  material  will  not  be 
rendered  unfit  for  use.     Part  of  each  sample  for  analysis  shall  be  furnished  the  manu- 
facturer if  he  desires  it,  the  part  retained  by  the  inspector  to  be  sufficient  for  three 
analyses.     The  inspector  may  require  the  manufacturer  to  furnish  him  with  a  chemical 
analysis  of  each  sample  with  satisfactory  evidence  that  such  analysis  has  been  prop- 
erly and  carefully  made.     A  certificate  from  the  party  representing  the  manufacturer 
in  making  this  analysis  may  be  required. 

7.  Analysis  by  Government. — Chemical  analyses  which  are  made  at  the  expense  of 
the  Government  will  be  made  as  directed  by  the  bureau  concerned. 

8.  All  metals  of  a  proprietary  nature  shall  be  subjected  to  a  chemical  analysis.     In 
case  they  differ  from  the  specifications  for  standard  mixtures  they  shall  not  be  accepted 
unless  authorized  by  the  bureau  concerned. 

PHYSICAL  TESTS   AND   TEST  PIECES 

9.  Care  and  Calibration  of  Testing  Machines. — Tensile  tests  should  be  made  by 
the  use  of  a  testing  machine  of  standard  make,  kept  in  good  condition.     All  knife  edges 

[421] 


GENERAL  SPECIFICATIONS 


should  be  kept  sharp  and  free  from  oil  and  dirt.  Such  a  machine  should  be  sensitive 
to  a  variation  of  load  of  one  two-hundred-and-fiftieth  of  the  load  carried.  Testing 
machines  should  be  calibrated  once  in  twelve  months,  and  at  such  other  times  as  may 
be  considered  necessary  by  the  inspector  representing  the  Navy  Department. 

10.  Pulling  Speed.  —  Each  tensile  test  piece  shall  be  subjected  to  a  direct  tensile 
stress  until  it  breaks,  running  at  a  pulling  speed  of  not  less  than  1  inch  and  not  more 
than  6  inches  per  minute  for  8-inch  test  pieces  and  not  less  than  £  inch  and  not  more 
than  3  inches  per  minute  for  2-inch  test  pieces.     Increasing  or  decreasing  the  speed  on 
the  testing  machine  while  the  test  piece  is  under  stress  will  not  be  permitted. 

11.  Interpretation  of  Terms.  —  The  elastic  limit  may  be  determined  by  observing 
the  yield  point  as  found  by  the  drop  of  the  beam  or  the  halt  of  the  gauge  of  the  testing 
machine.     The  elongation  is  that  determined  after  fracture.     In  the  case  of  test  pieces 
of  rectangular  section  the  reduction  of  area  is  to  be  measured  by  the  product  of  the 
average  width  and  thickness  of  the  reduced  area  and  not  the  minimum  width  and 
thickness. 

12.  Types  of  Test  Pieces.  —  Tensile  test  pieces  shall  have  the  dimensions  shown  in 
the  following  figures,  which  are  the  standard  test  pieces.     If  the  manufacturer  desires, 
he  may  be  permitted  to  use  the  turned  specimen  unthreaded  if  a  proper  method  of 
gripping  the  test  piece  is  used.     When  specimens  of  Type  2  cannot  be  obtained  from 


TYPE  1. 


JMBT.3l*.->; 


1T03)MRAD^ 


M£ASURl/Y<i  FOIWTS 


PARALLEL  SECTION 
NOT 

ABOUT  \QlNCHES 


PJFCE  TO  BE  OF  SAMf  THKKNS5*   AS  PtATf  • 
TYPE  2. 


18  IN-  OVERALL 
9  I/VCHBS  ° 


1     E 

1         —.  {^  «> 
T          1         ~W~O  **{ 

i       ^ 

1*  — 

TYPE  3. 

shapes  whose  sizes  do  not  permit  of  making  other  than  straight-sided  pieces,  the  use  of 
Type  3  may  be  authorized  by  the  inspector. 

13.  Boiler  Plates  and  Steam  Pipes,  Standard  Size  for  Test  Pieces.— The  width  of 
tensile  test  pieces  from  plates  and  steam  pipes  over  ^  inch  in  thickness  will  be  \\  inches, 
the  thickness  the  same  as  the  plate  or  steam  pipe,  and  the  length  between  measuring 
points  8  inches;  under  &  inch  the  width  will  be  not  over  2  inches,  the  thickness  the  same 
as  the  boiler  plate  or  steam  pipe,  and  the  length  between  measuring  points  2  inches. 

[422] 


GENERAL  SPECIFICATIONS 

14.  Full  Size  Test  Pieces. — All  tests,  when  practicable,  shall  be  made  with  pieces 
of  the  full  size,  thickness,  or  diameter  of  the  material  represented  by  such,  test  specimens. 

15.  Length  of  Test  Pieces  Between  Measuring  Points. — Test  pieces  from  blooms, 
large  rolled  bars  exceeding  2  inches  in  diameter,  forgings,  and  castings  are  to  have  a 
length  between  measuring  points  of  2  inches,  as  shown  in  figure  1  of  paragraph  12. 
Other  test  pieces  are  to  have  a  length  between  measuring  points  of  8  inches,  as  shown 
in  figure  2  of  paragraph  12,  except  as  otherwise  directed  in  these,  or  in  the  Navy 
Department  leaflet  specifications. 

16.  Uniform  Section  of  Test  Pieces. — Tensile  test  pieces  shall  be  uniform  in  cross- 
section  between  measuring  points. 

17.  Variation  of  Area. — A  variation  of  5  per  cent  above  or  below  the  standard  area 
will  be  allowed  in  test  pieces. 

18.  Location  of  Test  Pieces. — All  test  pieces  of  forgings,  and  of  rolled  bars  which 
are  too  large  to  be  pulled  in  their  full  size,  shall,  unless  otherwise  specified,  be  taken 
at  a  distance  from  the  longitudinal  axis  of  the  object  equal  to  one-quarter  of  the  greatest 
transverse  dimension  of  the  body  of  the  object,  not  including  palms  and  flanges. 

19.  Test  Pieces  for  Groups  or  Lots. — Test  pieces  which  represent  heats  or  lots  shall 
be  taken,  as  nearly  as  the  case  will  permit,  so  as  to  represent  the  metal  which  was  nearest 
the  top  and  bottom  of  the  ingot;  when  practicable  test  pieces  shall  be  taken  from  dif- 
ferent ingots  of  a  melt.     Generally  speaking,  test  pieces  representing  groups  of  lots 
should  represent,  as  nearly  as  the  case  will  permit,  the  worst  material  in  that  lot. 

20.  Flaws  in  Test  Pieces. — Test  pieces  which  show  defective  machining  or  which 
show  flaws  after  breaking  may  be  withdrawn  at  the  request  of  the  manufacturer 
and  others  taken  under  the  direction  of  the  inspector;  also,  new  test  pieces  may  be 
selected  and  tested  to  replace  any  which  fail  by  breaking  within  a  distance  from  the 
end  measuring  points  equal  to  25  per  cent  of  the  length  over  which  the  elongation 
is  measured. 

N  21.  Bending  Test  Pieces — Edges  Rounded. — Bending  test  pieces  for  blooms,  large 
rolled  bars  (exceeding  2  inches  in  diameter),  forgings  and  castings,  shall  be  1  inch  wide 
by  ^  inch  thick.  Specimens  for  cold  bends  for  plates  and  shapes  shall  be  rectangular 
in  cross-section  of  the  thickness  of  the  material  from  which  taken,  and,  when  practi- 
cable, 12  inches  long  and  of  a  width  of  1^  to  2£  inches.  The  sheared  edges  will  be  removed 
to  a  depth  of  at  least  one-eighth  of  an  inch,  and  the  sides  will  be  made  smooth  with  a  file, 
but  no  rounding  of  the  edges  will  be  permitted,  except  the  removal  of  the  feather  edge. 
In  the  case  of  heavy  ship  plates  of  60  pounds  per  square  foot  and  over,  specimens 
machined  to  |  inch  square  section,  center  of  section  being  half-way  between  outer  sur- 
faces, will  be  used  for  bends. 

22.  Treatment  of  Test  Pieces. — Test  pieces  shall  be  subjected  to  the  same  treat- 
ment and  processes  as  the  material  they  represent  and  no  other,  except  machining  to 
size.     They  shall  not  be  cut  off  until  the  plate  or  object  shall  have  received  final  treat- 
ment and  shall  have  been  stamped  by  the  inspector,  except  in  cases  which  are  specially 
mentioned  in  these  or  in  the  Navy  Department  leaflet  specifications. 

23.  Extra  Material  for  Test  Pieces  Required  Where  Special  Treatment  Is  Given.— 
In  the  case  of  material  which  may  require  one  or  more  retreatments,  the  objects  must 
have  attached  sufficient  material  to  enable  the  cutting  of  test  pieces  after  each  treat- 
ment.    The  manufacturer  will  be  allowed  only  three  official  tests.     In  all  cases  where 
the  test  specimens  fail  to  meet  the  requirements  on  the  third  test,  the  material  repre- 
sented by  the  specimens  shall  be  rejected,  except  where  the   inspector  recommends 
to  the  bureau  concerned  that  further  treatment  or  testing  be  authorized.     In  special 
cases  general  exceptions  to  the  above  may  be  made  by  the  bureau  concerned. 

24.  Other  Special  Heat  Treatment. — If  the  material  is  to  be  subjected  to  any  special 
or  general  heat  treatment  to  secure  physical  properties  required,  the  inspector  will 
make  such  additional  tests  as  may  be  required  to  show  that  the  treatment  has  left  the 
material  of  uniform  quality  throughout. 

25.  Material  Which  May  Be  Exempt  from  Tests. — Material  called  for  in  Navy 
Department  leaflet  specifications  specified  to  be  of  ordinary  commercial  quality  will 
not  be  subject  to  tests  or  analysis  unless  there  is  reason  to  doubt  that  it  is  of  suitable 
quality.     If  doubt  should  arise  as  to  the  quality  of  the  material  the  inspector  may 

[423] 


GENERAL  SPECIFICATIONS 

make  such  tests  as  he  deems  necessary  to  determine  the  equality,  either  at  the  works 
of  the  manufacturer  or  at  the  point  of  delivery. 

26.  All  Material  Subject  to  Inspection. — Material  exempt  from  tests  shall  be  in- 
spected for  injurious  defects,  workmanship,  and  for  accuracy  of  dimensions.     This 
inspection  will  be  made  either  at  the  point  of  shipment  or  at  point  of  delivery,  as  may 
be  designated. 

27.  Tests  for  Special  Material. — Tests   may  be  prescibed  by  the  bureau  concerned 
for  the  inspection  of  material  for  which  tests  are  not  specified  in  the  leaflet  specifications. 

28.  Tests  for  Uniformity  of  Material. — The  inspector  may  require  from  time  to 
time  such  additional  tests  as  he  may  deem  necessary  to  determine  the  uniformity  of 
the  material  and  to  insure  material  of  the  desired  quality. 

29.  When  Heat  Number  Is  Doubtful. — Manufacturers  of  steel  material  desiring 
to  avail  themselves  of  melt  tests  for  acceptance  of  material  must  so  arrange  their  working 
and  handling  of  the  material  that  the  inspector  may  at  all  times  identify  with  perfect 
certainty  any  portion  of  the  melt  which  is  offered  for  inspection.     In  case  the  inspector 
cannot  definitely  determine  the  identity  of  the  melt  from  which  a  plate,  forging,  casting, 
or  other  object  is  made,  such  plate,  forging,  casting,  or  other  object  shall  be  tested 
singly,  and,  before  acceptance,  must  conform  to  the  chemical  and  physical  requirements 
specified  for  its  class. 

30.  Annealing. — The  whole  of  an  object  specified  to  be  annealed  shall  be  subject 
to  the  same  proper  degree  of  heat  at  the  same  time,  or,  when  necessary,  to  a  uniformly 
graded  degree  of  heat  which  will  produce  a  uniform  degree  of  anneal.     The  number  of 
hours  requisite  for  raising  the  object  to  sufficient  temperature,  the  length  of  time  during 
which  it  shall  be  soaked  at  its  maximum  heat,  and  the  period  for  slow  cooling  in  the 
furnace  may  be  prescribed  by  the  bureau. 

31.  Treatment  of  Lots. — Objects  tested  as  a  lot  after  being  treated  shall  be  from  the 
same  melt. 

32.  Weights. — The  weights  of  all  materials  shall  be  obtained  before  shipment  and 
shall  be  accurately  entered  upon  the  proper  invoices.     Accurate  standard  scales  which 
have  been  frequently  tested  shall  be  used,  and  an  inspector  will  witness  testing  and 
weighing  when  possible. 

33.  Methods  of  Weighing. — Weighing  will  be  done  by  one  of  the  following  methods: 

(a)  Weighing  each  individual  piece. 

(b)  Weighing  lots  or  parts  of  lots  of  material  of  same  size  which  is  inspected  by  lots. 

34.  Methods  of  Checking. — Checking  of  weights  will  be  done  frequently,  when 
practicable,  or  when  ordered  by  the  bureau,  by  the  following  methods: 

(a)  Reweighing  individual  pieces. 

(b)  Reweighing  lots  or  parts  of  lots  of  material  weighed  individually  or  by  lots. 

(c)  Gauging  and  measuring. 

(d)  Weighing  full  car. 

35.  When  the  method  of  checking  by  weighing  the  full  car  is  used,  the  manufacturer 
shall  furnish  the  inspector  for  each  carload  a  statement  showing  the  gross,  tare,  and 
net  weights  of  the  car,  and  the  total  weights  of  the  individual  pieces  on  the  car  if  it  is 
practicable  to  obtain  same.     If  the  net  weight  of  the  car  varies  by  more  than  1  per 
cent  from  the  weight  obtained  by  totaling  the  weight  of  individual  pieces  or  of  the 
lots,  if  weighed  by  lots,  the  material,  if   ordered  by  the  department,  shall  be  paid 
for  on  the  basis  of  the  lesser  weight,  or  the  manufacturer  may  run  down  the  error  by 
removing  the   material  from  the  car  and  reweighing,  or  by  other  means  which  will 
satisfy  the  inspector  as  to  the  actual  weight  of  the  material. 

36.  Contractors'  and  Other  Orders  for  Inspection  of  Material. — At  a  ship-building 
yard  the  ship-builder  shall  furnish  the  bureau's  representative  at  his  ship-yard  with 
quadruplicate  copies  of  every  order  to  manufacturers  for  all  materials  which  are  to  be 
inspected  at  the  plant  of  the  manufacturer  by  an  inspector  representing  the  bureau 
concerned. 

37.  Material  Which  Is  To  Be  Inspected  Without  Instructions. — Any  material  which 
a  manufacturer  may  present  to  a  naval  inspector  shall  be  inspected,  provided  it  is  with- 
out doubt  material  that  is  intended  for  the  Navy  Department.     In  such  cases  the 
inspector  shall  call  upon  the  manufacturer  to  exhibit  the  original  orders  or  contracts, 

[424] 


GENERAL  SPECIFICATIONS 

or  true  copies  of  such  orders  or  contracts,  from  the  representatives  of  the  Navy  De- 
partment, showing  the  object,  quantity,  specifications,  and  other  details  descriptive 
of  the  material.  If  inspection  has  not  been  authorized  by  the  bureau,  it  should  be 
reported  to  the  bureau  concerned,  together  with  copies  of  the  correspondence  involved. 

38  (a).  Subletting. — A  contractor  when  subletting  a  part  or  whole  of  his  contract 
shall  notify  the  bureau  concerned  through  the  local  inspector;  shall  give  the  sub- 
contractor full  information  as  to  the  fact  that  the  material  is  subject  to  naval  inspection, 
and  the  number  and  the  date  of  the  specifications.  • 

38  (b).  The  subcontractor  shall  fully  comply  with  all  the  requirements  of  the 
contract  specifications  concerning  quality,  dimensions,  method  of  inspection,  rejection, 
replacement,  shipment,  etc. 

38  (c).  Orders  from  Contractors  to  Subcontractors  and  Manufacturers. — Con- 
tractors and  subcontractors  shall  furnish  the  inspector  representing  the  bureau  con- 
cerned in  their  district  quadruplicate  copies  of  all  orders  placed  with  manufacturers 
for  materials,  stating,  when  possible,  the  purpose  of  each  item  ordered  and  the  specifica- 
tions for  the  same.  Such  orders  shall  state  explicitly  what  treatment,  other  than 
machining,  is  to  be  given  the  material  after  leaving  the  manufacturers'  works.  In 
all  cases  these  orders  shall  contain  the  number  of  the  original  contract  of  which  these 
constitute  suborders. 

39.  Inspection  During  Manufacture. — The  inspector  should  keep  in  touch  with  the 
work  throughout  its  manufacture  and  should  make  such  efforts  as  are  practicable  to 
secure  delivery  within  the  contract  time.  If  at  any  time  it  should  appear  that  prefer- 
ence is  given  to  commercial  work,  thereby  causing  delay  in  Government  work,  a  special 
report  of  the  circumstances  should  at  once  be  made  direct  to  the  bureau  concerned. 


ORDERS,  LISTS,  AND  INVOICES 

40.  Contractors  to  Supply  Blue- prints. — Blue-prints  or   sketches  forming  part  of 
contractors'  or  subcontractors'  orders  shall  be  supplied  by  contractors  in  triplicate. 

41.  Matters  to  be  Referred  to  Inspectors. — Correspondence  relating  to  material 
should  be  carried  on  directly  with  the  inspector  having  cognizance  of  the  inspection. 
When  in  cases  of  rejection  contractors  consider  it  necessary  to  appeal  to  the  bureau 
concerned,  the  correspondence  should  be  forwarded  via  the  inspector. 

42.  Information  to  be  Furnished  by  Manufacturer. — Manufacturers  shall  furnish 
the  inspector  copies  of  mill  orders,  which  shall  be  given  separately  for  each  vessel  and 
which  shall  state  the  following: 

(a)  The  order  or  schedule  number  and  name  or  designation  of  vessel. 

(b)  The  leaflet  number  and  date  of  the  department's  specifications  under  which 
the  material  is  ordered. 

(c)  The  kind  or  grade  of  material  of  each  object. 

(d)  The  purpose  for  which  intended,  if  practicable. 

(e)  The  ship-yard's  location  mark. 

(f)  The  number  and  quantity  of  each  item  and  the  essential  dimensions. 

(g)  The  estimated  weight  of  each  plate,  lot  of  shapes,  forgings,  castings,  or  other 
objects. 

(h)  Information  as  to  marking  and  arranging  ingots  (the  marking  to  be  such  as  to 
make  identification  easy). 

(i)  The  amount  of  discard  at  top  and  bottom  of  ingots  (when  required  by  inspector), 
(j)  The  number  and  height  of  heads  and  risers  (when  required  by  inspector). 

43.  Shipment  of  Material. — No  material  shall  be  shipped  by  a  manufacturer  or  sub- 
contractor except  by  direction  of  the  inspector  or  other  authorized  representative  of 
the  bureau  concerned. 

44.  Invoices   to   be   Promptly   Prepared   by   Manufacturers. — The   manufacturer 
shall  furnish  the  inspector,  immediately  after  a  shipment  of  material,  with  invoices  in 
quadruplicate  covering  each  shipment.     The  information  called  for  below  may  be  sub- 
mitted on  a  form  furnished  by  the  bureau  or  inspector  concerned,  or  on  a  manufac- 
turer's approved  form.     Manufacturers  should  furnish  this  information  promptly, 

[425] 


GENERAL  SPECIFICATIONS 

as  any  delay  in  so  doing  will  cause  delay  in  acceptance  of  material  at  destination  and 
in  the  preparation  of  vouchers  incident  to  the  payment  for  the  same. 

Invoices  or  shipping  reports  should  contain  the  following  information: 

The  name  of  the  manufacturer. 

The  name  and  location  of  the  navy-yard  or  ship-yard  ordering  or  receiving  the 
material. 

The  name  or  designation  of  the  vessel  or  stock  concerned,  the  date  of  shipment, 
car  initials,  and  number. 

The  order,  schedule  number,  or  item  number. 

The  grade  or  kind  of  material  of  each  object. 

The  location  marks  designated  by  the  navy-yard  or  ship-yard. 

The  name  of  road,  car  number  local,  line  or  steamer,  truck,  etc. 

The  number  of  articles  on  the  item  and  dimensions  of  each  object  in  inches,  the 
gauge  for  plates  in  pounds  per  square  foot,  and  for  shapes  in  pounds  per  linear  foot. 

The  actual  and  estimated  weight  of  each  plate  or  lot  of  like  shapes,  rivets,  or  other 
objects,  and  the  melt  and  serial  number  of  each  plate  or  forging,  the  melt  number  only 
for  other  objects. 

45.  Date  of  Shipping  Report. — The  date  of  a  shipping  report  should  be  the  date  of 
shipment. 

46.  Inspection  Stamps. — Each  object  accepted  shall  be  clearly  and  indelibly  marked 
with  four  separate  stamps:  (1)  The  private  stamp  of  the  inspector;  (2)  stamp  of  the 
manufacturer;  (3)  identification  number;  (4)  the  regulation  Government  pass  stamp. 
The  last  shall  not  be  stamped  on  any  material  until  it  has  been  inspected  and  passed 
ready  for  shipment.     In  case  of  small  articles  passed  and  packed  in  bulk  the  above- 
mentioned  stamps  shall  be  placed  on  the  boxing  or  packing  material  of  the  object. 
If  the  objects  are  bundled  these  stamps  will  be  placed  on  tags  securely  wired  to  the 
bundles.    Exceptions  to  the  above  may  be  made,  when  considered  necessary,  at  the 
discretion  of  the  inspector. 

47.  Sealing  of  Cars. — In  special  cases,  where  material  is  shipped  in  carload  lots, 
in  sealed  cars,  the  inspector  will  witness  the  loading  of  the  car  and  place  the  regulation 
pass  stamp  on  the  seals  which  seal  the  car.     Where  the  material  is  of  such  a  nature 
that  stamping  would  injure  it,  the  marking  will  be  done  with  stencils  bearing  the  initials 
of  the  inspector  and  the  regulation  pass  stamp. 

48.  Acceptance  of  Material. — No  material  will  be  received  at  a  naval  station,  navy- 
yard,  or  ship-building  yard  unless  it  bears,  either  on  its  surface  or  that  of  its  packing, 
these  stamps  as  evidence  that  it  has  passed  inspection,  nor  shall  it  be  finally  accepted 
until  after  the  receipt  of  a  duly  certified  report  of  the  inspector  by  whose  office  the 
inspection  was  made. 

49.  Removal  of  Stamps  Without  Authority. — The  removal  of  any  Government  stamp 
from  material  without  authority  of  the  inspector  will  be  sufficient  reason  for  the  rejection 
of  that  material. 

50.  Stamps  on  Large,  Rough  Work. — Each  object  which  has  passed  inspection 
shall  be  clearly  marked  with  the  necessary  stamps,  and  these  stamps,  on  large,  rough 
work,  shall  be  encircled  by  a  ring  of  paint. 

51.  Marking  Ingots,  Etc. — Ingots,  blooms,  and  other  material  intended  to  be  cut 
up  shall  have  the  stamps  above-mentioned  put  on  in  three  places,  viz.,  near  each  end 
and  near  the  middle,  and  encircled  by  paint  marks. 

52.  Stamps  on  Boxes. — In  the  case  of  small  articles  passed  and  packed  in  bulk, 
or  in  the  case  of  material  which  would  be  injured  by  stamping,  the  above-mentioned 
stamps  shall  be  applied  to  the  boxing  or  packing  material  of  the  articles,  or  may  be 
done  with  stencils  bearing  the  inspector's  initials  and  the  regulation  pass  stamp. 


REJECTION  AT  DESTINATION 

53.  Rejection  After  Having  Passed  Inspection.— Material  may  be  rejected  at  a 
navy-yard  or  other  place  of  delivery  for  defects  either  existing  on  arrival  or  developed 
in  working  or  storage  for  which  the  contractor  is  clearly  responsible,  even  though  such 

[426]. 


GENERAL  SPECIFICATIONS 


GENERAL   SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  INSPECTION    OF   MATERIAL 

UNDER  THE  COGNIZANCE  OF  THE  BUREAUS  OF  CONSTRUCTION  AND  REPAIR, 

STEAM  ENGINEERING,  AND  ORDNANCE 
Issued  by  the  Navy  Department,  October,  1913 


INDEX  OF  GENERAL  SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  INSPECTION  OF  MATERIAL 


PARAGRAPH 

Acceptance  of  material 48 

Access  to  work 56 

Analysis,  chemical 6 

Annealing 30 

Area,  variation  of 17 

Bending  test  pieces 21 

Blue-prints,  contractors  to  supply. ...    40 
Boiler  plates,  standard  size  test  pieces  13 

Boxes,  stamps  on 52 

Checking,  methods  of 34 

Chemical  analysis 6 

Contractor,  orders  to  subcontractor .  .  38c 
Contractors  to  supply  blue-prints. ...   40 

Date  of  shipping  report 45 

Expense 54 

Flaws  in  test  pieces 20 

Furniture,  office,  for  inspector 58 

General  requirements 2 

Groups,  test  pieces  for 19 

Handling  material 54 

Heat  number,  when  doubtful 29 

Information  given  by  manufacturer. .    42 
Information  and  facilities  for  inspector  57 

Ingots,  marking 51 

Inspection,  all  material  subject  to  ...  26 
Inspection,contractor'sandotherorders  36 

Inspection  during  manufacture 39 

Inspection,  rejection  after  passing.. .  .  53 

Inspection  requirements 2 

Inspection  stamps 46 

Inspector 56 

Inspectors,  matters  to  be  referred  to  .  41 

Invoices,  orders,  and  lists 42 

Invoices  prepared  by  manufacturers. .  44 

Lists,  orders,  and  invoices 42 

Lots,  test  pieces  for 19 

Lots,  treatment  of 31 

Machines,  testing 9 

Manufacture,  inspection  during 39 

Manufacturer,  information  from 42 

Manufacturers,  invoices  prepared  by .    44 
Manufacturers,  orders  from  contrac- 
tor to 38c 

Marking  ingots. . 51 

Material,  acceptance  of 48 

Material,  extra,  for  test  pieces 23 

Material  exempt  from  tests 25 

Material,  handling 54 

Material  inspected   without   instruc- 
tions .  .  .37 


PARAGRAPH 

Material,  inspection  of  orders  for ....  36 

Material,  shipment  of 43 

Material,  special 5 

Material,  special,  tests  for 27 

Material,  subject  to  inspection 26 

Material,  tests  for  uniformity  of 28 

Orders  from  contractor  to  subcontrac- 
tors and  manufacturers 38c 

Orders  for  inspection  of  material ....   36 

Orders,  lists,  and  invoices 42 

Physical  tests 10 

Properties,  chemical 6 

Pulling  speed 10 

Quality  to  be  supplied,  uniform 3 

References 60 

Rejection 53 

Removal  of  stamps  without  authority,  49 

Report,  shipping,  date  of 45 

Sealing  cars 47 

Shipment 43 

Shipping  report,  date  of 45 

Specifications,  where  obtainable 59 

Special  heat  treatment 24 

Special  material 5 

Special  material,  tests  for 27 

Special  treatment 5 

Special  treatment,  extra  mat'l  for  test  23 

Stamps 52 

Steam  pipes,  standard  size  test  pieces    13 
Subcontractors,    orders     from     con- 
tractor   38c 

Subletting 38 

Tests 27 

Tests,  making 55 

Tests,  material  exempt  from ........   25 

Tests,  physical 10 

Test  pieces 10,  22 

Test  pieces,  boiler  plates  and  pipes. . .    13 

Test  pieces,  full  size,  etc 14 

Test  pieces,  treatment  of .   22 

Test  pieces,  types  of 12 

Test  requirements 2 

Testing 4 

Testing  machines,  calibration  of 9 

Treatment 22 

Treatment,  lots 31 

Treatment,  special 5 

Types  of  test  pieces 12 

Uniformity  of  material,  tests  for 28 

Weighing,  methods  of 33 


[427] 


INSPECTION  OF  RUBBER  MATERIAL 

material  may  have  passed  previous  inspection  by  the  inspector  at  the  place  of  manu- 
facture.    In  such  cases  the  manufacturer  must  make  good  any  material  rejected. 

EXPENSE 

54.  Handling  Material. — All  handling  of  material  necessary  for  purposes  of  in- 
spection shall  be  done  at  the  expense  of  the  contractor. 

55.  Making  Tests. — All  test  specimens  necessary  for   the  determination  of  the 
qualities  of  material  shall  be  prepared  and  tested  at  the  expense  of  the  contractor. 

OFFICE  AND  INSPECTORS 

56.  Access  to  Work. — The  department  shall  have  the  right  to  keep  inspectors  at 
the  works,  who  shall  have  free  access  at  all  times  to  all  parts  thereof  and  be  permitted 
to  examine  the  raw  material  and  to  witness  the  processes  of  manufacture. 

57.  Information  and  Facilities. — Contractors  and  manufacturers  shall  furnish  all 
the  information  and  facilities  the  inspector  may  require  for  proper  inspection  under 
these  specifications.     The  department  is  at  liberty  at  any  time  to  require  additional 
information. 

58.  Office  and  Furniture. — Inspection  and  tests  shall  be  made  when  practicable  at 
the  place  of  manufacture,  and  any  firm  doing  work  for  the  Navy  that  requires  inspection 
shall  furnish  the  inspectors,  free  of  expense,  with  such  facilities  as  may  be  necessary 
for  the  proper  transaction  of  their  business  as  the  agents  of  the  Government.     When 
requested  by  the  bureau,  inspectors  shall  be  supplied  free  with  suitable  office  and 
laboratory  room,  and  such  plain  office  and  laboratory  furniture  as  may  be  necessary 
for  the  proper  transaction  of  their  business. 

59.  Specifications,  Where  Obtainable. — NOTE. — Copies  of  the  above  specifications 
can  be  obtained  upon  application  to  the  various  Navy  pay  offices  or  to  the  Bureau  of 
Supplies  and  Accounts,  Navy  Department,  Washington,  D.  C. 

60.  References.— (Ord.,  C.  &  R.,  and  S.  E.)  C.  &  R.,  SPS,  May  5,  1913. 
S.  &  A.,  380-5. 


GENERAL    SPECIFICATIONS    FOR    INSPECTION    OF    RUBBER 

MATERIAL 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 
September  1,  1914 

1.  Temperature  of  Room. — All  tests  of  the  rubber  parts  shall  be  made  in  a  room 
the  temperature  of  which  is  not  below  65°  F.,  and  the  range  of  temperature  not  to 
vary  beyond  the  limits  of  65°  F.  to  90°  F.,  if  practicable;  the  tests  shall  not  be  made 
in  the  cold,  nor  shall  any  tests  be  made  until  the  article  to  be  tested  has  been  standing 
48  hours  after  vulcanization. 

2.  Tests  of  Adhesion  of  Rubber  Parts  to  Cotton  or  Fabric  Parts.— (a)  APPARATUS. — 
A  standard  testing  table  suitable  for  the  purpose  shall  be  used. 

(b)  PREPARATION  OF  TEST  PIECE. — In  making  the  test  a  section  of  the  article 
shall  be  cut. 

In  testing  hose  the  section  shall  be  cut  transversely,  unless  the  diameter  of  the  hose 
is  too  small  to  be  practical  for  this  test,  in  which  case  it  shall  be  cut  longitudinally. 

When  testing  belting,  packing,  or  gasket  material,  it  may  be  cut  in  any  direction. 

When  testing  cotton  rubber-lined  hose  the  test  piece  shall  be  prepared  by  cutting 
directly  through  the  section,  so  as  to  lay  out  upon  the  table  a  piece  measuring  the  full 
length  of  the  circumference  of  the  hose  and  2  inches  in  width.  On  this  piece  two  parallel 
cuts  1£  inches  apart  shall  be  made  by  cutting  through  the  lining  only  and  not  injuring 
the  cotton  cover.  This  strip  shall  be  started  at  one  end  to  the  extent  of  about  1£ 
inches.  The  cotton  cover  only  shall  be  fastened  in  the  clamps. 

[428] 


INSPECTION  OF  RUBBER  MATERIAL 

When  testing  a  fabric-plied  hose  the  section  shall  be  1  inch  in  width.  The  piece 
shall  be  separated  until  the  part  next  to  the  rubber  cover  shall  be  loosened.  The  section 
shall  then  be  placed  on  a  mandrel  whose  diameter  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  inside  of  the 
hose  to  be  tested. 

When  testing  packing,  the  piece  shall  be  prepared  as  in  the  case  of  cotton  rubber- 
lined  hose,  unless  the  thickness  of  rubber  is  greater  than  |  inch,  under  which  conditions 
the  piece  shall  be  prepared  in  such  a  way  that  the  rubber  part  is  to  be  clamped  at  the 
top  and  held  immovable  while  the  weight,  as  described  below,  is  to  be  clamped  to  the 
fabric. 

When  testing  belting,  the  test  strip  is  to  consist  of  2  plies  of  fabric  only,  one  ply 
being  held  in  the  stationary  grip,  with  weights  suspended  freely  from  the  other  ply. 

Square  Tuck's  packing  shall  be  tested  in  the  same  manner  as  is  specified  for  testing 
the  friction  between  the  plies  of  a  belt. 

The  friction  hi  round  Tuck's  packing  shall  be  tested  by  the  same  method  as  is  used 
in  fabric-plied  hose,  the  core  being  drilled  out  to  permit  the  insertion  of  a  mandrel. 
Whenever  the  core  is  &  inch  or  less  in  diameter  it  shall  be  tested  in  its  original  shape. 
When  it  is  over  &  inch  in  diameter  a  piece  6  inches  long  shall  be  separated  from  the 
fabric  and  cut  and  buffed  on  four  opposite  sides  to  form  a  square  section  i  by  |  inch 
in  the  center  of  the  test  piece.  The  |  inch  square  shall  be  at  least  1  inch  in  length. 

In  testing  the  friction  of  belting  the  load  should  be  applied  at  right  angles  to  the 
plane  of  separation,  or  the  test  strip  should  consist  of  only  2  plies  of  fabric,  1  ply  being 
held  in  the  stationary  grip  with  the  weight  suspended  freely  from  the  other  ply.  By 
this  means  the  effect  of  the  thickness  of  the  belt  may  be  eliminated. 

(c)  PERFORMANCE  OF  THE  TESTS. — Having  thus  fastened  the  test  piece,  the  clamp 
ring  shall  be  slipped  upon  the  mandrel,  or  in  the  case  of  fabric-plied  hose,  the  test  piece 
shall  be  slipped  upon  the  mandrel.  The  free-moving  clamp  shall  be  tightly  fastened 
to  the  free  end  and  the  weight  supported  upon  a  movable  table  hooked  over  the  hook 
in  the  clamp.  The  weight  and  the  clamp  together  shall  be  exactly  equal  to  the  weight 
called  for  in  the  specifications. 

The  weight  then  supported  by  the  movable  table  of  the  testing  machine  shall  be 
lowered  until  the  clamp  and  free  end  of  the  hose  are  just  taut.  An  indelible  pencil 
mark  shall  be  placed  upon  the  separating  layers  of  the  test  piece,  and  by  quickly  loosen- 
ing the  thumb-screw  supporting  the  table,  it  shall  be  allowed  to  fall,  leaving  the  weight 
freely  suspended.  In  every  case  this  shall  be  done  without  a  jerk.  The  time  shall 
be  read  at  the  moment  of  freeing  the  weight  and  at  the  moment  of  re-marking.  The 
weight  shall  be  allowed  to  act  upon  the  test  piece  for  ten  minutes,  at  the  end  of  which 
time  an  indelible  pencil  mark  shall  be  placed  again  upon  the  separating  layers  of  the 
test  piece.  The  movable  table  shall  then  be  brought  up  to  hold  the  weight,  the  test 
piece  removed  and  laid  upon  the  table,  and  the  distance  between  the  pencil  marks 
shall  be  measured  by  means  of  a  certified  rule  accurately  graduated  in  decimals  of  an 
inch.  The  distance  between  the  marks  shall  be  recorded  as  the  number  of  inches  of 
separation  in  ten  minutes,  from  which  shall  be  computed  the  rate  in  inches  per  minute. 

3.  Tests  of  Rubber  Parts. — (a)  TEST  PIECE  PREPARATION. — For  hose,  a  section 
1  inch  in  width  shall  be  cut.  For  belting,  packing,  and  sheet  gaskets  a  piece  1  inch 
in  width  and  6  inches  in  length  shall  be  cut  in  any  direction.  The  rubber  parts  shall 
be  carefully  separated  from  the  fabric  of  this  piece,  using  benzine  in  small  amount  if 
necessary.  The  benzine  used  in  this  case  shall  always  be  76°  Baume,  free  from  oil. 

In  case  of  articles  to  be  tested,  such  as  washers,  ferrules,  and  moulded  gaskets,  which 
are  of  such  peculiar  shape  that  the  above  methods  do  not  apply,  small  sample  pieces 
shall  be  sent  with  each  delivery.  These  sample  pieces  shall  be  8  inches  in  length,  1£ 
inches  in  width,  and  |  inch  in  thickness,  unless  otherwise  specified.  These  sample 
pieces  shall  be  guaranteed  by  the  manufacturer  to  truly  represent  the  average  com- 
position and  cure  of  the  article  delivered.  Test  pieces  shall  be  cut  from  these  samples 
as  described  below.  From  these  1-inch  sections,  or  from  sample  pieces  thus  prepared, 
a  test  piece  shall  be  cut  by  a  die.  The  dimensions  of  the  test  piece  shall  be  indicated 
in  each  specification.  It  is  the  intention  to  have  the  cross-section  area  at  the  con- 
stricted part  approximately  ^j  square  inch.  The  backing  or  cloth  impression  shall  be 
removed  from  the  test  piece  by  buffing  for  determining  the  cross-section  area.  No 

[429] 


INSPECTION  OF  RUBBER  MATERIAL 

test  shall  be  performed  until  the  piece  has  been  allowed  to  stand  for  one  hour  after 
removal  from  the  article,  if  it  has  in  any  way  been  in  contact  with  benzine. 

(b)  Testing  Machine. — JAWS. — The  jaws  must  tighten  automatically  and  exert  a 
pressure  proportionate  to  the  applied  tension.     The  rate  of  speed  of  separation  of  the 
jaws  is  to  be  uniformly  20  inches  per  minute.     The  jaw  must  exert  a  uniform  pressure 
across  the  width  of  the  test  piece,  regardless  of  any  variation  in  the  thickness  of  the 
rubber. 

The  test  machine  should  be  suitable  to  carry  out  the  necessary  tests,  and  should 
be  standardized  in  accordance  with  the  latest  approved  designs  so  far  as  practicable. 

(c)  Making  of  the  Measurements. — TAKING  OF  TIME. — All  measurements  of  time 
shall  be  taken  by  means  of  a  stop  watch.     The  fundamental  methods  of  testing  are  so 
made  throughout  the  entire  rubber  specifications  that  the  following  procedure  shall  be 
uniform:  After  placing  any  test  piece  in  the  machine  ready  for  stretching  the  piece  shall 
be  drawn  just  taut  and  the  stop  watch  started  at  the  instant  of  the  beginning  of  the 
stretch.     The  piece  shall  then  be  held  for  ten  minutes  at  a  specified  distance  and  the 
time  shall  be  again  noted  at  the  moment  the  piece  is  released.     This  moment  is  simul- 
taneously the  beginning  of  the  period  of  rest.     The  measurement  is  then  to  be  taken  at 
the  instant  of  expiration  of  the  second  ten  minutes. 

(d)  MEASUREMENT  OF  ELONGATION. — Marks  2  inches  apart  shall  be  placed  on  the 
test  piece  by  means  of  a  marker.     These  marks  shall  be  at  right  angles  to  the  direc- 
tion of  pull  of  the  piece  in  the  machine.     Great  care  shall  be  taken:  (1)  That  the  marks 
are  not  too  wide,  and  that  (2)  at  the  time  of  marking  the  piece  shall  have  been  lying  for 
a  sufficiently  long  time  to  be  completely  at  rest  on  a  wooden  table  which  has  been  at 
the  temperature  of  the  room  mentioned  in  paragraph  1  herein.     The  marks  shall  be 
placed  on  the  smooth  side;  that  is,  in  no  case  on  the  side  which  is  corrugated  due  to 
its  impression  taken  from  the  fabric. 

After  clamping  the  test  piece  in  the  jaws  of  the  machine  the  movable  jaw  shall  be  so 
adjusted  with  the  pointer  reading  zero  on  the  scale  that  the  test  piece  is  just  taut,  but 
not  under  tension.  The  operator  shall  throw  on  the  current  to  start  the  screw  and 
when  ready  throw  in  the  engaging  lever  to  start  the  jaws.  He  shall  keep  the  elongation 
scale  pointers  opposite  the  outside  edges  of  the  marks  on  the  piece.  To  stop  the  motion 
at  the  desired  elongation  or  upon  the  break  of  the  piece,  the  jaws  shall  be  disengaged 
from  the  screw. 

The  accuracy  with  which  the  elongation  measurements  are  made  will  depend  upon 
the  accuracy  with  which  the  operator  keeps  the  two  pointers  opposite  the  outside  edge 
of  the  marks  on  the  test  piece. 

The  elongation  shall  be  reported  in  inches,  including  the  original  2  inches;  that  is, 
if  the  rupture  occurs  at  11  inches,  or  12  inches,  or  13  inches,  it  will  indicate  that  the 
stretch  has  been  2  to  11,  2  to  12,  or  2  to  13.  After  the  piece  has  been  removed  from 
the  machine,  the  permanent  elongation  or  recovery  shall  be  measured  by  laying  it 
upon  a  wooden  table,  which  is  of  the  temperature  of  the  room,  and  allowing  it  to  rest 
for  ten  minutes.  Immediately  upon  the  expiration  of  the  ten  minutes,  a  rule  graduated 
to  yj  inch  shall  be  laid  upon  the  piece  and  the  elongation  read  in  ^  of  an  inch,  measuring 
the  outside  of  the  marks. 

The  per  cent  of  elongation  of  the  test  piece  above  the  original  2  inches  shall  represent 
its  permanent  elongation. 

(e)  TensUe  Strength. — The  tensile  strength  shall  be  determined  by  stretching  a  test 
piece  not  previously  tested  in  the  tensile  machine  until  it  breaks.     If  the  test  piece 
breaks  outside  the  marks,  or  in  the  wider  portions  of  the  piece,  and  the  tensile  is  much 
below  that  called  for  in  the  specifications,  it  is  probable  that  this  piece  is  faulty  and 
that  another  would  meet  the  requirements.     If  the  piece  breaks  outside  the  marks 
and  yet  shows  a  tensile  above  that  called  for  in  the  specifications,  it  is  probable  that  the 
piece  is  faulty  and  that  its  true  tensile  strength  is  higher  than  indicated.     Since  its 
recorded  tensile  strength  exceeds  that  called  for  in  the  specifications,  however,  it  shall 
not  be  necessary  to  retest. 

Before  any  tests  are  made,  the  width  of  the  test  piece  shall  be  determined  at  3 
points,  equidistant  between  the  marks.  The  backing  or  irregularities  of  fabric  im- 
pression shall  be  stripped  or  buffed  off  and  the  thickness  measured  with  the  backing 

[430] 


INSPECTION  OF  RUBBER  MATERIAL 

removed.  It  shall  be  determined  at  3  points  equidistant  between  the  marks  on  the 
test  piece,  by  means  of  a  standard  spring  gauge  micrometer,  the  disks  of  which  are  £ 
inch  in  diameter.  The  measurements  used  in  the  computation  of  tensile  strength 
shall  be  those  read  nearest  the  point  of  break.  The  disk  of  the  micrometer  shall  be 
£  inch  in  diameter  when  measuring  thickness  of  the  tube  of  all  hose  which  has  an  inside 
diameter  of  1  inch  or  under. 

(f)  INITIAL  STRESS. — During  the  elongation  and  recovery  test  the  initial  stress  shall 
be  taken  by  connecting  a  spring  balance  with  the  piece  under  test.  The  number  of 
pounds  read  on  the  balance  at  the  maximum  stretch  shall  then  be  computed  in  pounds 
per  square  inch,  and  expressed  as  "initial  stress." 

4.  Pressure  Tests. — (a)  The  hose  shall  be  stretched  out  for  inspection,  connected 
to  the  pump,  and  filled  with  water,  leaving  the  air  cock  open  to  allow  the  air  to  escape. 
The  air  cock  shall  then  be  closed  and  a  pressure  of  10  pounds  per  square  inch  applied. 
The  test  is  then  begun  by  taking  original  measurements  without  releasing  the  pressure. 

(b)  All  pressure  tests  shall  be  made  by  using  a  hand  or  power  water  pump  standard- 
ized gauge.  The  increase  in  pressure  shall  be  made  at  the  rate  of  100  pounds  per 
minute,  and  the  hose  under  test  shall  be  held  for  measurement  not  more  than  2  minutes, 
unless  otherwise  called  for  in  the  specifications. 

5.  Composition. — (a)  FRICTION. — Wherever,  in  the  detail  specifications,  friction  is 
mentioned,  it  is  understood  that  it  should  be  made  from  a  compound  which  will  neither 
yield  to  acetone  any  organic  constituent  foreign  to  Hevea  rubbers  nor  contain  more 
sulphur  than  is  necessary  for  vulcanizing,  so  that  the  percentage  of  sulphur  in  the 
rubber  layers  shall  not  be  raised  beyond  the  permissible  amount. 

(b)  MATERIAL. — The   shall  be  properly  vulcanized,  and  be  made 

(Article.) 

from  and  have  all  the  characteristics  of  a  compound  containing  not  less  than per 

cent  of  washed  and  dried,  fine  Para  rubber,  not  more  than per  cent  of  sulphur, 

with  the  remainder  suitable,  dry,  inorganic,  mineral  fillers.  The  mineral  fillers  may 
contain  barytes,  but  shall  be  practically  free  from  sulphur  in  other  forms  and  from 
any  substance  likely  to  have  a  deleterious  effect  on  the  rubber  compound.  The  sulphur 
in  barytes  will  not  be  included  in  the  allowable  sulphur  content. 

(c)  SAMPLE  FOR  CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS. — A  sample  taken  for  chemical  analysis  shall 
be  free  from  backing. 

6.  Average  Reading. — Since  the  physical  properties  of  rubber  vary  noticeably  in 
any  given  product,  it  may  occasionally  happen  that  tests  are  made  upon  a  sample  which 
will  be  of  poor  quality.     The  hose,  belting,  or  packing  will,  as  a  whole,  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  standard,  but  the  particular  piece  taken  may  fall  somewhat  below  it.     To 
reject  or  accept  a  lot  of  hose  because  of  its  failure  to  meet  one  test  under  specifications 
would  therefore  be  unfair.     For  this  reason  acceptance  or  rejection  of  an  item  offered 
for  delivery  shall  be  based  on  the  average  of  at  least  four  determinations  for  each  quan- 
tity.    In  arriving  at  these  averages  no  weight  shall  be  given  to  tests  which  are  obvi- 
ously in  error,  and  do  not  represent  true  average  conditions,  e.g.,  cases  in  which  the 
tensile  strength  is  low  on  account  of  a  small  flaw  in  the  article  or  the  friction  is  low  on 
account  of  a  small  flaw  in  the  friction  part.     In  other  words,  the  intent  of  the  specifica- 
tions is  to  insure  a  high-grade  article  in  every  particular,  and  the  intent  of  the  methods 
of  testing  is  to  see  that  the  article  as  a  whole  is  of  this  high  standard. 

Deliveries  of  hose,  packing,  etc.,  which  regularly  meet  certain  provisions  of  the 
specifications,  but  quite  as  regularly  fail  to  meet  others,  are  obviously  improperly 
made  and  should  be  rejected. 

7.  Rejections  and  Replacements. — All  rubber  materials  shall  be  inspected  and 
tested,  so  far  as  practicable,  at  the  point  of  manufacture.     In  case  of  rejection  the  con- 
tractor shall  be  allowed  ample  opportunity  to  test  the  rejected  articles  before  replacing 
them.     Articles  found  to  be  defective  within  the  guaranteed  time  required  in  the 
specifications  under  which  they  were  purchased  may  be  examined  and  tested  by  the 
contractor  before  replacements  are  made. 


[431] 


TESTING  OF  RUBBER  GOODS 

THE  TESTING  OF  MECHANICAL  RUBBER  GOODS 

BUREAU  OF  STANDARDS 

The  principal  sources  of  crude  rubber  are  South  America,  Central  America,  Africa, 
and  Asia.  The  Amazon  district  of  South  America  is  noted  for  the  excellent  quality 
of  its  rubber.  In  addition,  much  rubber  is  secured  from  plantations  where  rubber- 
bearing  trees  are  cultivated  according  to  scientific  principles.  This  is  generally  known 
as  "plantation  rubber." 

Briefly  stated,  rubber  is  obtained  in  the  following  way:  Incisions  are  made  in  the 
bark  of  the  trees,  and  receptacles  are  placed  under  the  incisions  to  collect  the  gradual  flow 
of  latex.  The  custom  usually  followed  by  natives  is  to  coagulate  or  dry  the  latex  by 
means  of  smoke  or  merely  by  exposure  to  the  ah*.  "Plantation  latex"  is  coagulated 
by  the  addition  of  acid,  after  which  the  rubber  is  washed,  sheeted,  dried,  and  sometimes 
smoked.  The  smoking  process  has  been  adopted  in  an  attempt  to  secure  the  valuable 
properties  possessed  by  the  wild  rubbers,  which  are  coagulated  by  smoking. 

Crude  rubber  is  greatly  affected  by  changes  in  temperature,  becoming  stiff  when 
cold,  and  soft  and  sticky  when  warm. 

Vulcanizing. — Goodyear  discovered,  in  1839,  that  if  crude  rubber  to  which  sulphur 
had  been  added  was  heated  to  a  temperature  above  the  melting  point  of  sulphur  it 
combined  with  the  sulphur,  became  very  much  less  susceptible  to  temperature  changes, 
and  at  the  same  time  gained  both  in  strength  and  elasticity.  This  important  discovery 
may  be  said  to  mark  the  practical  beginning  of  the  rubber  industry,  although  crude 
rubber  had  been  previously  used  to  a  limited  extent  as  a  waterproofing  material.  The 
process  is  popularly  known  as  "vulcanizing." 

Rubber  Substitutes. — No  true  rubber  substitute — that  is,  no  material  possessing 
all  the  properties  of  rubber — has  yet  been  produced  on  a  commercial  scale.  There 
are  a  number  of  so-called  substitutes,  however,  that  may  be  mixed  with  rubber  to 
advantage  in  the  production  of  certain  articles.  Such  materials  are  produced  from 
vegetable  oils,  by  processes  of  vulcanization  or  oxidation. 

Reclaimed  Rubber. — On  account  of  the  large  amount  of  waste  vulcanized  rubber 
or  scrap  available,  and  the  high  cost  of  crude  rubber,  the  reclaiming  of  rubber  has 
assumed  such  proportions  as  to  constitute  an  industry  in  itself.  By  "reclaimed  rubber" 
is  not  meant  devulcanized  rubber,  although  in  some  cases  the  free  sulphur  is  removed. 
No  process  has  yet  been  developed  by  which  the  process  of  vulcanization  can  be  reversed 
and  crude  rubber  reclaimed. 

The  old  method  of  reclaiming  consisted  in  grinding  the  scrap  and  removing  the  fibers 
and  particles  of  metal,  and  other  waste  material,  after  which  the  rubber  was  mixed  with 
oil,  heated  in  ovens,  and  sheeted.  In  a  more  modern  process,  the  fibrous  materials 
are  destroyed  by  treatment  with  acid,  after  which  the  scrap  is  heated  in  ovens. 

A  third  method,  known  as  the  alkali  process,  which  is  carried  out  on  an  extensive 
scale,  may  be  briefly  outlined  as  follows:  Old  rubber  is  ground  between  rollers,  particles 
of  iron  are  removed  by  magnets,  and  the  ground  material  is  screened.  The  rubber 
is  then  heated  in  iron  vessels  containing  an  alkali  solution,  by  which  means  free  sulphur 
is  removed  and  the  fibrous  matter  destroyed,  after  which  it  is  thoroughly  washed  to 
remove  the  alkali  and  dried  by  steam  coils.  It  is  then  mixed  between  rollers  without 
the  addition  of  oil,  and  sheeted. 

It  is  said  that  rubber  reclaimed  by  this  process  from  carefully  selected  scrap  is 
superior  to  some  of  the  lower  grades  of  crude  rubber. 

Manufacture. — Crude  rubber  as  received  at  the  factory  is  in  the  form  of  lumps 
of  irregular  shape  and  size,  and  contains  varying  amounts  of  impurities  which  have 
to  be  removed.  These  lumps  are  placed  in  a  vat  containing  water,  and  boiled  in  order 
that  they  may  become  sufficiently  soft  to  be  handled  by  the  washing  rolls. 

Breaking  Down  and  Washing. — The  washing  rolls  consist  of  two  steel  cylinders, 
about  12  to  18  inches  in  diameter,  which  revolve  in  opposite  directions  and  at  different 
speeds,  their  axes  being  parallel  and  in  the  same  horizontal  plane.  These  rolls  are 
corrugated,  and  as  the  crude  rubber  is  fed  between  them  their  action  is  such  as  to 

[432] 


TESTING  OF  RUBBER  GOODS 

masticate  the  soft  lumps  and  expose  the  impurities,  which  are  washed  out  by  a  series  of 
water  jets  and  collected  in  a  pan  under  the  rolls.  Two  sets  of  rolls  are  used  in  this 
process.  The  first  set  breaks  down  the  lumps  while  a  large  part  of  the  impurities  is 
washed  out,  and  the  second  set,  in  which  the  rolls  are  closer  together,  completes  the 
process  of  washing.  After  a  sufficient  number  of  passages  through  the  rolls,  the  washed 
rubber  has  the  form  of  a  rough  sheet  of  irregular  shape,  and  contains  considerable 
water,  which  must  be  removed  before  vulcanization. 

Drying. — There  are  two  methods  in  use  for  removing  the  water  from  washed  rubber. 
The  first  is  to  hang  the  rubber  sheets  in  a  warm  dry  place — usually  the  attic — steam- 
heated  pipes  being  used  to  maintain  the  proper  temperature  during  cold  weather.  This 
method  is  usually  employed,  as  less  skill  is  required  than  in  the  second  and  quicker 
method,  in  which  vacuum  heaters  are  used.  The  rubber  having  been  dried  as  described 
above,  is  "broken  down"  or  worked  through  smooth  steam-heated  rolls,  by  which 
process  it  is  rendered  soft  and  plastic. 

Compounding  and  Mixing. — The  rubber  is  now  in  condition  to  be  compounded  or 
mixed  with  sulphur  and  mineral  matter,  and  with  reclaimed  rubber  or  rubber  sub- 
stitutes, if  such  are  used. 

The  ingredients  required  for  a  batch  having  been  weighed  out  in  the  definite  pro- 
portions to  produce  a  compound  of  the  desired  quality,  the  mixing  is  done  with 


FIG.  l. — DIAGRAM  SHOWING  OPERATION  OP  CALENDER  ROLLS. 


smooth  rolls  operated  as  in  the  washing  process.  Both  steam  and  water  connec- 
tions are  provided  so  that  the  temperature  of  the  rolls  may  be  regulated  to  suit  the 
condition  of  the  rubber  as  it  is  being  worked.  The  rubber  gradually  absorbs  the  sul- 
phur and  fillers  which  are  added  by  an  attendant.  Such  material  as  passes  through 
without  being  incorporated  with  the  rubber  is  collected  in  a  pan  and  returned  to  the 
rolls.  The  temperature  of  the  rolls  is  so  regulated  that  as  the  operation  of  mixing 
proceeds  the  compound  sticks  to  one  of  them  in  the  form  of  a  sheet.  This  sheet  is  cut 
with  a  knife,  folded  upon  itself,  and  passed  through  the  rolls  again,  the  operation  being 
repeated  until  the  material  shows  a  uniform  color  and  is  as  nearly  homogeneous  as  it 
is  practicable  to  make  it. 

Sheeting. — The  next  step  in  the  process  of  manufacture  depends  upon  the  purpose 
for  which  the  rubber  is  intended.  If  sheet  rubber  is  being  made,  as  for  packing  or  for 
the  tubes  and  covers  of  hose,  the  compound  coming  from  the  mixing  rolls  : 

[433] 


TESTING  OF  RUBBER  GOODS 

through  calender  rolls.  The  calender  consists  of  three  steam-heated  rolls,  one  above 
the  other,  which  are  so  geared  together  that  the  middle  roll  revolves  in  the  opposite 
direction  from  that  of  the  other  two.  The  rolls  may  be  adjusted  to  form  sheets  of 
different  thickness.  The  skeleton  diagram  in  Fig.  1  shows  the  method  of  operation. 

Rubber  is  fed  between  the  top  and  middle  rolls,  and  by  a  proper  regulation  of  tem- 
peratures the  sheet  adheres  to  the  middle  one  while  the  top  one  remains  clean.  A 
strip  of  cloth  is  taken  from  the  reel  1  and  passed  between  the  middle  and  bottom  rolls 
to  the  reel  2.  The  sheeted  rubber  as  it  passes  between  the  middle  and  bottom  rolls  is 
received  by  the  cloth  and  carried  to  the  reel  2,  upon  which  they  are  wound  together, 
the  cloth  preventing  the  layers  of  rubber  from  adhering.  The  sheet  may  be  cut  into 
strips  of  any  desired  width  by  knives  which  press  against  the  middle  roll. 

Sometimes  several  calendered  sheets  are  rolled  together  to  form  a  single  sheet. 
The  rubber  is  now  ready  to  be  vulcanized  or  worked  into  hose  or  other  fabricated  articles. 

"  Friction." — What  is  known  as  "friction"  in  the  case  of  rubber  hose,  rubber  belt- 
ing, and  other  articles,  which  are  made  up  with  superimposed  layers  of  canvas,  is  the 
soft  rubber  compound  which  is  applied  to  the  canvas  and  by  means  of  which  the  differ- 
ent layers  or  plies  are  held  together. 

The  canvas  is  first  dried  by  being  passed  over  steam-heated  rolls,  after  which  the 
friction  is  applied  by  means  of  rolls  which  are  operated  in  the  manner  just  described, 
and  illustrated  in  Fig.  1. 

In  the  case  of  the  friction  calender,  the  bottom  roll  revolves  at  about  two-thirds 
the  speed  of  the  middle  roll,  thus  causing  a  wiping  action  which  forces  the  friction 
well  into  the  meshes  of  the  canvas. 

Cutting  the  Canvas. — Canvas  for  use  in  making  rubber  hose  is  usually  cut  on  the  bias 
from  strips  40  to  42  inches  wide,  into  pieces  long  enough  so  that  when  placed  end  to  end 
and  lapped,  the  resulting  strip  is  just  wide  enough  to  produce  the  necessary  number  of 
plies  on  the  hose.  There  is  no  waste  when  cutting  on  the  bias,  and  the  finished  hose  is 
more  flexible  than  when  the  canvas  is  cut  straight.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  canvas 
is  cut  straight  there  is  more  or  less  waste  on  account  of  the  last  strip,  which  is  often 
too  narrow  to  be  used.  This  method  of  cutting,  however,  produces  the  stronger  hose, 
and  a  hose  which  will  not  expand  as  much,  and  which  will  elongate  under  pressure, 
avoiding  the  objectionable  feature  of  longitudinal  contraction  which  is  noticed  in  hose 
made  with  bias-cut  duck. 

RUBBER  HOSE 

The  ordinary  "plied"  hose  with  rubber  tube  and  cover  is  manufactured  as  follows: 

1.  Tubes  and  Covers. — For  low-grade  water  hose  of  small  diameter  it  is  usual  to 
form  the  tubes  by  passing  the  rubber  compound  through  a  die  which  may  be  adjusted 
to  produce  a  wall  of  any  desired  thickness.    The  rubber  coming  from  the  mixing  rolls 
must  be  at  a  sufficiently  high  temperature  to  make  it  plastic,  in  which  condition  it  is 
forced  through  the  die  by  means  of  a  worm.    The  operation  is  similar  to  that  of  a  "soft 
mud"  brick  machine,  and  the  tube  as  it  comes  from  the  die  is  carried  away  on  an  end- 
less belt.    These  tubes  are  placed  on  steel  mandrels  by  a  rather  ingenious  process,  as 
follows: 

The  mandrel,  which  is  about  52  feet  long,  is  placed  on  an  endless  belt  and  held 
stationary.  Powdered  talc  is  blown  into  the  tube  to  act  as  a  lubricant  and  to  prevent 
it  from  sticking  to  the  mandrel  during  vulcanization.  One  end  of  the  tube  having 
been  placed  over  the  mandrel,  air  pressure  is  applied  at  the  other  end,  sufficient  to  ex- 
pand the  tube  slightly.  The  belt  is  now  set  in  motion,  and  the  tube  as  it  is  fed  onto  the 
belt  floats  over  the  mandrel  on  a  cushion  of  air.  In  the  case  of  high-grade  hose  and  hose 
of  large  diameter,  the  tube  is  made  from  a  strip  of  sheet  rubber,  cut  with  a  "skive"  or 
tapering  cut,  which  is  wrapped  over  the  mandrel  by  hand,  the  edges  being  lapped  and 
pressed  flat  by  means  of  a  small  hand  roller. 

In  either  case,  the  cover  is  made  from  a  strip  of  sheet  rubber  just  wide  enough  to 
pass  once  around  the  hose  and  form  a  narrow  lap. 

To  ensure  firm  adhesion  between  the  tube  and  canvas,  the  former  is  cleaned  with 
gasoline,  preparatory  to  receiving  the  frictioned  canvas. 

2.  "  Making  up  "  the  Hose. — Water  hose  of  small  diameter  is  usually  wrapped  by 

[434] 


TESTING  OF  RUBBER  GOODS 

machinery  consisting  of  three  rolls  about  2  inches  in  diameter  and  slightly  more  than 
50  feet  long.  The  two  bottom  rolls  lie  in  the  same  horizontal  plane  and  the  top  roll, 
which  is  just  above  and  between  the  other  two,  may  be  raised  while  the  mandrel  carrying 
the  tube  to  be  wrapped  is  being  placed  on  the  bottom  rolls.  The  top  roll  is  now  lowered 
onto  the  tube,  which  is  held  firmly  between  the  three  rolls.  A  rotary  motion  imparted 
to  the  rolls  causes  the  tube  to  revolve,  and  the  canvas  and  rubber  cover  are  wrapped  on 
in  a  few  seconds.  This  method  has  the  advantage  of  consuming  very  little  time,  but 
unfortunately,  it  is  not  applicable  to  the  construction  of  best-quality  hose,  which  are 
made  up  by  hand  with  the  assistance  of  small  rollers  having  a  concave  face.  The 
rollers  are  run  up  and  down  the  hose  and  serve  to  press  each  ply  of  frictioned  canvas 
onto  the  next. 

Before  going  to  the  vulcanizer  the  hose  is  wrapped  with  cloth.  First,  a  long  strip 
is  wrapped  lengthwise  on  the  hose,  and  over  this  a  narrow  strip  is  wrapped  spirally. 
This  is  done  very  rapidly  by  causing  the  hose  to  revolve  in  roller  bearings  while  the 
narrow  strip  of  cloth  is  held  under  tension  and  guided  by  hand.  The  operation  requires 
only  a  few  minutes. 

3.  Vulcanizing. — The  vulcanizer  consists  of  a  long  cylinder  provided  with  steam 
and  drip  connections,  and  a  pressure  gauge.    The  pressure  and  time  necessary  for  vul- 
canization depend  upon  the  composition  of  the  rubber  compound,  the  thickness,  and 
the  use  for  which  the  hose  is  intended.   After  vulcanization  the  wrapping  cloth  is  stripped 
off,  and  the  hose  is  removed  from  the  mandrel  by  means  of  compressed  ah*,  in  the  same 
way  that  the  tube  was  put  on.    The  couplings  are  now  put  on  and  the  hose  is  ready 
for  shipment. 

4.  Cotton  Rubber-lined  Hose. — In  the  manufacture  of  woven  cotton  hose  with 
rubber  lining,  the  tube  is  made  in  the  usual  way  and  partially  vulcanized,  in  order  that 
it  may  develop  sufficient  strength  to  be  drawn  through  the  cover.    A  long  slender  rod 
is  passed  through  the  cover,  carrying  with  it  a  stout  cord.    This  cord  is  attached  to 
the  end  of  the  rubber  tube,  and  the  rod  is  withdrawn.    The  cord  is  now  drawn  through 
the  cover,  bringing  the  tube  with  it,  the  tube  having  been  coated  with  rubber  cement. 
The  hose  is  now  filled  with  steam  under  pressure,  which  expands  the  tube,  thus  forcing 
the  cement  well  into  the  meshes  of  the  woven  cover,  and  at  the  same  time  vulcanizes 
the  rubber. 

5.  Braided  Hose  with  Rubber  Tube  and  Cover. — A  form  of  braided  hose  which  is 
claimed  to  have,  and  appears  to  have,  decided  merit,  is  made  as  follows: 

The  rubber  tube  passes  first  through  a  bath  of  cement  and  then  to  the  braiding  ma- 
chine, where  the  first  ply  of  fabric  is  braided  over  the  fresh  cement.  This  operation  is 
repeated  until  the  desired  number  of  plies  have  been  formed,  r/hen  the  rubber  cover  is 
put  on  and  the  hose  is  vulcanized  in  a  mold.  While  being  vulcanized  the  hose  is  sub- 
jected to  air  pressure  from  within,  which  forces  the  rubber  well  into  the  meshes  of  the 
loosely  braided  fabric. 

RUBBER  BELTING 

Duck  for  rubber  belting  is  passed  over  steam-heated  rolls  to  remove  the  moisture, 
and  frictioned  as  described  in  connection  with  the  manufacture  of  rubber  hose. 

The  frictioned  duck  is  cut  lengthwise  into  strips,  the  width  of  which  depends  not 
only  upon  the  size  of  belt,  but  also  upon  the  method  of  manufacture,  which  is  not  the 
same  in  all  factories.  These  strips  are  cut  by  passing  the  canvas  over  a  drum  against 
which  knives  are  held  at  points  necessary  to  produce  the  desired  widths. 

One  method  is  to  make  the  inner  plies  of  the  belt  with  strips  which  are  equal  in 
width  to  that  of  the  belt.  These  strips,  stacked  one  above  the  other,  are  placed  in  the 
center  of  a  strip  of  double  the  width,  and  in  this  position  they  are  drawn  through  an 
opening  with  flared  edges  which  folds  the  bottom  strip  over  the  top  strips  and  forms 
a  butt  joint  on  the  top  face  of  the  belt.  The  belt  then  passes  between  rolls  which  press 
the  plies  firmly  together  and  at  the  same  time  lay  and  press  a  narrow  strip  of  rubber 
over  the  joint.  When  the  belt  is  to  have  a  rubber  cover,  as  is  usually  the  case,  this 
is  calendered  onto  the  outside  ply  or  layer  of  the  canvas  before  it  is  put  on  the  belt. 
Some  of  the  most  expensive  belts,  however,  are  made  without  a  rubber  cover. 

Another  method  is  to  cut  each  strip  of  canvas  twice  as  wide  as  the  belt.  The  first 

[435] 


TESTING  OF  RUBBER  GOODS 

strip  is  folded  upon  itself,  as  described  above,  so  that  its  edges  form  a  butt  joint.  This 
folded  strip  is  placed  with  its  joint  down  upon  the  next  strip,  which  is  in  turn  folded 
to  form  a  butt  joint  on  the  back  of  the  first  strip.  In  this  way,  the  belt  is  built  up  with 
the  desired  number  of  plies,  the  last  joint  being  covered  with  a  narrow  strip  of  rubber, 
which  is  rolled  flush  with  the  surface.  The  belt  is  now  ready  to  be  vulcanized. 

In  this  process  there  are  two  steps.  First,  the  closely  coiled  belt  is  wrapped  so  that 
only  its  edges  are  exposed,  and  in  this  condition  it  is  put  in  the  vulcanizer.  After  the 
edges  have  been  vulcanized  the  belt  is  stretched  and  held  under  heavy  pressure  between 
the  steam-heated  faces  of  a  long  hydraulic  press.  This  drives  the  friction  into  the  pores 
of  the  duck  and  vulcanizes  the  belt  throughout. 

As  regards  the  advantage  of  using  a  high-grade  rubber  cover  for  belting,  the  con- 
sensus of  opinion  seems  to  be  that  the  expense  thus  incurred,  except  in  the  case  of  conveyor 
belting,  had  better  be  devoted  to  increasing  the  quality  of  friction  between  the  plies  of 
canvas. 

MECHANICAL  RUBBER  GOODS 

The  term  "rubber,"  as 'commonly  employed,  does  not  refer  to  the  commercially 
pure  gum,  but  to  a  vulcanized  compound  as  already  described,  which  consists  of  gum, 
mineral  matter  or  pigments  and  sulphur,  mixed  in  various  proportions,  according  to  the 
purpose  for  which  it  is  intended.  Mineral  matter  or  the  so-called  fillers  serve  a  very 
useful  purpose,  both  in  cheapening  the  product  and  in  adding  certain  desirable  properties 
which  could  not  otherwise  be  obtained.  Their  presence,  therefore,  should  not  be  looked 
upon  as  an  adulteration. 

There  is  a  limited  demand  for  pure  gum  by  the  medical  profession  and  a  very  con- 
siderable amount  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  stationery  bands,  elastic  thread,  etc., 
but  the  amount  of  rubber  thus  consumed  is  insignificant  as  compared  with  the  enormous 
quantity  used  in  the  manufacture  of  mechanical  rubber  goods,  such  as  automobile  tires, 
hose,  packing,  and  footwear.  A  properly  vulcanized  compound  of  high-grade  rubber 
which  is  suitable  for  the  best  hose  and  packing,  may  be  stretched  to  about  seven  times 
its  original  length  and  has  a  tensile  strength  of  about  2,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

The  properties  that  are  desirable  in  rubber  depend  in  a  great  measure  upon  the  use 
for  which  it  is  intended.  For  example,  rubber  intended  for  steam  hose  or  steam  packing 
should  be  of  a  composition  to  withstand  high  temperatures,  while  rubber  for  the  tread 
of  an  automobile  tire  should  offer  great  resistance  to  abrasion. 

The  real  value  of  rubber  in  any  case  depends  upon  the  length  of  time  that  it  will 
retain  those  properties  which  are  desirable,  and  it  is  a  matter  of  common  observation 
that  rubber  often  deteriorates  less  rapidly  when  in  use  than  when  lying  idle.  Deteriora- 
tion, as  indicated  by  loss  of  strength  and  elasticity,  is  considered  to  be  the  result  of 
oxidation,  which  action  is  accelerated  by  heat  and  very  greatly  by  sunlight.  Other 
things  being  equal,  the  better  grades  of  rubber  possess  greater  strength  and  elasticity, 
and  may  be  stretched  to  a  greater  extent  than  the  poorer  grades,  and  they  also  deteriorate 
less  rapidly.  The  physical  properties  of  rubber,  however,  are  subject  to  variation  within 
wide  limits,  depending  upon  the  proportion  of  gum  present,  the  materials  used  as  fillers, 
and  the  extent  of  vulcanization. 

PHYSICAL  TESTING  OF  RUBBER 

Rubber  testing  in  the  present  stage  of  its  development  is  not  susceptible  of  very 
great  refinement  as  regards  measurement.  The  nature  of  the  material  is  such  that 
refinement  seems  of  less  importance  than  uniformity  of  methods,  which  is  absolutely 
essential  where  the  work  of  different  laboratories  is  to  be  compared. 

Tension  Test. — Tension  tests  in  various  forms  are  used  to  determine  the  more 
important  physical  properties,  such  as  tensile  strength,  ultimate  elongation,  elasticity, 
and  reduction  in  tension  when  stretched  to  a  definite  elongation. 

Recovery. — Recovery  as  applied  to  rubber  is  in  a  way  synonymous  with  elasticity, 
and  is  measured  by  the  extent  to  which  the  material  returns  to  its  original  length  after 
having  been  stretched.  The  term  "set,"  as  commonly  employed,  refers  to  the  extension 
remaining  after  a  specified  interval  of  rest  following  a  specified  elongation  for  a  given 
period  of  time. 

[436] 


TESTING  OF  RUBBER  GOODS 

Friction. — In  the  case  of  such  materials  as  rubber  hose  and  rubber  belting,  which 
are  built  up  with  layers  of  duck  cemented  or  frictioned  together  with  rubber,  it  is 
customary  to  determine  the  friction  or  adhesion  between  the  plies  of  duck  as  well  as 
the  quality  of  rubber.  It  is  also  usual  to  subject  hose  (particularly  fire  hose  and  air 
hose)  to  a  hydraulic  pressure  test,  in  order  to  detect  any  imperfections  in  materials 
or  workmanship. 

Steam  Pressure. — An  important  test  in  the  case  of  steam  hose  consists  in  passing 
steam  at  about  50  pounds  pressure  through  a  short  length  of  the  hose  in  order  to  deter- 
mine if  the  rubber  is  of  suitable  composition  to  withstand  the  effects  of  service  conditions. 
This  test  usually  lasts  for  about  six  days,  the  steam  being  turned  off  at  night  to  allow 
the  rubber  to  cool.  A  decided  hardening  or  softening  of  the  rubber,  or  a  large  decrease 
in  the  value  of  friction,  as  a  result  of  steaming,  is  an  indication  of  inferior  quality. 

Packing. — No  absolutely  reliable  test  (other  than  an  actual  service  test)  has  been 
devised  for  rubber  steam  packing,  but  in  many  cases  valuable  information  may  be 
obtained  by  clamping  a  piece  of  the  packing  between  metal  plates  and  subjecting  it 
to  the  action  of  steam  at  a  pressure  equal  to  or  slightly  above  that  under  which  it  is  to 
be  used.  A  more  satisfactory  method  is  to  clamp  the  packing  in  the  form  of  a  gasket 
between  pipe  flanges  and  apply  the  desired  steam  pressure  from  within.  The  test 
should  last  several  days,  the  steam  being  turned  off  at  night  to  see  if  the  joint  has  a 
tendency  to  leak  as  a  result  of  the  cooling  effect.  This,  however,  practically  constitutes 
a  service  test. 

Tires. — The  testing  of  tires,  or  rather  the  materials  used  in  their  construction,  ia 
done  almost  exclusively  by  manufacturers.  Manifestly  it  would  be  too  expensive  for 
the  consumer,  or  even  the  dealer,  to  sacrifice  whole  tires  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
test  pieces. 

The  tests  which  have  been  outlined  above  will,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  enable  one 
to  form  a  fairly  accurate  judgment  as  to  the  quality  of  rubber. 

Tension  Test. — When  the  material  is  made  up  with  layers  of  fabric,  as  in  the  case 
of  rubber  hose,  the  first  step  in  preparing  specimens  for  the  tension  test  is  to  separate 
the  rubber  from  the  fabric.  Unless  the  frictioning  is  very  poor,  this  will  necessitate  the 
use  of  a  solvent.  If  there  is  more  than  one  layer  of  fabric,  the  easiest  way  is  to  remove 
the  first  layer  along  with  the  rubber.  The  rubber  is  then  separated  from  the  adjoining 
layer  of  fabric  by  means  of  gasoline  blown  from  a  wash  bottle.  Narrow  strips  are  more 
easily  handled  than  larger  pieces,  and  there  is  less  danger  of  injuring  the  rubber.  The 
rubber  should  be  allowed  to  rest  for  several  hours  in  order  that  it  may  recover  from  the 
stretching  it  has  received  and  that  the  gasoline  may  thoroughly  evaporate. 

Test  Piece. — The  central  portion  of  the  test  piece  cut  with  a  metal  die  is  straight 
for  a  distance  of  2  inches,  and  the  ends  are  enlarged  to  prevent  tearing  in  the  grips 
of  the  testing  machine.  The  width  of  the  contracted  section  is  usually  made  either 
one-fourth  inch  or  one-half  inch.  It  is  impossible  to  obtain  satisfactory  specimens  one- 
half  inch  wide  from  hose  of  small  diameter. 

Parallel  lines  2  inches  apart  are  placed  on  the  specimens,  and  by  means  of  these 
gauge  marks  elongation  and  permanent  extension  are  measured.  A  stamp  consisting 
of  parallel  steel  blades  enables  one  to  mark  very  fine  lines  with  ink,  without  cutting  the 
rubber,  and  in  this  way  much  time  is  saved  and  all  chance  of  error  eliminated. 

Influence  of  Speed  on  Tensile  Strength  and  Elongation. — The  speed  at  which  rubber 
is  stretched  probably  affects  the  results  to  a  less  extent  than  is  often  supposed,  though 
doubtless  different  rubbers  are  not  equally  affected. 

Influence  of  Temperature  on  Strength,  Elongation,  and  Recovery. — It  is  generally 
recognized  that  the  physical  properties  of  rubber  are  affected  by  changes  in  temperature, 
though,  of  course,  to  a  less  extent  after  vulcanization  than  before. 

The  results  of  tests  at  50°,  70°  and  90°  F.,  in  a  room  maintained  at  the  specified 
temperature  for  three  hours  before  the  tests  were  made.  It  was  observed  that  the 
rubbers  were  not  all  affected  to  the  same  extent  by  equal  differences  in  temperature, 
but  there  was  a  marked  tendency  in  each  case  toward  decreased  strength,  decreased 
set  (increased  elasticity),  and  increased  elongation  as  the  temperature  is  raised.  It  was 
noted  that  in  nearly  every  case,  greater  differences  were  secured  between  50°  and  70° 
than  between  70°  and  90°. 

'[437f 


TESTING  OF  RUBBER  GOODS 


The  set  in  each  case  was  measured  after  one  minute  stretch  and  one  minute  rest, 
Of  five  specimens,  Nos.  1  and  2  were  stretched  350  per  cent,  Nos.  3  and  4,  300  per  cent, 
and  No.  6,  250  per  cent. 

TABLE  1 

SHOWING  STRENGTH  AND  ELONGATION  OF  RUBBER  WHEN  STRETCHED  AT  THE  RATE  OF 
30  AND  120  INCHES  PER  MINUTE 

[Gauge  length  =  2  inches.] 


Rubber  No. 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

Speed  in  Inches  per 
Minute 

30 

120 

30 

120 

30 

120 

30 

120 

30 

120 

Tensile  strength 

(pounds      per 

square  inch)  .  . 

1,740 

1,690 

990 

1,100 

1,710 

1,790 

750 

920 

930 

1,030 

Ultimate  elonga- 

tion (per  cent) 

665 

670 

510 

530 

460 

460 

430 

430 

375 

380 

These  results  would  indicate  that  elongation  is  not  appreciably  affected  by  speed, 
and  that  for  the  lower-grade  rubbers  greater  tensile  strength  is  secured  at  high  speed. 

Influence  of  Cross  Section  on  Tensile  Strength  and  Elongation. — Tensile  strength 
and  ultimate  elongation  are  theoretically  independent  of  sectional  area,  but  as  in  other 
materials  there  is  a  tendency  for  small  test  pieces  to  develop  higher  unit  values  than 
large  ones.  Complete  data  on  this  subject  is  not  at  hand,  but  it  is  thought  that  test 
pieces  one-fourth  inch  and  one-half  inch  wide  will  show  but  little  difference  in  unit 
strength  and  elongation,  provided  the  snrface  is  uniform  and  the  wider  specimens  are 
sufficiently  enlarged  at  the  ends  to  prevent  tearing  in  the  grips. 

Influence  of  the  Direction  in  which  Specimens  are  Cut  on  Strength,  Elongation, 
and  Recovery. — The  tensile  properties  of  sheet  rubber  are  not  the  same  in  all  directions. 
Specimens  cut  longitudinally  or  in  the  direction  in  which  the  rubber  has  been  rolled 
through  the  calender  show  greater  strength  and  (at  least  for  the  better  grades  of  rubber) 
less  elongation  than  specimens  cut  transversely  or  across  the  sheet.  The  recovery, 
however,  is  greater  in  the  transverse  direction. 

TABLE  2 

SHOWING  THE  RELATIVE  STRENGTH,  ELONGATION,  AND  RECOVERY  OF  RUBBER  WHEN 
TESTED  IN  THE  LONGITUDINAL  AND  TRANSVERSE  DIRECTIONS 


.     Rubber  No. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

Tensile  strength1  (pounds  per  square  inch)  : 
Longitudinal                                   .        .... 

2,730 

2,070 

1,200 

1,850 

690 

880 

Transverse            

2,575 

2,030 

1,260 

1,700 

510 

690 

Ultimate  elongation  (per  cent)  : 
Longitudinal             

630 

640 

480 

410 

320 

315 

Transverse                                                  •  •  • 

640 

670 

555 

460 

280 

315 

Set1    after   300  per   cent   elongation  for   1 
minute  with  1  minute  rest  (per  cent)  : 
Longitudinal   

11.2 

6.0 

22.1 

34.0 

27.5 

34.3 

Transverse 

7.3 

5.0 

16.3 

.24.0 

25.0 

25.9 

The  set  and  tensile  strength  were  determined  with  different  test  pieces. 

[438] 


TESTING  OF  RUBBER  GOODS 


Influence  of  Previous  Stretching  on  Strength,  Elongation,  and  Recovery. — Previous 
stretching  seems  not  only  to  increase  the  ultimate  elongation,  as  is  generally  known, 
but  also  the  tensile  strength,  at  least  in  the  case  of  high-grade  compounds. 

Table  3  gives  the  tensile  strength  and  ultimate  elongation  obtained  in  testing 
six  samples  of  rubber,  first,  with  a  single  stretch,  and,  second,  by  repeated  stretching, 
beginning  with  200  per  cent  and  increasing  each  stretch  by  100  per  cent  until  failure. 

The  recovery  after  a  definite  elongation  is  usually  greater  if  the  rubber  has  been 
previously  stretched  than  if  determined  in  the  usual  way.  This  is  illustrated  by  the 
results  shown  in  Table  4,  in  which  the  columns  marked  "  Repeated,  stretch "  show  the 
set  after  repeated  stretching,  beginning  with  100  per  cent  and  increasing  100  per  cent 
for  each  subsequent  stretch.  The  results  in  columns  marked  "Single  stretch"  were 

TABLE  3 

THE  INFLUENCE  OP  REPEATED  STRETCHING  ON  TENSILE  STRENGTH  AND  ULTIMATE 

ELONGATION 


Rubber  No. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

Tensile  strength  (pounds  per  square  inch)  : 
Single  stretch  

2,470 

1,740 

990 

1,710 

750 

930 

Repeated  stretch 

2,610 

1,960 

1,180 

1,790 

790 

920 

Ultimate  elongation  (per  cent)  : 
Single  stretch  

645 

665 

510 

460 

430 

375 

Repeated  stretch 

765 

780 

645 

555 

440 

465 

obtained  in  the  usual  way,  each  specimen  being  stretched  but  once.  In  each  case,  the 
set  was  measured  from  the  original  gauge  marks,  after  one  minute  stretch  and  one 
minute  rest,  the  tabulated  results  being  the  average  of  a  number  of  observations. 

TABLE  4 
THE  INFLUENCE  OF  REPEATED  STRETCHING  ON  THE  RECOVERY  OF  RUBBER 


Si 

3T  AFTER 

BEING  £ 

>TKETCHI 

3D 

No. 

Method  of  Testing 

100 

% 

200 

%     - 

300 

% 

400 

% 

500 

% 

/  Repeated  stretch 

1  0 

4  5 

9  5 

16  0 

25  0 

1 

\  Single  stretch  

11  7 

19  8 

29  0 

/  Repeated  stretch  

1.8 

4  0 

7.7 

13  7 

21  2 

2 

\  Single  stretch 

8  0 

14  7 

21  5 

/  Repeated  stretch  

3  7 

9  0 

17  7 

27  0 

37  0 

3 

\  Single  stretch  

21.7 

34  0 

47.0 

(  Repeated  stretch  

4  0 

12  3 

28  7 

48  7 

4 

\  Single  stretch  

14  3 

33  0 

56  0 

/  Repeated  stretch 

8  1 

19  4 

34  0 

0 

\  Single  stretch  

19  3 

33  0 

/  Repeated  stretch 

4  3 

16  3 

34  0 

6 

\  Single  stretch  

17  0 

35  3 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  effect  of  previous  stretching  is  very  marked  in  the  case  of 
Nos.  1,  3,  and  4;  that  it  is  very  slight  hi  the  case  of  Nos.  2  and  6;  and  that  in  the  case  of 
No.  5  the  set  is  slightly  increased  by  previous  stretching. 

Influence  of  the  Form  of  Test  Specimen  on  the  Results  of  Tension  Tests. — There 
is  a  wide  difference  of  opinion  in  regard  to  the  relative  merits  of  the  straight  and  ring- 

[439] 


TESTING  OF  RUBBER  GOODS 

shaped  test  specimen.  The  ring,  which  is  highly  recommended  by  some,  undoubtedly 
possesses  certain  advantages  as  regards  convenience  in  testing,  and  uniform  results 
may  be  obtained  by  this  method. 

Ring  specimens,  however,  do  not  show  the  full  tensile  strength  of  rubber,  on  account 
of  the  uneven  distribution  of  stress  over  the  cross  section.  This  fact  is  evident  from 
a  simple  analysis,  and  may  be  verified  by  comparative  tests  with  straight  and  ring 
shaped  test  pieces,  provided  the  straight  test  pieces  are  sufficiently  enlarged  at  the 
ends  to  prevent  failure  in  the  grips,  and  provided  further  that  the  change  in  width 
is  not  made  too  abruptly. 

Friction  Test. — The  "friction"  or  adhesion  between  the  plies  of  canvas  on  rubber 
hose  and  between  the  canvas  and  the  rubber  tube  and  cover,  is  of  great  importance; 


B 

FIG.  2. — Two  METHODS  OP  TESTING  THE  "FRICTION"  OF  RUBBER  BELTING. 


in  fact,  the  life  of  hose  depends  in  great  measure  upon  the  efficiency  of  this  adhesion. 
The  same  is  true  and  to  an  even  greater  extent  in  the  case  of  rubber  belting. 

The  friction  of  "plied"  hose  is  determined  in  the  following  manner:  In  preparing 
test  pieces,  a  short  length  of  hose  is  pressed  tightly  over  a  slightly  tapered  mandrel. 
The  mandrel  is  put  in  a  lathe,  and  1-inch  rings  are  cut  with  a  pointed  knife.  Beginning 
at  the  lap  a  short  length  of  canvas  is  separated  and  the  ring  is  pressed  snugly  over  a 
mandrel  which  is  free  to  revolve  in  roller  bearings.  The  rate  at  which  the  canvas  strips 
under  the  action  of  a  specified  weight  suspended  from  its  detached  end  is  taken  as  a 
measure  of  the  friction. 

The  "friction"  of  rubber-lined  fire  hose  is  usually  determined  as  follows:  A  1-inch 
strip  is  cut  and  a  portion  of  the  tube  separated  from  the  jacket.  The  detached  end 
of  the  jacket  is  clamped  in  a  stationary  grip  and  the  weight  is  suspended  from  the  rubber 
tube. 

The  "friction"  between  the  plies  of  duck  in  rubber  belting  is  sometimes  measured 
in  the  same  way  (Fig.  2,  B),  but  some  prefer  to  apply  the  load  in  a  direction  at  right 
angles  to  the  plane  of  separation,  as  in  the  case  of  "plied"  hose.  This  is  done  by  cutting 
the  belt  about  halfway  through  along  parallel  lines  1  inch  apart.  The  belt  rests  on 
horizontal  supports  just  outside  of  the  strip  which  has  been  cut,  and  the  weight  is  sus- 
pended from  the  detached  end  of  the  duck  (Fig.  2,  A).  It  is  found  that  for  a  given 
weight  the  rate  of  stripping  is  decidedly  greater  by  the  former  method  than  by  the  latter. 

Table  6  gives  comparative  results  obtained  by  the  two  methods  in  the  case  of  a 
six-ply  belt. 

Hydraulic  Pressure  Test. — The  pressure  test  as  usually  made  consists  simply  in 
subjecting  a  short  length  of  the  hose  to  water  pressure  created  by  a  force  pump  of  any 

[440] 


TESTING  OF  RUBBER  GOODS 


convenient  type.    When  testing  a  full  length  of  hose,  or  even  a  short  length  of  large 
diameter,  a  pet  cock  should  be  provided  to  release  the  air  as  the  hose  is  being  filled. 

TABLE  6 

SHOWING  COMPARATIVE  VALUES  OF  "FRICTION"  BY  DIFFERENT  METHODS 
[Inches  stripped  per  minute.] 


Weight  (Pounds) 

12 

15 

18 

21 

First  ply: 
Tested  as  in  Fig.  2,  B 

0  08 

0  26 

1  26 

3  56 

Tested  as  in  Fig.  2,  A  

0.11 

Second  ply: 
Tested  as  in  Fig.  2,  B 

0  07 

0  48 

2  18 

7  65 

Tested  as  in  Fig.  2,  A  

0.15 

Third  ply  : 
Tested  as  in  Fig.  2,  B 

0  04 

0  32 

1  33 

7  00 

Tested  as  hi  Fig.  2,  A  

0.16 

Requirements  of  specifications  as  regards  the  pressure  test  vary  according  to  the 
kinds  of  hose,  but,  as  a  rule,  the  test  is  made,  not  with  a  view  to  developing  the  ultimate 
strength  of  the  hose,  but  rather  to  detect  defects  in  workmanship,  which  are  usually 
noticeable  at  a  pressure  well  below  that  necessary  to  rupture  the  hose. 

In  the  case  of  fire  hose,  it  is  usual  to  specify  a  certain  pressure  when  the  hose  is 
lying  straight  or  when  bent  to  the  arc  of  a  circle  of  given  radius;  and  the  hose  must 
stand  a  specified  pressure  when  doubled  upon  itself.  It  must  not  show  excessive 
expansion,  elongation,  or  twist  under  pressure,  and  the  twist  must  be  in  a  direction 
tending  to  tighten  the  couplings. 

THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  RUBBER 

Although  rubber  has  been  extensively  used  for  a  number  of  years,  it  is  only  recently 
that  we  have  known  very  much  about  its  chemical  nature.  The  synthesis  of  rubber 
shows  that  it  belongs  with  the  terpenes,  having  the  formula  of  (Ci0Hi6)w,  but  so  far 
all  attempts  to  show  the  actual  size  of  this  molecule  have  been  unsuccessful.  The 
synthesis  is  accomplished  by  the  polymerization  of  the  simple  terpene,  isoprene,  which 
has  the  formula  CsHg.  Additional  proof  of  the  correctness  of  the  above  formula  is 
obtained  by  means  of  the  various  addition  products  which  have  been  formed,  such 
as  the  tetrabromide,  nitrosite,  ozonide,  etc.  These  latter  show  that  in  the  rubber 
molecule,  each  group  of  CioHie  is  capable  of  combining  with  two  atoms  of  sulphur. 
It  is  this  adding  of  sulphur  during  the  process  of  vulcanization  which  transforms  the 
crude,  sticky  gum  into  a  tough,  elastic  material. 

The  crude  rubbers,  however,  contain  other  substances  than  the  pure  rubber  just 
mentioned;  they  contain  varying  proportions  of  proteids,  resins,  hydrocarbons,  etc. 

The  mechanical  impurities  and  water-soluble  constituents  are  removed  by  washing. 
The  resins  remain  behind  and  form  one  impurity  which  must  be  determined  by  chemical 
analysis.  The  amount  and  character  of  these  resins  are  of  great  assistance  in  determin- 
ing the  nature  of  the  rubber  used  in  compounding.  In  some  cases  the  percentage  of 
resins  is  exceptionally  high  and  then  the  crude  rubbers  must  be  subjected  to  a  deresiniz- 
ing  process  before  they  can  be  used. 

The  acetone  extraction  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  quantity  of  such  resins 
is  made  by  taking  a  weighed  sample  of  the  finely  ground  material  and  extracting  it 
with  acetone  for  a  period  of  from  8  to  15  hours.  The  acetone  is  removed  by  distillation, 
the  residue  weighed,  and  the  latter,  consisting  of  the  rubber  resins,  subjected  to  a  very 
careful  examination. 

If  the  extraction  is  made  on  a  vulcanized  compound,  the  acetone  also  extracts  the 

[4411 


TESTING  OF  RUBBER  GOODS 

free  sulphur  and  any  mineral  oils  or  waxes  that  may  have  been  used.  The  free  sulphur 
can  be  readily  determined  by  any  of  the  methods  given  in  the  test  books,  and  the 
amount  so  determined  must  be  deducted  from  the  total  extract.  This  gives  a  corrected 
figure  called  "organic  extract"  or,  sometimes,  simply  "corrected  acetone  extract." 
For  the  best  grades  of  Para  rubber,  this  figure  should  not  exceed  5  per  cent  of  the 
rubber  present.  A  higher  percentage  of  resins  would  indicate  the  presence  of  other 
rubbers  than  Para,  while  the  presence  of  mineral  oil  indicates  the  possibility  of  reclaimed 
rubber  having  been  used,  inasmuch  as  practically  all  the  reclaimed  rubbers  are  com- 
pounded with  more  or  less  mineral  oil  to  make  them  work  easier. 

The  acetone  extraction  is  one  of  the  most  promising  tests  for  the  examination  of 
rubber  goods. 

The  process  of  vulcanization  consists  simply  in  the  chemical  combination  of  sulphur 
and  rubber.  Varying  amounts  of  sulphur,  depending  upon  the  nature  of  the  crude 
gum  as  weil  as  upon  the  properties  desired  in  the  finished  product,  are  added  to  the 
compound,  and,  after  heating,  varying  amounts  of  the  sulphur  will  be  found  to  have 
combined  chemically  with  the  rubber,  giving  thus  a  new  chemical  compound  with 
new  and  desirable  properties  that  are  not  possessed  by  the  crude  material. 

It  is  often  desirable  to  limit  the  amount  of  sulphur  in  a  compound,  and  this  calls 
for  a  method  of  determining  the  total  amount  of  sulphur  present. 

In  addition  to  the  sulphur  combined  with  the  rubber,  and  the  free  sulphur  already 
mentioned,  sulphur  may  be  present  in  the  mineral  fillers.  Barytes  is  one  such  com- 
pound, and  it  is  permitted  in  practically  all  compounds  where  the  amount  of  sulphur 
is  specified.  Sublimed  lead  (largely  a  basic  sulphate  of  lead,  of  varying  composition) 
does  not  yet  fulfil  the  conditions  just  mentioned,  but  it  is  quite  probable  that  we  shall 
soon  be  able  to  determine  it  accurately,  and  it  will  then  be  merely  a  question  of  deciding 
whether  it  is  a  desirable  filler  in  high-grade  compounds. 


[442] 


SECTION  7 
IRON  AND  STEEL  CASTINGS 

FOUNDRY  PIG  IRON 

Pig  iron  is  the  metal  reduced  from  iron  ores  in  a  blast  furnace.  It  is  the  crudest 
form  of  iron  in  the  market  and  seldom  or  never  used  without  remelting.  It  is  often 
referred  to  as  an  impure  iron  because  there  are  always  contained  in  the  pig  metal  cer- 
tain elements  such  as  carbon,  silicon,  manganese,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  etc.  The  effect 
of  each  of  these  when  combined  with  iron  is  substantially  as  follows: 

Carbon. — This  element  is  always  present  in  pig  iron  either  as  free  graphite  in  which 
thin  flakes  of  graphite  are  mechanically  present  between  the  crystals  of  iron,  as  in  soft 
gray  iron;  or  it  may  be  chemically  combined  as  in  white  iron,  which  is  much  harder. 
The  quantity  of  carbon  in  cast  iron  is  largely  dependent  upon  the  temperature  of  the 
furnace.  It  has  been  commonly  understood  that  the  highest  amount  of  carbon  that 
can  be  taken  up  by  pure  iron  is  4.50%,  and  at  1100°  C.  (2012°  F.)  this  percentage  is 
correct,  but  E.  Adamson  found  on  raising  the  temperature  to  2200°  C.  (4992°  F.),  9.50% 
carbon  could  be  absorbed.  He  further  states  that  iron  containing  4.50%  carbon  when 
cooled  down  under  normal  conditions  made  white  iron;  but  with  the  higher  percentage 
it  was  impossible  to  secure  a  white  iron,  because  a  certain  amount  of  graphite  separated 
out  and  made  it  gray  or  mottled. 

An  important  point  is  the  time  during  which  the  iron  is  left  in  contact  with  the  hot 
coke  in  a  foundry  cupola,  also  the  temperature  of  melting,  as  this  latter  decides  the  total 
amount  of  carbon  taken  up.  On  remelting  pig  or  cast  iron,  the  primary  condition 
of  the  carbon  is  important  in  influencing  the  grade  and  strength  of  the  material  pro- 
duced. The  quicker  the  cooling,  the  more  closely  compacted  the  form  of  the  carbon, 
and  therefore  the  greater  the  strength  and  durability  of  the  metal. 

Foundry  Irons. — The  total  carbon  in  No.  1  pig  iron  is  about  3.60%,  of  which 
0.10%  will  be  combined. 

In  No.  2  pig  iron  the  total  carbon  is  about  3.50%,  of  which  about  0.20%  will  be 
combined. 

In  No.  3  pig  iron  the  total  carbon  is  about  4.00%,  of  which  about  1.00%  will  be 
combined. 

In  No.  4  pig  iron  the  total  carbon  is  about  4.00%,  of  which  about  2.00%  will  be 
combined. 

Silicon. — This  element  diminishes  the  power  of  carbon  to  unite  with  iron,  and  tends 
to  cause  the  separation  of  carbon  as  graphite,  especially  when  the  metal  is  slowly  cooled 
from  a  white  heat.  It  increases  the  fluidity  of  cast  iron,  while  decreasing  its  strength. 
As  compared  with  carbon,  the  silicide  FeSi  dissolves  readily  in  the  iron,  and,  like  the 
carbide,  hardens  the  metal,  but  to  a  much  less  extent  than  the  carbide,  approximately 
5%  silicon  being  the  same  as  1%  carbon,  so  that  if  silicon  be  added  to  iron,  there 
being  no  other  constituents  present,  the  tendency  is  to  give  a  hard  metal,  but  silicon 
has  an  indirect  influence  which  is  of  much  greater  importance  in  that  it  expels  the 
carbon  from  combination  and  throws  it  into  the  graphitic  form. 

Gray  iron  castings,  having  moderately  large  crystals,  therefore,  rich  in  graphitic 
carbon,  are  commonly  those  of  high  silicon  content,  cast  in  sand,  and  slowly  cooled. 
Silicon  in  moderate  quantity  added  to  cast  iron  diminishes  the  hardness,  increases  the 
tensile  strength,  increases  the  resistance  to  crushing,  increases  the  density,  prevents 
the  formation  of  blow  holes,  and  diminishes  the  shrinkage. 

Shrinkage  appears  to  closely  follow  the  hardness  of  cast  iron,  and  as  both  hardness 
and  shrinkage  depend  on  the  proportion  of  combined  carbon  they  may  be  regulated  by 
the  addition  of  silicon. 

[443] 


PROPERTIES  OF  PIG  IRON 

Silicon  in  No.  1  pig  iron  will  average  2.50%  and  upwards.  No.  2  pig  iron  will 
range  between  2.25%  and  2.75%,  averaging  about  2.50%.  No.  3  pig  iron  will  range 
between  0.75%  and  200%,  averaging  about  1.60%.  No.  4  pig  iron  will  range  between 
0.80%  and  2.00%,  averaging  about  1.60%. 

Silicon  Pig. — This  alloy  when  made  in  the  blast  furnace  is  from  highly  silicious  ores, 
at  a  temperature  much  higher  than  for  ordinary  foundry  irons;  the  blast  must  be  much 
stronger  to  quickly  burn  the  excess  of  fuel  supplied.  Silicon  is  not  reduced  by  carbonic 
oxide  or  incandescent  carbon  alone  except  in  the  presence  of  molten  iron,  with  which  it 
readily  enters  into  combination,  the  resulting  product  being  a  silicon  pig,  containing 
from  3  to  10%  silicon,  depending  upon  the  quality  of  the  ores.  According  to  Turner 
the  maximum  resistance  to  tension,  bending,  and  crushing  pig  iron  is  attained  by 
proportions  of  silicon  varying  from  1.5  to  3%.  Pig  iron  containing  2  to  3% 
of  silicon  is  softer  than  other  irons,  hence  silicon  iron  is  used  in  admixture  with  other 
brands  of  pig  iron  in  the  foundry  to  produce  soft  gray  castings. 

Manganese. — This  element  is  always  present  in  pig  iron;  it  increases  the  power  of 
carbon  to  combine  chemically  with  iron  at  high  temperatures,  the  effect  of  which  is  to 
change  the  characteristic  coarse  grain  of  gray  iron  to  a  finer  grain;  the  percentage  of 
combined  carbon  will  be  greater,  the  iron  will  be  much  harder,  and  if  the  percentage  of 
manganese  be  sufficiently  increased  a  white  iron  will  result.  Manganese  is  more  readily 
oxidized  than  is  iron,  it  therefore  unites  with  oxygen  in  the  liquid  iron  and  acts  as  a 
deoxidizer,  it  also  counteracts  the  bad  effects  of  sulphur,  thus  preventing  red  shortness, 
but  it  does  not  prevent  the  cold  shortness  due  to  phosphorus.  The  compounds  of  iron 
and  manganese  are  limited  in  composition  as  shown  by  the  crystalline  forms  so  charac- 
teristic of  spiegeleisen,  but  with  increase  in  manganese  the  crystals  are  greatly  modified, 
they  are  much  smaller  and  less  brilliant.  Sulphur  present  as  iron  sulphide  in  pig  iron 
will  undergo  decomposition  by  manganese  and  a  manganese  sulphide  formed,  thus 
liberating  the  iron  which  was  in  combination  with  the  sulphur.  The  bad  effects  of 
sulphur,  which  are  to  render  iron  red  short  hard  and  brittle,  as  also  its  power  of  reducing 
oxide  of  iron,  are  thus  counteracted  by  the  manganese  sulphide  which,  not  being  as 
soluble  in  iron  as  in  iron  sulphide,  passes  into  the  slag. 

Spiegeleisen. — Manganese  combines  with  iron  in  nearly  all  proportions,  the  two 
best  known  alloys  are  spiegeleisen  and  ferro-manganese.  This  alloy  much  used  in  steel 
making  is  not  used  in  foundry  practice,  except  in  special  cases.  Foundry  irons  do  not 
often  contain  more  than  4.0%  total  carbon;  spiegeleisen  will  have  5.0  to  6.0%  total 
carbon;  the  manganese  content  will  approximate  15.0%  in  combination  with  5.0% 
carbon  up  to  30.0%  with  6.0%  carbon. 

Ferromanganese. — This  alloy  differs  from  spiegeleisen  in  its  having  a  much  higher 
percentage  of  manganese,  of  which  the  lower  limit  is  25  to  30%;  its  higher  limit 
extends  to  85  or,  in  some  instances,  to  90%.  Commercial  needs  cover  nearly  all  pro- 
portions up  to  80%  manganese,  in  combination  with  5  to  7%  of  iron.  An  alloy  with 
40%  manganese  will  have  a  carbon  content  of  4.5  to  5.0%,  which  is  more  carbon 
than  ordinary  pig  iron  contains.  This  higher  carbon  content  over  that  of  ordinary 
pig  iron  is  due  to  the  influence  of  the  manganese  present  which  increases  the  power  of 
the  iron  to  absorb  more  carbon. 

Silicon-spiegel. — Silicon  is  always  present  in  ferromanganese  as  it  is  a  constant 
constituent  in  pig  iron;  it  has  a  marked  effect  upon  steel  in  promoting  the  solubility  of 
gases  and  by  reducing  a  part  of  the  iron  oxide.  In  silicon-spiegel,  which  is  an  alloy  of 
iron,  manganese,  silicon  and  carbon,  notwithstanding  the  presence  of  a  large  amount 
of  manganese,  the  silicon  prevents  carbonization  taking  place  by  expelling  the  carbon 
from  combination  and  throwing  it  into  the  graphitic  form.  This  alloy  is  seldom  used 
in  the  foundry,  but  it  is  useful  in  the  manufacture  of  steel  and  steel  castings. 

Oxygen  and  Manganese. — Manganese  prevents  the  oxidation  of  iron  when  in  the 
molten  state,  but  as  manganese  is  more  oxidizable  than  iron,  the  more  readily  does  it 
combine  with  oxygen,  passing  into  the  slag  with  silica,  thus  protecting  the  other  con- 
stituents in  the  iron  from  oxidation.  Manganese  is  reduced  from  its  oxide  at  a  white 
heat,  while  silica  is  unaffected,  showing  that  manganese  has  a  lower  affinity  for  oxygen 
than  silicon. 

Sulphur. — This  element  is  always  present  in  pig  iron;  its  tendency  is  to  make  the 

[444] 


PROPERTIES  OF  PIG  IRON 

metal  hard,  brittle,  and  weak.  The  indirect  action  of  sulphur  is  exactly  opposite  to  that 
of  silicon;  that  is,  it  tends  to  retain  the  carbon  in  the  combined  condition.  When  sul- 
phur is  present  in  pig  iron  it  lowers  the  temperature  at  which  solidification  begins,  and 
as  the  cooling  progresses  the  iron  sulphide  separates  and  forms  layers  or  films  between 
the  crystals,  preventing  them  from  coalescing  and  from  breaking  up  into  ferrite  and 
graphite.  These  sulphide  films  are  very  thin,  and  a  very  small  quantity  of  sulphur  thus 
present  will  make  iron  brittle.  Dr.  Moldenke  states  that,  taking  the  three  arbitrary 
divisions  of  gray  iron  castings,  the  light,  medium  and  the  heavy,  a  limit  should  be 
placed  in  the  sulphur  at  0.08,  0.10,  0.12  respectively. 

Sulphur  has  a  well-known  influence  in  increasing  the  depth  of  "  chill  "  in  solidifying 
cast  iron  against  a  metal  wall,  that  is  the  thickness  of  metal  free  from  graphitic  carbon 
produced  by  the  cooling  action  of  that  wall.  Its  other  influences  are  harmful  as  it 
increases  shrinkage,  causes  the  molten  metal  to  be  sluggish  and  induces  unsoundness. 

Phosphorus. — When  present  in  iron  ores  occurs  chiefly  as  phosphate  of  lime;  as  but 
little  phosphorus  is  oxidized  in  the  blast  furnace,  nearly  all  that  contained  in  the  ores 
finds  its  way  into  the  pig  iron.  Phosphorus  combines  with  a  carbonless  iron  to  form  a 
phosphide  Fe3P,  which  is  soluble  in  iron  up  to  1.7%;  beyond  this,  free  phosphide 
separates  out  and  forms  an  eutectic,  and  this  is  the  form  in  which  it  occurs  in  cast  iron. 

The  percentage  of  carbon  in  pig  iron  containing  much  phosphorus  is  lower  than  in 
that  containing  no  phosphorus.  Owing  to  the  low  melting  point  of  the  phosphide, 
eutectic  iron  high  in  phosphorus  is  extremely  fluid  and  gives  fine  castings,  but  the  metal 
is  brittle.  For  fine  castings  in  which  strength  is  not  important  1.50%  phosphorus 
may  be  employed,  the  metal  will  not  only  be  very  fluid,  but  the  phosphorus  lessens  the 
shrinkage  of  the  castings. 

The  presence  of  a  large  amount  of  carbon  in  cast  iron  is  a  means  of  liberating  phos- 
phorus held  in  solution,  causing  it  to  pass  into  an  eutectic  condition  in  gray  cast  iron, 
even  if  the  metal  contains  less  than  the  1.7%  phosphorus  needed  to  saturate  the 
iron.  Phosphorus  has  little  effect  on  the  condition  of  the  carbon,  but  it  makes  the 
metal  harder  and  diminishes  the  color  of  gray  iron.  When  phosphorus  does  not 
exceed  1.7%  the  metal  is  comparatively  strong  but  an  addition  of  0.35%  reduces 
the  strength.  For  strong  castings  the  phosphorus  should  not  materially  exceed 
0.50%.  The  general  influence  of  phosphorus  is  to  increase  the  fluidity  of  iron  and 
thus  insure  castings  accurate  as  to  size,  because  phosphorus  lessens  the  shrinkage  on 
solidifying,  it  also  produces  a  sounder  casting;  but  phosphorus  in  excess  of  about  1.50% 
has  another  influence,  and  that  is  to  weaken  iron,  to  diminish  its  hardness,  and  to  render 
it  cold  short.  As  a  rule  pig  irons  should  not,  in  a  cupola  mixture,  average  more  than 
1.0%  phosphorus  for  the  ordinary  run  of  machinery  castings,  below  0.50%  the  iron 
will  not  be  sufficiently  fluid,  and  with  more  than  1.50%  medium  and  small  castings 
will  be  too  brittle. 

Foundry  Irons. — Phosphorus  in  No.  1  pig  iron  ranges  from  0.50  to  1.25%,  often 
higher.  No.  2  pig  iron  ranges  from  0.40  to  1.00%.  No.  3  pig  iron  ranges  from  0.40  to 
0.80%.  -No.  4  pig  iron  contains  about  0.40%,  or  less. 

United  States  Navy  specifications  require  0.50  to  0.80%  in  Nos.  1  and  2  pig 
irons,  and  0.50  to  0.90%  in  No.  3  iron.  For  No.  4  charcoal  iron  the  maximum  phos- 
phorus is  0.30%. 

Grading  Pig  Iron. — Pig  iron  is  sold  in  the  market  in  five  grades,  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  4  and  5. 
Besides  there  are  special  grades  established  recently  but  used  extensively,  namely: 
Low  phosphorous  and  sulphur  iron  used  in  the  open-hearth  and  Bessemer  process. 
Silicized  iron  containing  4  to  7%  of  silicon  is  also  made  to  soften  other  irons  and  to  make 
them  run  liquid. 

The  following  chemical  analysis  and  physical  characteristics  of  Pennsylvania  pig 
irons  are  by  John  Hartman. 


[445] 


GRADES  OF  PIG  IRON 


ANALYSIS  OF  STANDARD 

No.  1  Pig  Iron. 

Iron. 92.37%  Gray.     A  large,  dark,  open  grain  iron,  softest 

Graphitic  Carbon .....  3 . 52  of  all  the  numbers  and  used  exclusively  in 

Combined  Carbon 0.13  the  foundry.     Tensile  strength,  low.    Elastic 

Silicon 2 . 44  limit,     low.     Fracture,    rough.     Turns    soft 

Phosphorus 1 . 25  and  tough. 

Sulphur 0.02 

Manganese 0.28 

No.  2  Pig  Iron 

Iron 92.31%  Gray.     A  mixed  large  and  small  dark  grain, 

Graphitic  Carbon 2.99  harder  than  No.  1  iron  and  used  exclusively 

Combined  Carbon 0.37  in  the  foundry.     Tensile  strength  and  elastic 

Silicon 2.52  limit    higher    than    No.     1.     Fracture,   less 

Phosphorus 1.08  rough  than  No.  1.     Turns  harder,  less  tough 

Sulphur 0.02  and  more  brittle  than  No.  1. 

Manganese ' 0 . 72 

No.  3  Pig  Iron 

Iron 94.66%  Gray.     Small,  gray,  close  grain,  harder  than 

Graphitic  Carbon .....  2.50  No.  2  iron,  used  either  in  the  rolling  mill 

Combined  Carbon 1 . 52  or    foundry.     Tensile    strength    and   elastic 

Silicon 0.72  limit  higher  than  No.  2.     Turns  harder,  less 

Phosphorus 0.26  tough  and  more  brittle  than  No.  2. 

Sulphur Trace 

Manganese 0 . 34 

No.  4  Pig  Iron 

A  B 

Iron.  . 94.48%  94.08%     Mottled.    White  background,  dotted  closely 

Graphitic  Carbon 2.02        2.02        with  small  black  spots  of  graphitic  carbon, 

Combined  Carbon 1 . 98         1 . 43        little  or  no  grain.    Used  exclusively  in  the 

Silicon 0.56        0.92        rolling  mill.     Tensile  strength  and  elastic 

Phosphorus 0.19        0.04        limit  lower  than  No.  3.     Turns  with   dif- 

Sulphur 0 . 08        0 . 04        ficulty,  less  tough  and  more  brittle  than 

Manganese 0.67        2.02        No.  3.     The  manganese  in  this    (B)   pig 

iron  replaces  part  of  the  combined  carbon, 
making  the  iron  harder  and  closing  the 
grain  notwithstanding  the  lower  combined 
carbon. 


Iron.  . 


94.68% 


Combined  Carbon 3 . 83 

Silicon 0.41 

Phosphorus 0 . 04 

Sulphur 0.02 

Manganese 0 . 98 


Malleable  iron  contains . 
Steely  iron  contains .... 

Steel  contains 

Hard  steel  contains .... 


No.  5  Pig  Iron 

White.  Smooth,  white  fracture,  no  grain, 
used  exclusively  in  the  rolling  mill.  Tensile 
strength  and  elastic  limit  much  lower  than 
No.  4.  Too  hard  to  turn  and  more  brittle 
than  No.  4. 


Per  Cent 
Combined  Carbon 

0.25 

0.35 

0.50 

.     1  to  1.50 

[416] 


GRADES  OF  PIG  IRON 

Taking  the  sum  of  the  graphitic  and  combined  carbon  in  each  quality  of  pig  iron 
they  are  practically  the  same,  the  softness  of  pig  iron  is  dependent  on  the  amount  of 
graphitic  carbon  in  it.  Separating  the  iron  in  the  No.  1  pig  from  the  graphitic  carbon 
it  is  a  nearly  pure  iron  embedded  in  the  graphitic  carbon,  and  in  the  absence  of 
combined  carbon,  gives  it  the  softness  and  flexibility  that  makes  it  desirable  for 
machinery  and  other  purposes.  The  grains  of  iron  are  crude  crystals.  When  the  iron 
is  nearly  pure  and  allowed  to  cool  very  slowly,  regular  octahedral  crystals  of  iron  are 
formed. 

No.  1  Pig  Iron  may  be  defined  as  being  composed  of  grains  of  wrought  iron  con- 
nected together  but  embedded  in  graphite. 

No.  2  Pig  Iron  has  more  combined  carbon,  which  converts  the  wrought  iron  into  a 
soft  steel  harder  to  the  tool  working  it. 

No.  3  Pig  Iron  has  more  combined  carbon,  and  the  iron  portion  is  a  crude  steel 
harder  to  the  tool  working  it. 

Nos.  4  and  5  are  virtually  crude,  high-combined  carbon  steel.  The  numbers  here 
given,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  are  the  old  standard. 

If  the  impurities  in  pig  iron  were  uniform,  which  would  be  the  case  if  there  were  only 
one  kind  of  ore  and  fuel,  the  proper  plan  would  be  to  buy  iron  by  chemical  analysis  on  a 
basis  of  graphitic  and  combined  carbon,  but  the  impurities  so  change  the  character 
that  the  eye  is  found  to  be  the  best  guide  so  far  hi  fixing  the  grade.  In  running  the  end 
of  the  fingers  over  a  fracture  of  a  pig  of  iron,  if  the  ends  of  the  grains  tear  the  fingers 
the  iron  is  strong. 

The  analysis  (B)  of  No.  4  Pig  Iron  shows  low  in  combined  carbon,  but  the  manganese 
hardens  the  iron  and  changes  it  from  gray  to  mottled  iron. 

No.  1  Hot-blast  Charcoal  Iron 
Grand  Rivers,  Ky. 

Silicon 1.955% 

Sulphur .029 

Phosphorus 488 

Manganese .  213 

Graphitic  Carbon 3 . 310 

Combined  Carbon 460 

Iron 93.545 

The  pigs  of  this  iron  bend  before  breaking.  The  ends  of  the  grain  are  sharp  and 
tear  the  fingers.  On  breaking  this  iron  the  pig  when  it  strikes  the  breaking  blocks 
emits  a  dull  thud  like  lead.  It  is  an  iron  of  high  tensile  strength  and  well  adapted  for 
making  car  wheels.  The  bending  of  pigs  is  not  confined  to  charcoal  iron.  Coke  and 
anthracite  irons  do  the  same  when  using  good  stock  and  running  the  furnace  at  the 
proper  temperature. 


[447] 


FOUNDRY  PIG  IRON 


FOUNDRY  PIG  IRON 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General  Instructions. — General  instructions  or  specifications  issued  by  the  bureau 
concerned  shall  form  part  of  these  specifications. 

2.  Grades. — There  shall  be  four  grades  of  pig  iron  conforming  to  the  requirements 
stated  below. 

3.  Chemical  Requirements. — The  chemical  requirements  shall  be  as  follows: 


Grade 

Carbon 

(Mini- 
mum) 

Silicon 

Sulphur 
(Maxi- 
mum) 

Phosphorus 

Manganese 

Remarks 

Per  Ct. 

Per  Cent 

Per  Ct. 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

No.  1. 

3.50 

2.  75  to  3.  25 

0.04 

0.50  to  0.80 

0.50  to    .90 

No.  2. 

3.25 

2.00to2.50 

.05 

.50  to    .80 

.50  to    .90 

No.  3. 

3.25 

1.25  to  1.75. 

.06 

.50  to    .90 

.50  to    .90 

No.  4. 

3.25 

1.50to2.00j 

.03 

.30  max. 

.75  to  1.25 

Charcoal  iron 

4.  Purpose  for  Which  Used. — Grade  1  is  suitable  for  general  foundry  purposes.     It 
may  be  used  for  either  heavy  or  light  castings  which  are  to  be  machined. 

Grade  2  is  suitable  for  marine  engine  cylinders,  turbine  casings,  and  work  of  similar 
character. 

Grade  3  is  suitable  for  hard,  close-grained  castings,  which  are  to  be  machined,  where 
great  strength  is  required.  It  may  also  be  used  with  Grades  1  and  2  in  varying  propor- 
tions as  the  work  requires. 

Grade  4  is  suitable  for  use  with  Grades  1,  2,  and  3  where  castings  of  great  strength 
or  high  finish  are  desired. 

5.  Sampling. — The  sample  is  to  be  taken  as  follows: 

One  pig  shall  be  taken  for  every  4  tons  in  the  lot,  chosen  from  different  locations 
so  as  to  represent  as  nearly  as  possible  the  average  quality  of  the  iron.  The  pigs  selected 
for  sampling  shall  each  be  drilled  with  two  ^-inch  holes,  spaced  about  \  the  length  of 
pig  from  each  end.  The  holes  shall  run  from  bottom  to  top  of  the  pig,  the  drillings 
of  the  first  j  inch  to  be  discarded,  and  the  drill  to  be  stopped  about  f  inch  from  the  top 
of  the  pig.  All  drillings  from  the  same  lot  to  be  thoroughly  mixed,  and  analysis  made 
from  this  sample;  no  resampling  to  be  allowed. 

6.  Method  of  Analysis. — The  inspector  at  the  place  of  manufacture  shall  forward 
to  the  navy-yard  requiring  the  pig  iron  not  less  than  6  ounces  of  the  sample,  taken  and 
mixed  as  above,  for  analyses  and  recommendation  as  to  acceptance.     In  case  the 
first  analysis  shows  that  the  material  does  not  conform  to  the  specifications  a  check 
analysis  shall  be  made.      The  average  of   these  analyses  shall  be  considered  final. 
Analyses  shall  be  made  according  to  the  standard  method  of  the  American  Foundry- 
men's  Association,  the  gravimetric  method  being  used  for  determination  of  sulphur. 
Each  bidder  shall  state  in  his  proposal  the  composition  of  the  pig  iron  he  proposes  to 
furnish  if  awarded  the  contract. 

7.  Penalties. — SILICON. — For  each  0.01  per  cent  below  minimum  content  specified 
a  penalty  of  $0.02  per  ton  to  be  exacted.    If  the  silicon  content  is  below  the  specified 
content  by  more  than  0.10  per  cent  the  pig  iron  will  be  rejected. 

SULPHUR. — For  each  0.002  per  cent  above  maximum  content  specified,  a  penalty  of 
$0.10  per  ton  to  be  exacted.  If  the  sulphur  content  exceeds  the  specified  content  by 
more  than  0.01  per  cent,  the  pig  iron  will  be  rejected. 

8.  Locality. — When  it  becomes  necessary  for  a  navy-yard  to  obtain  pig  iron  from  a 
particular  locality  to  insure  the  best  results  in  the  foundry,  the  requisition  should  state 
whether  Northern,  Virginia,  or  Southern  iron  is  desired. 

9.  Sow  Iron. — Not  more  than  12  per  cent  of  sow  iron  will  be  allowed,  and  this  must 
be  of  size  to  be  easily  handled. 

[448] 


CHEMICAL  CHANGES  IN  CUPOLA 


CHEMICAL  CHANGES  IN  THE  CUPOLA 

The  foundry  cupola  is  a  melting  and  not  a  refining  furnace.  The  chemical  changes 
which  take  place  in  it  are  of  secondary  importance  to  results  sought  by  melting  and 
mixing  irons  to  produce  a  metal  having  properties  suited  to  the  work  in  hand. 

Pig  irons  contain  carbon,  silicon,  manganese,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  which  are  chemi- 
cally combined  with  the  iron,  and  these  must  be  dissociated  before  any  oxidation  be 
begun.  In  the  combustion  zone  opposite  the  tuyeres  is  a  mass  of  burning  coke  into 
which  the  blast  is  projected,  combustion  is  quickened,  and  the  heat  thus  generated 
melts  the  charge  of  pig  iron  immediately  above.  As  the  metal  melts  it  passes  down 
through  the  combustion  zone  and  accumulates  in  the  hearth  below.  The  falling  metal 
is  in  small  globules  or  drops,  and  when  these  drops  pass  the  tuyeres,  where  there  is 
always  an  abundant  supply  of  free  oxygen,  there  must  be  more  or  less  of  oxidizing 
action  upon  the  iron  and  its  contained  elements  in  solution. 

Carbon  in  foundry  irons  is  mostly  in  the  graphitic  state  and  as  sucji  easily  oxidized. 
But  any  such  oxidation  is  offset  by  the  drops  of  iron  coming  in  contact  with  red  hot  coke 
and  thus  taking  up  additional  carbon,  so  that,  instead  of  diminishing  the  total  carbon, 
it  happens  that  the  iron  flowing  from  the  cupola  contains  quite  as  much  carbon  as  was 
present  in  the  pig  iron,  and  possibly  more. 

Silicon  undergoes  oxidation  during  the  melting  process,  it  is  to  be  expected,  there- 
fore, that  the  iron  as  cast  will  contain  less  silicon  than  the  pig,  because  0.25  to 
0.40%  will  have  been  burned  out  of  it  during  the  melting  of  the  iron,  and  proper 
allowance  for  this  wastage  must  be  allowed  for  in  the  charge. 

Manganese  is  more  oxidizable  than  iron,  it  more  readily  unites  with  oxygen  and  thus 
retards  the  oxidation  of  iron;  during  the  process  of  cupola  melting  manganese  volatilizes 
to  some  extent,  but  the  quantity  present  in  foundry  pig  iron  is  never  large  and  its  in- 
fluence in  the  cupola  is  not  important.  Its  tendency  is,  however,  to  counteract  the  bad 
effects  of  sulphur,  and  to  increase  the  solvent  power  for  carbon  at  high  temperatures  and 
to  prevent  the  separation  of  graphite  at  lower  ones.  It  also  assists  in  making  a  more 
fusible  slag  by  the  readiness  with  which  it  unites  with  silica. 

Sulphur  is  always  present  in  pig  iron.  Irons  high  in  silicon  are  usually  low  in 
sulphur;  the  latter  is  always  present  as  ferrous  sulphide  which  is  readily  soluble  in 
molten  iron.  The  tendency  of  sulphur  is  to  keep  the  carbon  in  the  combined  condi- 
tion, the  effect  of  which  is  to  make  castings  hard  and  brittle.  Coke  always  contains 
sulphur  and  during  the  process  of  combustion  it  unites  with  oxygen  forming  sulphurous 
oxide,  which  passes  off  with  the  other  products  of  combustion  into  the  open  air.  Sul- 
phur in  the  pig  iron  as  charged  is  not  reduced;  during  the  process  of  cupola  melting, 
in  fact,  the  iron  may  take  up  0.02  to  0.03%  sulphur  from  the  coke ;  castings  from 
pig  irons  containing  0 . 08 %  sulphur  may  contain  0. 10%  sulphur,  especially  during  the 
first  of  the  heat. 

Phosphorus  passes  through  the  melting  process  in  the  cupola  unoxidized;  whatever 
phosphorus  is  contained  in  the  pig  iron  as  charged  will  be  present  in  the  molten  iron 
flowing  from  the  cupola. 

Foundry  Coke. — An  excellent  quality  of  coke  for  foundry  use  is  such  as  made  in  the 
Connellsville  region,  Pennsylvania;  its  characteristics  are:  steel-gray  color,  a  metallic 
luster,  columnar,  very  strong,  dense,  slightly  puffed  on  the  surface,  burns  free  under  a 
strong  blast,  and  will  support  any  necessary  weight  of  iron  above  it,  in  a  cupola,  without 
crushing.  Such  a  coke,  after  expulsion  of  moisture,  averages  about  90.0%  fixed  car- 
bon, no  volatile  matter,  10.0%  ash;  the  latter  consisting  of  about  58.0%  silica, 
35.0%  alumina,  2.0%  sesquioxide  of  iron,  1.5%  lime,  2.0%  sulphur,  1.0%  other 
constituents,  such  as  magnesia,  potash,  soda,  phosphoric  acid,  etc.  The  quantity  of 
sulphur  in  the  ash  will  depend  largely  upon  the  quantity  of  pyrites  in  the  coal  before 
coking.  Pyrites  is  also  the  probable  source  of  the  oxide  of  lime  in  ashes;  the  greater 
part  of  the  sulphur  being  expelled  by  heat  during  the  process  of  coking,  its  equivalent 
of  oxygen  unites  with  the  iron,  with  which  hydrogen  also  combines,  forming  the  sesqui- 
oxide of  iron. 

Alumina  present  in  ashes  is  in  the  form  of  a  clay  or  a  mixture  of  the  two  simple 

[449] 


CHEMICAL  CHANGES  IN  CUPOLA 

earths,  alumina  and  silica,  generally  tinged  with  iron,  it  is  infusible  in  the  cupola. 
Silica  is  decomposed  at  a  red  heat  by  carbon  in  presence  of  iron  and  at  white  heat  by 
carbon  monoxide,  CO,  a  metallic  silicide  being  formed ;  it  plays  a  very  important  part 
in  the  formation  of  slags,  and  fusion  is  not  necessarily  required  to  produce  combination. 
The  bases  which  most  frequently  occur  in  slags  are  lime,  magnesia,  oxide  of  iron,  potash 
in  small  quantity,  and  alumina. 

Calorific  Value  of  Coke. — The  total  heat  obtained  by  the  combustion  of  1  pound  of 
carbon,  in  oxygen  to  carbon  dioxide  CO2,  as  determined  by  calorimeter  test,  varies  in  a 
slight  degree  from  14500  B.t.u.,  that  value  may,  therefore,  be  accepted  as  a  fan*  average. 
If  the  coke  is  90.0%  carbon  we  have  14500  X  0.9  =  13050  B.t.u.  as  the  total 
calorific  value  of  1  pound  of  coke.  A  result  such  as  this  is  never  realized  in  practice, 
instead  of  the  carbon  being  burnt  to  carbon  dioxide  CO2,  yielding  14500  B.t.u.,  it  may 
be  burnt  to  carbon  monoxide  CO,  the  calorific  value  of  which  is  4450  B.t.u.,  approxi- 
mately one-third  of  the  former.  Gases  escaping  from  the  cupola  show  about  equal 
volumes  of  CO2  and  CO,  the  calorific  value  of  the  carbon  suffers  loss  to  the  extent  of: 
(14500  X  .5)  +  (4450  X  .5)  =  9475  B.t.u.,  equivalent  to  65%  thermal  efficiency. 

The  temperature  at  the  melting  zone  in  the  cupola  may  be  estimated  thus:  For 
perfect  combustion  1  pound  of  carbon  will  require  2 . 67  pounds  of  oxygen,  yielding  3 . 67 
pounds  carbon  dioxide  CO2.  In  addition  there  will  be  8.94  pounds  of  nitrogen  left 
after  the  separation  of  the  oxygen  from  the  air.  The  specific  heat  of  carbon  dioxide 
CO  2  is  0 . 216,  and  that  of  nitrogen  0 . 244.  We  have  then : 

Specific  Heat 

Products                                                                    Pounds             Heat  Units 

Carbon  dioxide  CO2 3.67       X       .216  =         .794 

Nitrogen 8.94       X       .244  =       2. 181 


12.61  2.975 

heat  units  absorbed  in  raising  the  temperature  of  the  products  of  combustion  of  1 
pound  of  carbon,  1°  F.  The  combined  weights  of  the  two  products  are  12.61  pounds. 
Then:  2.975  -J-  12.61  =  0.236,  their  mean  specific  heat.  Dividing  the  total  heat  of 
combustion  of  1  pound  of  carbon  by  the  heat  units  absorbed,  as  above,  we  have:  14500 
-T-  2.975  =  4874°  F.;  the  highest  theoretical  temperature  attainable  by  11.61  pounds 
of  air,  the  minimum  theoretical  limit. 

This  temperature  occurs  only  opposite  the  tuyeres  and  at  the  time  of  combination. 
As  the  carbon  dioxide  CO2  rises  in  the  cupola  it  passes  through  a  bed  of  incandescent 
coke,  some  of  the  gas  takes  up  another  equivalent  of  carbon  and  carbon  monoxide  CO 
is  formed.  Upon  analyzing  the  gases  escaping  from  the  cupola  it  is  found  that  carbon 
dioxide  CO2  and  carbon  monoxide  CO  escape  in  practically  equal  volumes.  The 
temperature  is  greatly  affected  thereby,  and  may  be  estimated  per  pound  of  carbon 
thus: 

\ 

Specific  Heat 

Gas                                                                           Pounds           Heat  Units 

Carbon  dioxide  C02 1.84       X       .216  =         .397 

Carbon  monoxide  CO 1.17       X       .243  =          .284 

Nitrogen 6.71       X       .244  =       1.637 


2.318 


The  total  heat  of  1  pound  of  carbon  burnt: 
0.5  Ib.  burnt  to  CO2  =  14500  -J-  2  =  7250 
0.5  Ib.  burnt  to  CO    =    4450  ^  2  =  2225 

9475 

Then:  9475  -h  2.318  =  4087°  F.,  about  16%  less  than  in  the  earlier  example. 

[450] 


CHEMICAL  CHANGES  IN  CUPOLA 

The  heat  required  to  raise  1  pound  of  iron  to  its  melting  point  and  melt  it,  and  im- 
part sufficient  heat  to  the  molten  metal  to  keep  it  fluid  for  pouring,  is  about  625  B.t.u., 
or  2240  X  625  =  1,400,000  B.t.u.,  per  ton.  The  melting  of  iron  is  always  accompanied 
by  the  production  of  slag  consisting  principally  of  silica  and  alumina,  each  having  a 
higher  melting  point  than  iron.  The  percentage  of  slag  will  vary,  but  we  may  for  the 
purpose  of  illustration  take  the  very  low  limit  of  3.5%  of  the  weight  of  pig  iron 
melted,  or  78  pounds  of  slag  per  ton.  The  total  heat  required  to  melt  1  pound  of  slag 
at  furnace  temperature  approximates  750  B.t.u.  Then:  78  X  750  =  58500  B.t.u., 
to  be  added  to  1,400,000  =  .1,458,500  total  B.t.u.  required  per  ton  of  pig  iron  melted. 

In  estimating  the  calorific  value  of  coke,  it  was  assumed  to  be  90.0%  carbon, 
therefore  14500  X  0.90%  =  13050  B.t.u.  per  pound.  There  would  be  required  for 
2240  pounds  of  iron  1,458,500  •*•  13,050  =  111.7  pounds  of  coke.  This  corresponds 
to  the  melting  of  20  pounds  of  iron  per  pound  of  coke.  No  such  rate  of  melting  occurs 
in  any  cupola;  reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  fact  that  the  escaping  gases 
consist  in  practically  equal  volumes  of  CO2  and  CO,  and  that  the  B.t.u.  had  been 
reduced  from  14,500  to  9,475  per  pound  of  carbon.  We  have  then  9,475  X  90.0%  = 
8,527  B.t.u.  per  pound  of  coke,  and  1,458,500  -5-  8,527  =  171  pounds  of  coke  per  ton 
of  iron  melted,  or  13  pounds  of  iron  melted  per  pound  of  coke,  on  the  carbon  basis  alone. 

Excess  of  Air. — In  estimating  the  calorific  value  of  1  pound  of  carbon  in  which 
14,500  B.t.u.  were  obtained,  it  was  stated  that  11.61  pounds  of  air  were  used,  a  much 
smaller  quantity  than  obtains  in  practice.  Probably  no  less  than  18  pounds  of  air 
are  blown  into  the  cupola  for  each  pound  of  coke  burnt;  this  air  has  to  be  heated  to  the 
temperature  of  the  escaping  gases,  and  one  bad  feature  about  it  is  that  the  abstraction 
of  heat  occurs  in  the  melting  zone,  thus  depriving  the  furnace  of  heat  which  otherwise 
would  be  usefully  employed  in  melting  iron.  This  dilution  of  gases  in  the  cupola  re- 
duces its  efficiency  and  is  one  of  the  reasons  for  its  lower  melting  capacity,  reducing  the 
ratio  of  13  to  1  as  given  above  to  10  to  1,  a  good  working  ratio  and  much  better  than 
obtains  in  many  foundries. 

Temperature  of  Escaping  Gases. — This  will  vary  with  each  cupola;  beginning 
with  the  temperature  of  the  melting  zone,  the  gases  lose  heat  in  their  passage  upward 
through  the  successive  layers  of  iron  and  coke,  constituting  the  cupola  charge.  A 
reduction  in  temperature  occurs  during  the  inevitable  breaking  down  of  carbon  dioxide 
CO 2  and  the  formation  of  carbon  monoxide  CO.  There  is  also  an  excess  of  air  in  the 
cupola  which  carries  with  it  a  temperature  corresponding  to  that  of  the  fuel  gases,  this 
excess  of  air  maybe  anywhere  from  50  to  100%  of  that  necessary  for  combustion. 
The  presence  of  moisture  in  the  air;  in  the  coke;  on  the  surface  of  the  iron  to  be  melted; 
the  melting  of  the  several  constituents  which  form  the  slag;  the  radiation  of  heat  from 
the  cupola  itself,  all  these  tend  to  reduction  of  temperature  of  escaping  gases,  which 
for  a  well  proportioned  cupola  may,  in  the  absence  of  pyrometer  test,  be  reckoned  at 
1600°  F. 

Slag. — This  is  a  fused  compound  of  silica  in  combination  with  lime,  or  other  bases; 
slag  produced  in  the  cupola  will  vary  in  composition  with  the  irons  being  melted.  Silicon 
is  easily  oxidizable  and  forms  silica.  Most  pig  irons  are  cast  in  sand  and  a  certain 
amount  of  sand,  say  1.0%  attaches  to  the  outer  surface  of  the  pig;  this  sand  is  nearly 
all  silica.  Coke  consists  of  about  50.0%  ash,  and  this  ash  contains  about  50.0%  silica. 
When  iron  is  oxidized  ferrous  oxide  is  formed,  and  this  oxide  combines  with  silica 
forming  silicate  of  iron,  or  slag. 

Flux. — In  order  to  promote  the  fusion  of  non-metallic  substances  during  the  process 
of  melting  iron  in  a  cupola  a  flux  is  employed.  For  foundry  use  calcium  carbonate 
CaCO3,  or  carbonate  of  lime  is  commonly  used,  chiefly  as  limestone,  gray  in  color,  more 
or  less  impure,  containing  clay,  sand,  and  other  substances.  If  procurable,  the  white 
marble  refuse  chips  from  a  stone  yard  are  preferable,  on  account  of  their  greater  purity. 
When  calcium  carbonate  CaCOa  is  heated  it  yields  calcium  oxide  CaO,  or  lime,  a  white 
amorphous  infusible  substance,  and  carbon  dioxide  CO2,  or  carbonic  acid  gas.  Pure 
carbonate  of  lime  CaO3  =  56%  lime  CaO  -j-  44%  carbon  dioxide  C02.  The  carbon 
dioxide  passes  off  into  the  open  as  a  gas ;  the  lime  passes  into  the  slag. 

Limestone  should  not  contain  much  silica  because  of  its  affinity  for  lime,  forming  a 
silicate  of  lime,  which  reduces  the  fluxing  value  of  the  limestone  and  increases  the 

[451] 


CHEMICAL  CHANGES  IN  CUPOLA 

quantity  of  slag.  When  the  melting  has  begun,  the  molten  iron  is  in  an  atmosphere 
containing  free  oxygen  and  oxidation  of  iron  takes  place;  some  of  the  silicon  in  the  iron 
is  also  oxidized,  and  silica  is  formed.  The  oxide  of  iron  will  combine  with  the  silica,  and 
a  silicate  of  iron  or  slag  is  formed.  The  fluid  slag  finds  its  way  down  through  the  burn- 
ing coke  and  in  its  course  it  takes  up  any  ash  present  in  the  coke,  as  well  as  the  sand  which 
adhered  to  the  pig  iron,  these,  and  other  impurities,  combine  in  a  fluid  mass  which 
floats  upon  the  molten  iron  at  the  bottom  of  the  cupola. 

If  white  marble  chips  are  used,  the  quantity  may  be,  for  reasonably  clean  pig,  about 
20  pounds  per  ton  of  iron.  For  ordinary  limestone  the  quantity  may  be  40  pounds  or 
more  to  the  ton.  Much  depends  upon  the  purity  and  cleanliness  of  the  iron  and  the 
quantity  as  well  as  the  quality  of  the  ash  from  the  coke.  If  the  iron  is  clean,  the  weight 
of  the  slag  will  be  about  the  same  as  that  of  the  limestone  charged.  For  each  56  parts 
of  lime  that  can  be  put  into  the  slag,  72  parts  of  iron  oxide,  or  56  parts  of  iron  will  be 
liberated.  Slag  from  a  cupola  contains  from  5.0  to  8.0%  of  iron,  partly  as  oxide, 
and  partly  in  small  particles  held  in  mechanical  suspension. 

Fluorspar. — This  substance  derives  its  name  from  its  power  to  effect  the  liquefaction 
of  earthy  substances.  It  is  a  combination  of  1  part  calcium  Ca  with  2  parts  fluorine  F, 
the  formula  being  CaF2.  This  compound  occurs  in  large  quantities  in  nature  in  crys- 
tallized cubes;  it  is  insoluble  in  water.  If  it  be  strongly  heated  in  contact  with  silica, 
the  latter  takes  up  the  fluorine  to  form  the  gas  silicon  fluoride  SiF4,  whilst  the  calcium 
and  oxygen  unite  to  produce  lime,  which  combines  with  another  portion  of  the  silica  to 
form  a  silicate  of  lime.  The  silicate  of  lime  would  not  easily  fuse  into  a  slag  by  itself, 
but  when  clay  and  oxide  of  iron  are  present,  a  slag  is  readily  produced.  It  is  used  in 
metallurgical  operations  for  the  reason  that  it  melts  readily  into  a  transparent  liquid 
which  does  not  act  upon  other  substances  easily;  it  serves  as  a  liquid  medium  in  which 
reactions  take  place  at  high  temperatures.  For  foundry  use  it  serves  no  useful  purpose 
that  cannot  be  had  by  the  use  of  white  marble  chips  or  first  quality  limestone  except 
perhaps  to  increase  the  fluidity  of  the  slag. 

FUEL  EFFICIENCY  OF  THE  CUPOLA  FURNACE 

The  heat  balance  in  melting  80,000  pounds  of  pig  iron  in  a  60-inch  cupola  is  thus 
given  by  John  Jermain  Porter,  Trans.,  Am.  Inst.  Mining  Engrs.,  1912.  The  cupola 
selected  operated  under  fairly  efficient  conditions;  the  data  are  as  follows:  Cupola, 
60  inches  in  diameter,  15  feet  high  to  the  charging  door,  with  a  9-inch  lining.  Bed 
charge,  2,000  pounds  of  coke  and  4,000  pounds  of  iron.  Subsequent  charges,  400 
pounds  of  coke  and  4,000  pounds  of  iron.  Total  number  of  charges,  20.  There  was 
800  pounds  of  coke  recovered  from  the  drop,  hence  the  total  coke  burned  is  8,800  pounds, 
or  0.11  pound  of  coke  per  pound  of  iron.  Coke  contains  90  per  cent  fixed  carbon 
and  2  per  cent  of  moisture.  300  pounds  of  kindling  wood  is  used  in  lighting.  80  pounds 
of  limestone  (95  per  cent  CaCOs)  is  used  per  charge,  0.02  pound  per  pound  of  iron. 
Melting  loss  4  per  cent;  distributed  thus:  Fe,  3.5;  Si,  0.25;  Mn,  0.25  per  cent.  Aver- 
age analysis  of  top  gases:  CO2,  15.1;  CO,  10.0  per  cent.  Average  temperature  of  top- 
gases,  1,600°  F.  Temperature  of  air  and  stock  charged  60°  F.  Dew-point  of  air,  50°  F. 
The  items  entering  into  the  total  heat  balance  and  their  calculation  are  as  follows: 

1.  Heat  of  Combustion  of  Fuel. — Total  heat  evolved  =  14,580  X  lb.  of  carbon 
burned  +  7,200  X  lb.  of  wood  burned.     Hence  B.t.u.  per  pound  of  iron  charged  = 
8,800  X  0.9  X  14,580  +  300  X  7,200 

80,000  =  M7°'4 

2.  Oxidation  of  Iron  to  FeO.— B.t.u.  per  pound  of  iron  charged  =  0.35  X  2,112 
=  74.0 

3.  Oxidation  of  Silicon  to  SiO2.— B.t.u.  per  pound  of  iron  charged  =  0.0025  X 
12,600  =  31.5 

4.  Oxidation  of  Manganese  to  MnO. — B.t.u.  per  pound  of  iron  charged  =  0 . 0025 
X  2,975  =  7.4 

5.  Sensible  Heat  in  Coke.— B.t.u.  per  pound  of  iron  charged  =0.11X60X0.16 
=  1.1 

6.  Sensible  Heat  in  Iron.— B.t.u.  per  pound  of  iron  charged  =  1X60X0.12  =  7.2 

[452] 


FUEL  EFFICIENCY  OF  CUPOLA 


7.  Sensible  Heat  in  Limestone. — B.t.u.  per  pound  of  iron  charged  =  0.02  X  60  X 
0.21  =  0.252 

8.  Sensible  Heat  in  Blast. — From  the  gas  analysis,  9  pounds  of  air  is  used  per 
pound  of  carbon  burned,  hence  B.t.u.  per  pound  of  iron  charged  =  0.11  X  0.9  X  9 
X  60  X  0.235  =  12.6. 

9.  Heat  of  Formation  of  Slag. — This  is  a  matter  of  some  uncertainty  but  is  of  minor 
importance.     The  heat  of  formation  of  CaO  +  SiO2  is  278  B.t.u.  per  pound,  and  of 
FeO  +  giO2  121  B.t.u.  per  pound,  and  if  we  assume  that  the  slag  consists  of  equal  parts 
of  each,  and  that  0 . 06  pound  of  slag  is  made  per  pound  of  iron,  the  heat  of  the  forma- 
tion of  the  slag  is  in  B.t.u.  per  pound  of  iron  charged  0.06  X  200  =  12.0. 

la.  Heat  in  Molten  Iron. — B.t.u.  per  pound  of  iron  charged  =  0.96  X  450  =  432.0. 

2a.  Heat  in  Molten  Slag.— B.t.u.  per  pound  of  slag  =  1  X  (t  X  (0. 17  +  0.00004t) 
+  latent  heat  of  fusion  +  (t/— t)  X  0.35),  where  t  =  the  melting  point  of  the  slag  or 
say,  2,000°  F.,  and  t'  =  the  temperature  at  which  it  issues  from  the  cupola  or,  say, 
2,250°  F.  Hence  B.t.u.  per  pound  of  iron  charged  =  0.06  (2,000  X  0.25  -f-  160  -f 
250  X  0.35)  =  44.8. 

3a.  Heat  to  Decompose  Limestone. — B.t.u.  per  pound  of  iron  charged  =  0.02  X 
0.95  X  813  =  15.4. 

4a.  Heat  to  Evaporate  Moisture  in  Coke. — B.t.u.  per  pound  of  iron  charged  = 
11  X  0.02  X  966  =  2.1. 

5a.  Heat  Stored  up  in  Lining. — The  weight  of  the  lining  below  the  charging  door 
figures  out  approximately  27,400  pounds.  Estimating  its  average  temperature  to  be 
1,000°  F.,  the  B.t.u.  per  pound  of  iron  charged  = 

27,400  X  1,000  X  (0.193+0.000043  X  1,000)-=  80.9. 
80,000 

6a.  Heat  to  Decompose  Moisture  of  Blast. — A  dew-point  of  50°  F.  corresponds  to 
0.0075  pound  of  water  per  pound  of  moist  air.  Hence  the  B.t.u.  per  pound  of  iron 
charged  =  9  X  0.9  X  0.11  X  0.0075  X  5,800  +  38.8. 

7a.  Heat  Sensible  in  Gases. — The  weight  of  the  gases  per  pound  of  carbon  burned 
works  out  as  follows:  CO2,  2.200;  CO,  0.933;  N,  6.910;  H,  0.007;  total,  10.050 
pounds.  The  average  specific  heat  is  0.23  +  0.000023t.  Hence  the  B.t.u.  per  pound 
of  iron  charged  =  0.11  X  0.9  X  10.05  X  1,600  X  2,668  =  424.7. 

8a.  Heat  Potential  in  Gases. — B.t.u.  per  pound  of  iron  charged  =  0.11  X  0.9 
X  0.933  X  4,370  =  403.7. 

9a.  Heat  Lost  by  Radiation  Plus  Error  and  Unaccounted  For. — This  amount  is 
found  by  difference  to  be  174.2  B.t.u.  per  pound  of  iron  charged.  Summarizing  these 
items,  we  get  the  following  heat  balance  expressed  in  B.t.u.  per  pound  of  iron  charged: 


Sources  of  Heat 


Heat  Used  and  Lost 


1.  Combustion  of  fuel.  .  .   1470.4 


2.  Oxidation  of  iron 

3.  Oxidation  of  silicon .... 

4.  Oxidation  of  manganese , 

5.  Sensible  in  coke 

6.  Sensible  in  iron 

7.  Sensible  in  limestone ... 

8.  Sensible  in  blast .  . 


..  74.0 
..  31.5 
7.4 
1.1 
7.2 
0.3 

..       12.6 
9.  Formation  of  slag 12.0 


1616.5 


la.  In  molten  iron 432 . 0 

2a.  In  molten  slag 44 . 8 

3a.  To  decompose  limestone ....  15 . 4 

4a.  To  evaporate  moisture 2.1 

5a.  To  heat  up  lining 80 . 8 

6a.  To  decompose  moisture 38.8 

7a.  Sensible  in  gases 424.7 

8a.  Potential  in  gases 403 . 7 

9a.  Radiation  and  error. .  174.2 


1616.5 


The  great  source  of  wasted  heat  in  the  cupola  is  in  the  gases  escaping  at  the  top. 
If  these  losses  could  be  eliminated  it  should  be  possible  to  charge  some  22  pounds  of 
iron  for  each  pound  of  coke,  have  the  gases  come  off  from  the  top  perfectly  cold  and 
containing  no  CO,  and  the  iron  satisfactorily  melted.  Actually  this  cannot  be  done. 

[453] 


IRON  CASTINGS 


In  the  cupola  there  is  a  deep  bed  of  carbon  (coke)  which  is  being  replenished  from 
above  as  fast  as  it  is  consumed.  Under  these  conditions,  with  carbon  always  in  excess, 
the  products  of  combustion  depend  upon  the  temperature  and  time  of  contact  of  the 
gases  with  the  excess  carbon.  The  tendency  is  towards  the  formation  of  CO  at  high 
temperatures  and  CO2  at  lower  temperatures.  Now  in  the  cupola  there  is  a  zone  im- 
mediately in  front  of  the  tuyeres  which  is  cooled  by  the  inrushing  blast  of  cold  air  and 
in  which  CO2  is  formed,  this  formation  of  CO2  being  also  aided  by  the  fact  that  in  this 
space  oxygen  is  supplied  faster  than  the  surface  of  the  coke  present  can  combine  with 
it.  Further  in  and  up  in  the  cupola  the  temperature  is  much  higher  and  conditions  are 
such  as  to  favor  the  reduction  of  the  CO2  to  CO,  according  to  the  reaction  CO2  +  C  = 
2  CO.  Time,  however,  is  necessary  for  this  reaction  to  take  place,  and  since  the  velocity 
of  the  gases  is  very  great  and  they  are  in  contact  with  the  hot  carbon  for  only  an  instant, 
more  or  less  CO2  invariably  passes  through  unchanged.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  im- 
possible to  make  the  velocity  of  the  gases  so  great  as  to  prevent  entirely  the  reduction 
of  CO2  without  creating  intensely  oxidizing  conditions  inside  of  the  cupola  and,  hence, 
destroying  its  usefulness  as  a  melting  furnace. 

The  temperature  of  the  top  gases  depends  on  the  amount  of  heat  absorbed  by  the 
stock  in  proportion  to  the  total  amount  generated  in  the  zone  of  combustion.  More 
heat  is  generated  when  carbon  is  burned  to  CO  2,  and  the  rapid  rate  of  blowing  necessary 
to  the  formation  of  a  large  percentage  of  CO2  increases  the  velocity  of  the  gases  and 
gives  less  opportunity  for  the  absorption  of  heat  by  the  stock. 

IRON  CASTINGS 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General   Instructions. — General   instructions   or   specifications   issued   by   the 
bureau  concerned  shall  form  part  of  these  specifications. 

2.  Physical  Properties. — The  physical  characteristics  of  cast  iron  are  to  be  in 
accordance  with  the  following  table: 


Grades 
of  Iron 
Cast- 
ings 


Tensile  strength 
(pounds  per  square 
inch)  —  Length  of 
test  piece  not  less 
than  2  inches 


Transverse  breaking 
load  (for  bar  1  inch 
square  loaded  at  mid- 
dle and  resting  on  sup- 
ports 1  foot  apart) 


Purposes  for  which  intended 


20,000  (min.).... . 


2,200  (min.). 
2,800  (max.) 


20,000  (min.) 


2,500  (min.), 


20,000  (min.) 


2,200  (min.) 


To  be  inspected  to  see  if  they  are  in  all 
respects  suitable  for  the  purposes  for 
which  they  are  intended. 


Steam  cylinder  and  valve-chest  cas- 
ings. 

Steam  turbine  casings,  steam  turbine 
parts. 

Gas-engine  cylinder  and  valve-chest 
casings. 

Internal-combustion  engine  cylinders 
and  valve-chest  casings. 

Cylinder  liners  and  valve-chest  liners. 

Steam,  gas  and  internal-combustion 
engines. 

Cylinder  and  valve-chest  liners,  small 
gas  engines,  and  internal-combus- 
tion cylinders  when  cast  in  one 
piece. 

Other  important  parts,  such  as  main 
and  auxiliary  engine  parts,  etc. 

Minor  parts,  such  as  furnace  fittings, 
etc. 


[454 


MALLEABLE  CAST  IRON 

3.  Placing  of  Order. — The  grade  and  quality  of  the  metal  will  be  specified  on 
the  order. 

4.  Hardness  Requirement. — Great  care  must  be  taken  to  determine  that  the  ma- 
chinery  specifications   for   hardness   of   cylinders,    liners,   and   valve-chest  liners  are 
complied  with,  and  a  test  piece  from  the  casting  should  be  machined  in  order  to  show 
the  degree  of  hardness. 

5.  Quality  of  Material. — The  castings  must  be  of  uniform  grain,  smooth,  free  from 
blow-holes,  porous  places,  shrinkage,  and  other  cracks  or  defects,  and  must  be  well 
cleaned. 

TESTS 

6.  Number  of  Tests. — Sound  test  pieces  shall  be  taken  in  sufficient  number  to 
exhibit  the  character  of  the  metal  in  the  entire  piece  from  all  castings  requiring  physical 
test. 

7.  Additional  Tests. — The  inspector  may  require  from  time  to  time  such  additional 
tests  as  he  may  deem  necessary  to  determine  the  uniformity  of  the  material. 

8.  Rejection  on  Delivery. — Iron  castings  may  be  rejected  at  the  place  of  delivery 
for  surface  or  other  defects  either  existing  on  arrival  or  developed  in  working  or  storage, 
even  though  the  material  may  have  passed  the  required  inspection  at  the  place  of 
manufacture. 

FINISH 

9.  Surface  Inspection. — The  scale  shall  be  removed  from  the  unfinished  parts  of 
the  inside  of  all  cylinders,  cylinder  covers,  and  valve-chest  covers,  and  from  the  un- 
finished parts  of  all  cylinder  and  valve-chest  liners,  and  from  ports  and  passages  of 
cylinders  and  valve  chests,  either  by  pickling  or  other  approved  process  as  may  be 
required. 

10.  Finished  Size. — All  engine  castings  must  finish  to  blue-print  size. 

11.  Marking  and  Stamping. — Each  casting,  if  large  enough,  shall  be  stamped  with 
heat  number,  figures  to  be  not  less  than  \  inch  long,  and  shall  have  size  and  order 
number  plainly  marked  with  white  paint. 

12.  Inspection  Stamps. — Castings  which  have  passed  inspection  must  show  the 
U.  S.  anchor  and  other  stamps  necessary  for  identification,  encircled  by  white-paint 
marks. 

MALLEABLE  CAST  IRON 

The  following  is  an  abstract  of  a  paper  read  by  Dr.  Richard  Moldenke  before  the 
Am.  Foundrymen's  Ass'n.,  1903. 

While  nominally  the  composition  of  a  good  malleable  casting  is  but  little  different 
from  that  of  a  car  wheel,  the  fact  that  it  can  be  twisted,  bent  and  hammered  out  hot 
or  cold  and  has  double  the  tensile  strength  shows  that  the  constitution  of  the  casting 
is  quite  different.  This  difference  may  be  traced  to  the  condition  of  the  carbon.  In 
the  ordinary  gray  casting  we  may  have  some  3  to  3|  per  cent  graphite  present.  In 
malleable  castings  we  have  the  same  amount  as  graphite  in  the  analysis,  but  radically 
different  in  characteristics.  This  form  of  carbon  due  to  the  annealing  process  has  been 
called  temper  carbon  by  Professor  Ledebur,  who  first  described  it  in  connection  with 
the  malleable  (Ger.  "  temper  ")  process. 

The  tensile  strength  of  malleable  castings  should  run  between  42,000  and  47,000 
pounds  per  square  inch;  castings  showing  only  35,000  pounds  are  serviceable  for 
ordinary  work.  It  is  not  advisable  to  run  beyond  54,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  for 
the  resilience  is  reduced,  and  one  of  the  most  valuable  properties  of  the  malleable 
casting  impaired. 

The  elongation  of  a  piece  of  good  "malleable"  will  lie  between  2|  and  5£%,  measured 
between  points  2  inches  apart.  The  thicker  the  piece  the  smaller  the  elongation.  In 
making  the  transverse  test,  the  deflection  of  an  inch  square  piece,  resting  upon  supports 
12  inches  apart,  should  be  over  \  inch,  the  breaking  weight  being  at  least  3,500  pounds. 
Very  soft  iron  often  deflects  1\  inches  under  the  test,  but  this  is  exceptional  and  may 
not  be  reproduced  continuously. 

[4551 


MALLEABLE  CAST  IRON 

The  high  resilience,  or  resistance  to  shock,  in  "malleable"  is  its  most  useful  char- 
acteristic. Only  where  an  exceedingly  high  tensile  strength  is  required,  as  in  the  car 
couplers  for  the  heavy  modern  trains,  is  the  malleable  casting  being  gradually  replaced 
by  steel  castings. 

Composition  and  Structure. — Originally  cast  to  be  perfectly  chilled — that  is,  with 
the  carbon  all  combined — and  a  contraction  of  some  1£  inches  to  the  foot,  the  annealing 
process  serves  to  expel  the  carbon  from  its  state  of  combination,  depositing  it  between 
the  crystals  of  the  iron,  not  in  the  crystalline  graphite  of  the  gray  iron,  but  as  an  amor- 
phous form  not  unlike  lampblack.  At  the  same  time  an  expansion  equal  to  half  of 
the  original  contraction  takes  place,  the  net  result  being  a  shrinkage  allowance  for 
the  pattern  identical  with  that  for  gray  iron  castings  of  similar  shape  and  thickness. 
Besides  this  expulsion  of  the  carbon  from  its  combination,  there  is  a  removal  of  some 
of  it  from  the  outer  portions  of  the  casting.  This  amounts  to  nearly  all  in  the  skin 
to  nothing  £  inch  inward. 

It  will  be  noted  that  owing  to  the  removal  of  varying  amounts  of  carbon  from  the 
skin  to  the  interior  no  carbon  determination  of  a  malleable  casting  is  of  any  value, 
unless  the  sample  is  taken  before  the  anneal,  and  even  then  it  is  only  good  for  the  total 
carbon.  For  an  annealed  piece  of  sample  taken  from  the  center  of  the  fracture  with 
at  least  f  inch  untouched  around  the  drill  would  give  a  fair  indication  of  the  carbon 
contents,  but  cannot  claim  accuracy. 

Formerly  charcoal  iron  about  4%  carbon  was  the  rule  in  malleable  castings;  in 
these  days  of  coke  irons  and  steel  additions  to  reduce  the  carbon  this  may  run  as  low 
as  2.75%  before  trouble  ensues  in  the  anneal,  if  not  already  in  the  foundry  through 
excessive  cracking  and  shrinkages.  With  the  modern  demand  for  a  high  tensile  strength 
it  is  well  to  place  the  lowest  limit  at  2.75%,  and  the  upper  limit  for  common  work  would 
be  found  in  the  saturation  point  of  this  grade  of  iron,  or  4.25%.  It  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary that  the  hard  casting  be  free  from  graphite;  even  a  small  amount  of  this  indicates 
an  open  structure  with  consequent  ruin  to  the  work  in  the  anneal  from  penetrating 
oxygen.  To  keep  the  carbon  in  the  combined  state  is  the  function  of  the  silicon  per- 
centage arranged  for  in  the  mixture,  the  rate  of  cooling  due  to  the  cross  section,  the 
pouring  temperature,  sand,  etc. 

The  sulphur  content  is  quite  important,  the  percentage  should  not  be  allowed  to 
go  over  0.05,  and  it  is  wise  to  hold  the  pig  iron  below  0.04,  and  to  see  that  the  fuel 
used  is  not  too  rich  in  sulphur. 

Manganese  is  seldom  troublesome,  as  it  does  not  often  exceed  0.40  in  the  mixture, 
which  means  0.10  to  0.20  in  the  casting.  Above  0.40  in  the  casting  it  begins  to  give 
trouble  in  the  anneal,  therefore,  manganese  should  be  kept  low. 

Phosphorus  should  not  exceed  0.225,  and  is  better  kept  below  this. 

Silicon. — In  general  the  thicker  the  casting  the  lower  the  silicon  allowable  in  order 
to  get  a  white  iron  in  the  sand.  Thus  for  the  heaviest  class  of  work  the  silicon  of  the 
casting  should  not  exceed  0.45.  For  ordinary  work  0.65  is  the  point  to  be  sought 
for.  Agricultural  work  may  run  up  to  0.80,  while  the  lightest  casting  may  have  1.25% 
without  danger,  though  it  is  not  advisable  to  exceed  this  limit  for  anything. 

American  practice  differs  from  the  European  in  several  respects;  we  have  a  com- 
paratively short  anneal — that  is,  we  aim  at  a  conversion  of  the  carbon  rather  than 
its  removal.  Over  there  it  is  desired  to  get  all  carbon  out,  so  that  a  wrought  iron 
casting,  if  it  may  be  so  called,  may  result. 

The  common  American  practice  is  to  use  the  reverberatory,  or  air-furnace,  either 
with  or  without  the  top  blast  over  the  bridge  to  hasten  the  melting.  While  not  many 
malleable  establishments  have  the  open-hearth  furnace  it  is  undoubtedly  an  economical 
melter,  provided  it  be  kept  busy.  It  also  means  a  man  who  will  push  the  pigs  into 
the  bath  as  quickly  as  they  can  be  cared  for,  mix  his  iron  well  and  fire  sharp  and  quick 
so  that  the  process  becomes  one  of  melting  only  rather  than  a  refining  or  burning  out 
of  large  quantities  of  silicon  and  carbon. 

Under  fan-  conditions,  with  three  heats  daily  from  a  10-ton  open-hearth  furnace 
using  producer  gas  as  fuel,  the  ratio  is  about  one  of  coal  to  six  of  iron.  In  the  rever- 
beratory furnace  the  fuel  ration  is  one  to  four  at  best,  and  often  only  one  to  two.  It 
is  not  advisable  to  make  larger  heats  than  15  to  18  tons,  as  the  time  consumed  in  melting, 

[456] 


MALLEABLE  CAST  IRON 

and  especially  in  pouring  from  the  small  ladles  after  tapping,  becomes  so  great  that 
the  bath  is  seriously  damaged  by  undue  oxidation  and  overheating. 

For  making  malleable  castings,  the  open-hearth  furnace  should  be  pushed  very 
hard  for  a  time,  obtaining  a  short,  sharp  heat.  The  silicon  of  the  heat  may  be  cal- 
culated for  a  loss  of  20  to  25  points,  whereas  from  35  upward  is  the  rule  in  other  processes. 

The  cupola  still  turns  out  a  considerable  tonnage  of  malleable  castings,  but  this 
process  will  be  gradually  superseded  by  the  furnace  method,  chiefly  on  account  of  the 
better  grade  of  work  turned  out  by  the  latter.  Cupola  iron  requires  some  200°  F. 
more  than  furnace  iron  to  anneal  it  properly.  It  seems  strange  that  it  should  be  so, 
possibly  the  structure  of  cupola  iron  is  so  close  that  it  requires  more  effort  to  get  the 
crystals  apart  and  to  effect  the  liberation  of  the  carbon  from  its  state  of  combination. 
Whether  this  is  due  to  the  contact  of  the  metal  with  the  fuel  as  it  trickles  down  in 
thin  streams  and  drops  is  hard  to  say,  but  the  difference  certainly  exists  and  must  be 
provided  for  in  the  anneal. 

In  the  annealing  process  we  find  two  extremes  leading  to  about  the  same  results: 
A  short  anneal  at  a  very  high  heat  is  as  effective  as  a  comparatively  long  anneal  at  a 
much  lower  temperature.  That  is  to  say,  we  can  change  the  carbon  in  a  casting,  by 
placing  it  overnight  in  a  melting  furnace  which  has  cooled  below  the  melting  point 
of  iron,  or  do  the  same  thing  in  the  annealing  oven  at  a  much  lower  temperature,  but 
giving  it  a  week's  time.  Of  the  two  methods  the  latter  is  preferable,  as  it  not  only 
permits  the  change  in  the  carbon  but  also  gives  the  carbon  time  to  get  out.  The  result 
is  a  good,  reliable  casting,  while  in  the  hurry-up  processes  one  never  knows  whether 
they  are  annealed  at  all. 

The  annealing  process  may  be  described  by  a  curve  which  runs  up  quickly,  remains 
horizontal  for  a  short  time  and  then  drops  very  gradually.  That  is,  a  sharp  heating 
up,  in  the  shortest  safe  time  possible,  then  a  shutting  off  of  the  dampers  and  maintaining 
of  the  temperature  evenly  for  a  period  of,  say,  two  full  days  at  least,  and  then  a  gradual 
cooling  down  to  at  least  a  black  heat  before  dumping. 

Furnace  iron  of  average  thickness  must  have  received  over  1,250°  F.  after  coming 
up,  until  cutting  off  the  heat,  to  be  safely  annealed.  Perhaps  even  then  some  of  the 
work  must  be  put  back  for  another  anneal.  A  safer  limit  is  1,350°  F.,  and  no  more  is 
necessary.  This  temperature  must  exist  in  the  coldest  part  of  the  furnace,  or  usually 
at  the  lower  part  of  the  middle  in  the  front  row  pots.  As  a  rule  the  upper  space  of  an 
oven  is  some  200°  F.  higher  than  this. 

Translating  these  temperatures,  we  find  that  660°  C.  (1,220°  F.)  is  the  lowest  point 
for  successful  annealing  of  furnace  iron,  while  780°  C.  (1,436°  F.)  is  the  safest  one. 
For  cupola  iron  the  temperature  should  be  about  850°  C.  (1,562°  F.). 

SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  MALLEABLE  IRON   CASTINGS 

Malleable  iron  castings  may  be  made  by  the  open-hearth,  air  furnace  or  cupola 
process.  Cupola  iron,  however,  is  not  recommended  for  heavy  nor  for  important 
castings. 

Chemical  Properties. — Castings  for  which  physical  requirements  are  specified  shall 
not  contain  over  .06  sulphur  nor  over  .225  phosphorus. 

Physical  Properties. — (1)  Standard  test  bar  shall  be  1  inch  square  and  14  inches 
long,  without  chills  and  with  ends  perfectly  free  in  the  mold.  Three  shall  be  cast  in 
one  mold,  heavy  risers  insuring  sound  bars.  Where  the  full  heat  goes  into  castings 
which  are  subject  to  specification,  one  mold  shall  be  poured  two  minutes  after  tapping 
into  the  first  ladle,  and  another  mold  from  the  last  iron  of  the  heat.  Molds  shall  be 
suitably  stamped  to  insure  identification  of  the  bars,  the  bars  being  annealed  with 
the  castings. 

(2)  Of  the  three  test  bars  from  the  two  molds  required  for  each  heat,  one  shall 
be  tested  for  tensile  strength  and  elongation,  the  other  for  transverse  strength  and 
deflection.     The  other  remaining  bar  is  reserved  for  either  the  transverse  or  tensile 
test,  in  case  of  the  failure  of  the  two  other  bars  to  come  up  to  requirements.     The 
halves  of  the  bars  broken  transversely  may  also  be  used  for  tensile  strength. 

(3)  Failure  to  reach  the  required  limit  for  the  tensile  strength  with  elongation,  as 

[457] 


MALLEABLE  IRON  CASTINGS 

also  the  transverse  strength  with  deflection,  on  the  part  of  at  least  one  test  rejects  the 
castings  from  that  heat. 

(4)  Tensile  Test. — The  tensile  strength  of  a  standard  test  bar  for  castings  under 
specification  shall  not  be  less  than  42,000  pounds  per  square  inch.     The  elongation 
measured  in  2  inches  shall  not  be  less  than  2J%. 

(5)  Transverse  Test. — The  transverse  strength  of  a  standard  test  bar,  on  supports 
12  inches  apart,  pressure  being  applied  at  center,  shall  not  be  less  than  3,000  pounds, 
deflection  being  at  least  %  of  an  inch. 

Test  Lugs. — Castings  of  special  design  or  of  special  importance  may  be  provided 
with  suitable  test  lugs  at  the  option  of  the  inspector.  At  least  one  of  these  lugs  shall 
be  left  on  the  casting  for  his  inspection  upon  his  request  therefor. 

Annealing. — (1)  Malleable  castings  shall  neither  be  over  nor  under  annealed.  They 
must  have  received  their  full  heat  in  the  oven  at  least  sixty  hours  after  reaching  that 
temperature. 

(2)  The  Saggers  shall  not  be  dumped  until  the  contents  shall  at  least  be  black  hot. 

Finish. — Castings  shall  be  true  to  pattern,  free  from  blemishes,  scale  or  shrinkage 
cracks.  A  variation  of  j\  of  an  inch  per  foot  shall  be  permissible.  Founders  shall 
not  be  held  responsible  for  defects  due  to  irregular  cross  sections  and  unevenly  dis- 
tributed metal. 


MALLEABLE  IRON  CASTINGS 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General   Instructions. — General   instructions   or   specifications   issued   by   the 
bureau  concerned  shall  form  a  part  of  the  specifications. 

2.  Open-Hearth  or  Air- Furnace. — The  malleable  iron  castings  for  which  physical 
requirements  are  specified  may  be  made  either  by  the  open-hearth  or  air-furnace  process. 

3.  Physical  and  Chemical  Properties. — The  physical  and  chemical    characteristics 
of  malleable  iron  castings  are  to  be  in  accordance  with  the  following  table: 


Material 

Tensile 
Strength 
per  Square 
Inch  (Min.) 

Elonga- 
tion in 
2  Inches 

(Min.) 

Transverse 
Breaking  Bar 
1  Inch  Square, 
12  Inches  long, 
loaded  at 
Center 

Deflec- 
tion 

MAXIMUM 

Sul- 
phur 

Phos- 
phorus 

Open-hearth  or  air- 
furnace  process.  .  . 

Pounds 
36,000 

Per  Ct. 
3 

Pounds 
3,000 

Inch 

$ 

Per  Ct. 
0.08 

Per  Ct. 
0.225 

4.  Freedom  from  Defects. — Castings  must  be  true  to  pattern,  free  from  scale, 
blemishes,  shrinkage  cracks,  or  other  defects. 

5.  To  Have  Sufficient  Anneal. — Castings  must  be  neither  "over"  nor  " under"  an- 
nealed.    They  must  have  received  their  full  heat  in  the  oven  at  least  60  hours  after 
reaching  that  temperature,  and  shall  not  be  dumped  until  they  are  at  least  "black  hot." 

6.  Test  Bars;  How  Cast  and  Number. — Test  bars  to  be  cast  accurately  1  inch  square, 
not  less  than  14  inches  long,  and  of  sufficient  number  to  insure  sound  ones  for  all  test 
purposes. 

7.  Appearance  After  Machining. — The  castings  when  machined  should  show  the 
annealing  process  has  changed  the  carbon  from  the  combined  carbon  to  graphite  carbon. 

8.  Pipe  Flanges.— For  pipe  flanges  the  castings  should  be  made  sufficiently  malleable 
to  permit  of  steel  tubing  being  satisfactorily  expanded  into  them  without  distorting 
the  shape  or  cracking  the  castings.     If  more  than  one  casting  of  any  size  ordered  will 
not  stand  the  expanding,  they  must  be  replaced  with  satisfactory  castings. 

9.  Specifications  for  Malleable- Iron  Pipe  Fittings. — These  specifications  are  inde- 
pendent of  Specifications  for  Malleable-Iron  Pipe  Fittings,  Black  or  Galvanized,  issued 
by  the  Navy  Department. 

[458] 


SEMI-STEEL  CASTINGS 


SEMI-STEEL  CASTINGS 

Melting  steel  with  iron  in  a  cupola  adds  strength  to  the  resultant  casting;  to  what 
extent  this  is  so,  and  the  best  proportion  of  steel  to  use  are  not  clearly  understood. 
To  ascertain  definitely  in  regard  to  these  and  to  trace  if  possible  the  connection  between 
percentage  of  total  carbon  in  the  iron  and  its  tensile  strength,  Mr.  H.  E.  Biller  made 
the  tests  summarized  in  the  accompanying  table: 

PROPERTIES  OF  SEMI-STEEL  CASTINGS 


JJlCdlkUJg   MlCHgUI            OICCI 
i                              ».„„-!  :__ 

Phos- 

Man- 

'Com- 

~V^al  ULMI  — 

Graph- 

Trans-  mixture. 

No. 

Silicon. 

Sulphur. 

phorus. 

ganese. 

bined. 

itic. 

Total. 

Tensile. 

verse,    percent. 

I 

1-43 

0.047 

0.564 

0.82 

0.67 

3-H 

3.8l 

23,060 

2,550 

o 

2 

1.50 

.065 

>532 

•33 

.64 

344 

3-08 

30,500 

2,840 

25 

3 

1.76 

.062 

.488 

•53 

.51 

3.12 

3.63 

22,l8o 

2,440 

0 

4 

1.76 

•139 

.515 

•57 

43 

2.94 

3-37 

27,090 

2,770 

\21A 

5 

1.77 

.069 

•339 

.49 

.56 

2.87 

343 

32,500 

3,120 

12% 

6 

1.83 

.IOO 

.610 

•55 

•51 

2.44 

2.95 

36,860 

3,280 

25 

7 

1-75 

.089 

.598 

•35 

.74 

2.12 

2.86 

30,160 

3,130 

37K 

8 

1.96 

.104 

.446 

•63 

3-18 

3-8i 

21,950 

2,230 

o 

9 

2.12 

•037 

.410 

.26 

•38 

3-26 

3-64 

21,890 

2,470 

12^ 

10 

2.16 

.060 

.315 

.20 

i.  06 

2.30 

3.36 

26,310 

2,670 

\2yt 

II 

1.97 

•093 

.470 

•48 

•57 

2.83 

340 

32,530 

3,050 

37/4 

12 

2-35 

.061 

.515 

.56 

•54 

340 

3-94 

21,990 

2,200 

o 

13 

2-53 

.104 

.490 

•54 

.60 

2.56 

3-16 

33,390 

2,850 

25 

14 

2.36 

.064 

.327 

.24 

i.  08 

2.15 

3-23 

31.560 

3,200 

25 

The  tensile  and  transverse  strengths  given  in  the  table  are  the  average  of  two,  and 
in  some  cases  three  test  bars.  For  tensile  strength  a  l|-inch  round  bar  was  used. 
The  transverse  strength  was  obtained  from  a  1-inch  square  bar  placed  on  supports 
12  inches  apart. 

The  object  sought  in  classification  into  sets  was  to  have  the  silicon  about  equal 
in  the  tests  of  each  set;  the  other  elements  being  as  nearly  alike  in  quantity  as  it  was 
possible  for  him  to  get  them. 

Set  1. — Test  Nos.  1  and  2  show  comparatively  little  difference  in  chemical  content, 
except  in  manganese  and  graphite.  As  the  manganese  in  No.  1  should  be  beneficial 
to  the  strength  of  the  bar,  the  only  way  to  account  for  the  greater  strength  of  the  iron 
from  No.  2  is  the  lower  percentage  of  graphite,  or  the  molecular  structure  resulting 
from  the  25%  of  steel  in  the  mixture. 

Set  2. — Comparing  Nos.  3  to  7  the  strength  increases  with  percentage  of  steel  used 
and  decrease  of  total  carbon,  with  the  exception  of  No.  7;  in  this  37^%  of  steel  was 
used,  and  the  total  carbon  was  less  than  in  any  other  test,  but  it  is  weaker  than  either 
Nos.  5  or  No.  6.  This  being  a  solitary  case  it  can  hardly  be  used  as  proof  that  37  £% 
of  steel  is  more  than  it  is  well  to  melt  in  a  cupola.  But  test  No.  11,  which  also  con- 
tained 37^%  of  steel  and  more  carbon,  was  only  a  little  stronger. 

Test  No.  4  was  considerably  weaker  than  No.  5,  but  its  higher  percentage  of  sulphur 
with  its  lower  combined  carbon  would  seem  to  indicate  that  these  bars  were  either 
cooled  slower,  or  poured  from  duller  iron  than  were  the  bars  from  No.  5,  which  may 
account  for  their  being  weaker  than  the  No.  5  bars. 

Set  3. — Nos.  8  to  11  we  note  that  No.  9,  although  containing  12|%  of  steel  is  no 
stronger  than  No.  8,  in  which  there  was  no  steel.  And  No.  10  with  1.06  combined 
carbon,  and  12£%  of  steel,  gives  less  strength  than  might  be  expected.  As  these  tests 
are  so  much  lower  in  manganese  than  Nos.  8  and  11,  it  may  be  that  their  weakness  is 
due  either  to  the  lower  manganese  or  to  the  conditions  of  melting,  which  reduced  the 
percentage  of  manganese  so  much  more  than  in  Nos.  8  and  11.  The  four  charges 
each  contained  about  50%  manganese  before  melting. 

[459] 


STEEL  CASTINGS 

Set  4. — Nos.  13  and  14,  each  from  charges  containing  25%  of  steel,  show  a  marked 
increase  in  strength  over  No.  12. 

All  the  tests  from  charges  containing  25%  of  steel  are  stronger  than  those  from 
charges  containing  but  12£%,  with  the  exception  of  No.  5,  which  is  stronger  than  two 
of  the  tests  which  had  25%  of  steel  in  the  mixture. 

These  tests  were  made  with  pig  iron,  ferro-silicon,  and  steel  scrap,  no  cast-iron 
scrap  being  used.  This,  in  order  to  better  control  the  percentage  of  the  elements  in 
the  iron.  In  some  cases  when  a  large  percentage  of  steel  was  added,  it  was  necessary 
to  use  ferro-silicon  to  get  the  desired  amount  of  silicon,  in  the  charge.  Two  tests  were 
taken  from  No.  13,  which  contained  1,000  pounds  of  steel,  400  pounds  of  ferro-silicon 
(8.5%  silicon),  and  2,600  pounds  of  pig  iron.  The  charge  was  tapped  from  the  cupola 
into  a  ladle,  and  the  tests  taken  at  different  times,  as  the  iron  was  being  poured  from 
the  ladle.  The  one  sample  contained  2.53  and  the  other  2.54%  of  silicon.  Two  tests, 
taken  in  the  same  way  from  No.  14,  contained  1.97  and  1.94%  of  silicon.  This  charge 
was  made  up  of  1,500  pounds  steel,  450  pounds  ferro-silicon,  and  2,050  pounds  of  pig- 
iron.  Similar  tests  from  charge  No.  2,  which  was  made  up  of  1,000  pounds  steel  and 
3,000  pounds  pig  iron,  contained  1.50  and  1.52%  silicon.  These  three  cases  offer  pretty 
strong  proof  that  the  pig  iron,  steel,  and  ferro-silicon  mixed  thoroughly. 

Although  of  a  limited  number,  the  tests  given  seem  to  indicate  that  25%  of  steel 
will  add  about  50%  to  the  strength  of  the  iron;  and  12|%  of  steel,  approximately 
25%.  The  tests  containing  37|%  of  steel  were  hardly  as  much  improved  in  strength 
as  those  with  25%  of  steel,  from  which  we  may  infer  that  the  limit  of  the  amount  of  steel 
it  is  beneficial  to  melt  with  iron  in  a  cupola,  is  between  25  and  37|%. 

STEEL   CASTINGS 

Steel  castings  combine  in  large  measure  the  convenience  of  gray  iron  castings  with 
a  strength  approximating  that  of  forgings.  In  structural  material  construction,  such 
as  bridges,  blast  furnaces,  mills,  large  buildings,  etc.,  the  engineer  is  specifying  steel 
rather  than  iron  castings.  Maritime  construction  turns  out  a  vessel  composed  entirely 
of  steel  plates  and  castings. 

Castings  are  commonly  of  open  hearth  steel  which  may  be  produced  by  the  acid 
or  by  the  basic  process.  A  resume  and  condensation  of  the  two  processes  would  be 
as  follows:  The  furnace  is,  in  each  instance,  practically  the  same,  the  difference  being 
in  the  lining  of  hearth  of  furnace.  The  acid  process  eliminates  manganese,  silicon  and 
carbon  only,  the  phosphorus  and  sulphur  being  practically  unchanged  from  the 
initial  charge.  The  basic  process  eliminates  all  the  ingredients  above  specified,  except 
silicon,  which  is  very  deleterious  to  this  process.  But  silicon  is  a  subject  for  the  blast 
furnace  treatment,  and  can  there  be  kept  low.  Steel  is  now  being  produced  of  such 
chemical  and  physical  structure  that  no  chemical  or  physical  determination  will  demon- 
strate by  which  process  it  was  made,  whether  it  is  a  product  of  an  acid  or  basic  open- 
hearth  furnace.  This,  then,  completely  obviates  the  pertinency  of  the  question  by 
which  process  was  the  steel  produced. 

In  a  regenerative  or  open-hearth  furnace,  the  charge  is  exposed  to  the  direct  action 
of  the  reducing  flame,  and,  when  melted,  the  carbon  is  also  eliminated;  to  the  resultant 
bath  manganese  is  added,  and  the  molten  iron  is  recarbonized,  thus  producing  steel. 
To  obtain  the  requisite  heat,  regeneration  is  practiced;  the  general  practice  is  with 
producer  gas  and  air.  The  regenerators  play  a  specific  part,  and  that  is  to  preheat 
the  ingoing  gases  and  air;  to  accomplish  this  end  the  chambers  or  regenerators  should 
contain  60  to  100  cubic  feet  per  ton  of  steel. — L.  L.  Knox. 

SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  STEEL  CASTINGS 

Ordinary  castings,  those  in  which  no  physical  requirements  are  specified,  shall  not 
contain  over  0.40%  of  carbon,  nor  over  0.08%  of  phosphorus. 

Castings  which  are  subjected  to  physical  test  shall  not  contain  over  0.05%  of 
phosphorus,  nor  over  0.05%  sulphur. 

Tested  castings  shall  be  of  three  classes:  Hard,  Medium,  and  Soft.  The  minimum 
physical  qualities  required  in  each  class  shall  be  as  follows: 

[460] 


STEEL  CASTINGS 


Hard 
Castings 

Medium 
Castings 

Soft 
Castings 

Tensile  strength,  Ibs.  per  sq.  in 

85,000 

70,000 

60,000 

Yield  point,  Ibs.  per  sq.  in  

38,250 

31,500 

27,000 

Elongation,  per  cent  in  two  ins 

15 

18 

22 

Contraction  of  area,  per  cent  .        

**) 

25 

30 

A  test  to  destruction  may  be  substituted  for  the  tensile  test,  in  the  case  of  small 
or  unimportant  castings,  by  selecting  three  castings  from  a  lot.  This  test  shall  show  the 
material  to  be  ductile  and  free  from  injurious  defects  and  suitable  for  the  purpose 
intended.  A  lot  shall  consist  of  all  castings  from  the  same  melt  or  blow,  annealed 
in  the  same  furnace  charge. 

Large  castings  are  to  be  suspended  and  hammered  all  over.  No  cracks,  flaws, 
defects,  nor  weakness  shall  appear  after  such  treatment. 

A  specimen  one  inch  by  one-half  inch  shall  bend  cold  around  diameter  of  one  inch 
without  fracture  on  outside  of  bent  portion  through  an  angle  of  120°  for  soft  castings 
and  90°  for  medium  castings. 

The  standard  turned  test  specimen  one-half  inch  diameter  and  two  inch  gauged 
length,  shall  be  used  to  determine  the  physical  properties  specified.  It  is  shown  in  the 
following  sketch: 


The  number  of  standard  test  specimens  shall  depend  upon  the  character  and  im- 
portance of  the  castings.  A  test  piece  shall  be  cut  cold  from  a  coupon  to  be  molded 
and  cast  on  some  portion  of  one  or  more  castings  from  each  melt  or  blow  or  from  the 
sink-heads,  in  case  heads  of  sufficient  size  are  used.  The  coupon  or  sink-head  must 
receive  the  same  treatment  as  the  casting  or  castings,  before  the  specimen  is  cut  out, 
and  before  the  coupon  or  sink-head  is  removed  from  the  casting. 

One  specimen  for  bending  test  one  inch  by  one-half  inch  shall  be  cut  from  the  coupon 
or  sink-head  of  the  casting  or  castings.  The  bending  test  may  be  made  by  pressure, 
or  by  blows. 

The  yield  point  specified  shall  be  determined  by  the  careful  observation  of  the 
drop  of  the  beam  or  halt  in  the  gauge  of  the  testing  machine. 

Turnings  from  the  tensile  specimen,  drillings  from  the  bending  specimen,  or  drillings 
from  the  small  test  ingot,  if  preferred  by  the  inspector,  shall  be  used  to  determine 
whether  or  not  the  steel  is  within  the  specified  limits  in  phosphorus  and  sulphur. 

Castings  shall  be  true  to  pattern,  free  from  blemishes,  flaws  or  shrinkage  cracks. 
Bearing  surface  shall  be  solid,  and  no  porosity  shall  be  allowed  in  positions  where  the 
resistance  and  value  of  the  casting  for  the  purpose  intended  will  be  seriously  affected 
thereby. 

STEEL  CASTINGS 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General  Instructions. — General  instructions  or  specifications  issued  by  the 
bureau  concerned  shall  form  part  of  these  specifications. 

[461] 


STEEL  CASTINGS 


2.  Process  of  Manufacture. — Castings  shall  be  made  by  a  process  approved  by 
the  bureau  concerned. 

3.  Chemical  and  Physical  Properties. — The  physical  and  chemical  requirements 
of  steel  castings  shall  be  in  accordance  with  the  following  table: 


Class 
Symbol 

CHEMICAL 
COMPOSI- 
TION 

PHYSICAL  REQUIREMENTS 

Not  Over— 

Minimum 
Tensile 
Strength 

Minimum 
Yield 
Point 

Mini- 
mum 
Elonga- 
tion 

Mini- 
mum 
Reduc- 
tion of 
Area 

Bending  Test;  Cold 
Bend  (Not  Less 
Than) 

P. 

s. 

Special... 
A 

0.04 
.05 

.06 
.06 

0.04 
.05 

.05 
.05 

Pounds 
per  Sq.  In. 
90,000 

80,000 

[  Maximum 
80,000 
!  Minimum 
{    60,000 

Pounds 
per  Sq.  In. 
57,000 

35,000 
30,000 

Per  Ct. 
in  2  7ns. 
20 

17 
22 

Per  Ct. 
30 
20 

25 

90°  about  an  inner 
diameter  of  1  inch. 
90°  about  an  inner 
diameter  of  1  inch. 

120°  about  an  inner 
diameter     of      1 
inch. 

B  

c  

4.  Class  C. — Class  C  castings  will  not  be  tested  unless  there  are  reasons  to  doubt 
that  they  are  of  a  quality  suitable  for  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  intended.    Tests, 
if  required,  may  be  made  at  the  building  yards.     The  inspector  will  select  a  sufficient 
number  of  castings  and  have  them  crushed,  bent,  or  broken,  and  note  their  behavior 
and  the  appearance  of  the  fracture. 

5.  Treatment. — (a)  All  castings  shall  be  annealed.    All  annealing  shall  be  done 
in  a  properly  constructed  pit  or  furnace.     The  furnace  must  be  held  at  the  annealing 
temperature  long  enough  to  insure  that  all  of  the  interior  of  the  casting  or  castings 
being  annealed  have  been  brought  to  that  temperature.     After  the  castings  have  been 
soaked  at  the  proper  annealing  temperature  they  must  be  allowed  to  cool  slowly  in  the 
furnace,  carefully  protected  from  drafts  of  air.     Unless  otherwise  directed  by  the 
inspector,  castings  must  not  be  removed  from  the  furnace  until  they  have  been  cooled 
down  to  the  temperature  at  which  the  color  dies  (about  700°  F.).     The  number  of 
hours  requisite  for  raising  the  castings  to  the  proper  temperature,  the  length  of  time 
during  which  they  should  be  soaked  at  that  temperature,  and  the  period  required  for 
glow  cooling  in  the  furnace  or  in  the  air,  may  be  prescribed  by  the  bureau  concerned, 
if  it  is  so  desired. 

(b)  ADDITIONAL  OR  SUBSEQUENT  TREATMENT. — Castings  shall  not  be  subjected  to 
additional  annealing  or  subsequent  treatment  without  the  knowledge  and  consent 
of  the  inspector,  and  when  this  is  done  the  inspector  will  make  such  additional  tests  as 
will  satisfy  him  that  the  retreated  castings  meet  the  requirements. 

(c)  Castings  that  have  received  any  treatment  without  the  consent  of  the  inspector 
shall  be  rejected. 

(d)  CLEANING. — All  castings  shall  be  thoroughly  cleaned  before  inspection,  after 
final  treatment. 

6.  Test  Specimens,  Number,  and  Location. — (a)  Coupons  from  which  test  speci- 
mens are  to  be  taken  shall,  whenever  practicable,  be  cast  on  the  body  of  the  casting. 
The  number  and  location  of  the  coupons  shall  be  such  as  to  thoroughly  exhibit  the 
character  of  the  metal  throughout  the  casting.     When  the  use  of  these  cast-on  coupons 
is  not  practicable,  the  test  bar  shall  be  taken  from  a  coupon  cast  with  and  gated  to  the 
casting,  or  with  small  runners  to  the  gate.     If  necessary,  coupons  may  be  cast  separ- 

[462] 


STEEL  CASTINGS 

ately,  but  in  all  such  cases  the  approval  of  the  inspector  must  first  be  obtained.    Coupons 
shall  not  be  detached  from  the  casting  until  it  has  received  its  final  treatment. 

(b)  Particular  care  will  be  exercised  with  castings  estimated  to  weigh  200  pounds 
or  over  that  the  test  specimens  taken  from  the  castings  shall  be  in  sufficient  number 
and  so  located  as  to  thoroughly  exhibit  the  character  of  the  metal  of  the  entire  casting. 

(c)  TESTS,  INDIVIDUAL  AND  LOT. — Castings,  the  estimated  weight  of  which  is  200 
pounds  or  over,  will  be  tested  by  individual  tests.     Other  castings  shall  be  tested  by 
lots  as  follows:  A  lot  shall  consist  of  castings  from  the  same  heat  and  annealed  in  the 
same  furnace  charge.     From  each  lot  two  tensile  and  one  bending  specimen  shall  be 
taken,  and  the  lot  shall  be  passed  or  rejected  on  the  results  shown  by  these  specimens. 
Manufacturers,  for  their  own  safety,  will  provide  enough  coupons  for  extra  tests  in 
case  of  flaws  showing  in  the  test  specimens. 

(d)  In  the  case  of  castings  tested  by  lots,  the  test  pieces  may  be  taken  from  the 
body  of  a  casting  from  the  lot  if  so  desired  by  the  manufacturer.     When  a  number  of 
small  castings  have  been  cast  on  the  same  heat  with  two  or  more  larger  castings  carrying 
test  coupons,  the  small  castings  may,  at  the  discretion  of  the  inspector,  be  represented 
by  the  test  bars  from  the  large  castings.     A  casting  from  which  an  unsound  test  speci- 
men has  been  taken  shall  receive  particular  care  to  detect  porosity  or  other  unsoundness 
in  the  casting  itself. 

(e)  A  "lot"  or  "heat  test,"  provided  for  in  the  preceding  paragraphs,  will  not  be 
permitted  unless  the  manufacturer  complies  with  the  instructions  hereafter  relative 
to  identification. 

7.  Rejection  After  Delivery. — The  acceptance  of  any  casting  by  the  inspector  will 
not  relieve  the  makers  thereof  from  the  necessity  of  replacing  the  casting  should  it 
fail  in  proof  test  or  trial  or  in  working  or  exhibit  any  defect  after  delivery. 

8.  Percussive  Test. — (a)  Large  castings  shall  be  subjected  to  hammer  tests  as 
follows: 

(b)  The  castings  are  to  be  suspended  and  hammered  all  over  with  a  hammer  weighing 
not  less  than  7£  pounds.  If  cracks,  flaws,  defects,  or  weakness  appear  after  such  treat- 
ment, castings  will  be  rejected. 

9.  Surface  Inspection. — (a)  All  castings  shall  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and,  where 
practicable,  have  the  gates  and  heads  removed  before  being  submitted  to  the  inspector 
for  inspection  in  the  green.     The  removal  of  heads  and  gates  by  burning  will  not  be 
permitted.     All  castings  shall  be  submitted  in  the  green — that  is,  before  they  have 
received  any  treatment  other  than  cleaning. 

(b)  Castings  shall  be  sound  and  free  from  all  injurious  defects.     Particular  search 
will  be  made  at  the  points  where  the  heads  or  risers  join  the  castings,  as  unsoundness 
at  this  jpoint  may  extend  into  the  castings. 

(c)  The  closing  of  cracks  and  cavities  by  hammering  and  plugging  will  not  be 
tolerated. 

(d)  WELDING  WHEN  PERMITTED. — Minor  defects  that  do  not  impair  the  structural 
value  of  the  casting  may  be  welded  up  by  an  approved  process  if,  in  the  judgment  of 
the  inspector,  they  are  unimportant,  but  no  such  burning  in  or  welding  the  defects 
will  be  permitted  except  after  an  inspection  by  the  inspector  of  the  casting  in  the  green, 
with  the  defect  thoroughly  cleaned  out  to  show  its  extent.     Such  welding  should  always 
be  performed  before  annealing,  and  in  no  case  shall  welding  be  done  without  being 
subsequently  annealed.     The  castings  shall  be  inspected  by  the  inspector  after  the 
defect  has  been  welded  up  and  before  being  annealed.     Surface  defects  and  cavities 
which  are  of  more  than  minor  importance  shall  not  be  so  welded  up  except  by  permission 
of  the  inspector  in  charge  of  the  district  or  of  the  bureau  concerned.     In  no  case  will 
any  welding  be  allowed  on  steam  piping  or  any  other  casting  used  in  connection  with 
steam  piping  or  subjected  to  steam  pressure,  nor  in  the  following  ordnance  castings: 
Gun  yokes  and  slides  in  region  of  the  trunnions,  elevating  gear  lugs,  and  recoil  cylinder 
and  spring  cylinder  bearings  for  same.     White-lead  marks  shall  be  placed  about  defects 
which  have  been  welded  up,  before  shipment,  in  order  that  during  any  machining  or 
other  treatment  at  the  manufacturing  plant  where  used,  special  attention  may  be  given 
this  point. 

10.  Chemical  Analysis. — Manufacturers  shall  furnish  a  chemical  analysis  of  each 

[463] 


PLUMBAGO 

heat  made  in  an  approved  manner,  the  process  of  analysis  to  be  open  to  the  inspector. 
The  Government  check  analysis  must  show  the  heat  to  be  in  accordance  with  the 
specifications. 

11.  Casting  Record. — (a)  For  the  purpose  of  identifying  castings  inspected  under 
these  specifications  the  manufacturer  shall,  upon  request,  furnish  the  inspector   with 
true  copies  of  his  shop  order  sheet,  molding  and  pouring  record,  and  a  detailed  list 
of  the  castings  to  be  inspected,  cast  in  each  heat,  showing  manufacturer's  analysis  of 
the  heat,  name,  pattern  number,  heat  number,  serial  number,  and  estimated  weight 
of  each  casting. 

(b)  ANNEALING  RECORD. — For  castings  annealed  a  "Report  of  annealing"  shall 
be  furnished  the  inspector,  showing  the  heat  and  serial  number  of  each  casting  to  be 
inspected  in  the  annealing  furnace  charge,  together  with  the  time  of  raising  to  the 
soaking  temperature,  the  time  of  soaking,  the  time  of  cooling,  and  the  temperature  at 
which  soaking  was  done. 

The  record  cards  shall  be  exhibited  to  the  inspector  upon  request. 

(NOTE. — Steel  castings  for  hawse  pipe,  turret  tracks,  and  all  important  parts  sub- 
ject to  crushing  stresses  or  surface  wear  only  shall  be  Class  A  castings,  and  those  for 
stern  post,  rudder  frames,  and  all  parts  subject  to  tension  or  vibratory  strains  shall 
be  Class  B  castings,  unless  the  bureau  concerned  otherwise  directs.) 

SPECIAL  PROVISIONS  FOR  ORDNANCE   CASTINGS 

12.  Patterns. — Patterns  for  all  large  ordnance  castings  contracted  for  will  be  fur- 
nished by  the  Government,  but  the  responsibility  shall  rest  upon  the  contractors  to 
supply  castings  that  will  finish  to  the  drawing  dimensions  within  the  tolerances  specified. 
The  contractor  shall  report  to  the  Government  any  alterations  in  the  patterns  that  he 
may  deem  necessary  to  insure  castings  coming  to  the  finished  drawing  dimensions,  and 
shall,  H  required  by  the  Government,  make  such  alterations  of  the  patterns.     The 
actual  cost  of  such  alterations  shall  be  borne  by  the  Government. 

PLUMBAGO  FOR  FOUNDRY  USE 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

Plumbago  for  foundry  use  shall  be  finely  powdered,  dry,  free  from  coal  dust  or 
grit,  and  conform  to  the  following  requirements  as  to  chemical  composition: 

Volatile  Matter. — Not  over  5  per  cent. 

Ash. — Not  over  40  per  cent. 

Graphite  Carbon. — Not  less  than  55  per  cent. 

For  Foreign  Shipment. — It  must  be  delivered  in  good,  well  coopered,  oak  barrels, 
such  as  are  used  in  the  transportation  of  oil.  Each  barrel  to  be  completely  filled  and 
to  contain  about  400  pounds  of  material.  Barrels  must  have  the  bodies  lined  with 
elastic  crinkled  paper  tubes  and  have  sheets  of  ordinary  strong  paper  properly  fitted  in 
tops  and  bottoms.  The  name  of  material,  quantity,  and  name  of  manufacturer  must 
be  neatly  stenciled  on  the  heads. 

At  least  10  per  cent  of  the  barrels  must  be  opened  at  random  for  inspection  of 
contents. 

For  Domestic  Shipment. — It  must  be  delivered  in  No.  1  flour  barrels,  completely 
filled  and  containing  about  250  pounds  each.  Top  and  bottom  heads  to  be  reinforced. 
The  bodies  of  the  barrels  must  be  lined  with  elastic  crinkled  paper  tubes  and  have 
sheets  of  strong  ordinary  paper  properly  fitted  in  bottoms  and  heads.  The  name  of 
material,  quantity,  and  name  of  manufacturer  must  be  neatly  stenciled  on  the  heads. 

At  least  10  per  cent  of  the  barrels  must  be  opened  at  random  for  inspection  of 
contents. 


[464] 


SECTION   8 

IRON  AND  STEEL  FORCINGS.     CARBON  AND  HIGH-SPEED 
STEELS.    HEAT  TREATMENT,  FORGE    EQUIPMENT 

Wrought  Iron. — From  time  immemorial  wrought  iron  has  been  the  principal,  al- 
most the  only,  metal  employed  by  the  smith  at  the  forge.  Its  extended  use  in  the  arts 
has  been  due  to  its  inherent  properties  being  at  once  a  malleable,  ductile,  weldable 
material  of  high  tensile  strength,  high  elastic  limit,  and  of  great  reliability  under  per- 
manent and  alternating  stresses.  In  recent  years  it  has  been,  in  great  measure,  super- 
seded by  mild  steel,  but  only  in  articles  which  do  not  require  welding. 

Wrought  iron  is  made  from  white  cast  iron  by  a  process  of  elimination  known  as 
puddling,  the  purpose  of  which  is  to  eliminate  the  graphite  entirely  and  the  combined 
carbon  so  far  as  to  leave  less  than  0.20%,  a  quantity  which  does  not  wholly  prevent 
welding  but  is  sufficient  to  increase  the  strength,  rigidity,  and  hardness  of  the  iron. 

Puddling  by  hand  is  commonly  done  in  a  reverberatory  furnace.  The  pigs  of  white 
iron  are  broken  up  and  placed  in  the  hearth  of  the  furnace,  being  ultimately  mixed  with 
scales  of  oxide  of  iron  obtained  from  the  rolling  mill.  This  mixture  of  iron  and  scale 
is  subjected  to  an  oxidizing  flame,  the  temperature  of  the  furnace  being  so  regulated 
as  to  reduce  the  iron  to  a  pasty  condition;  while  in  this  condition  the  iron  and  the  molten 
scales  or  cinder  are  constantly  stirred  by  hand  tools  until  the  whole  is  thoroughly  mixed, 
it  is  then  formed  into  a  ball  as  large  as  can  be  conveniently  gotten  through  the  furnace 
door.  This  newly  converted  mass  of  viscous  iron  and  cinder  or  slag  is  then  worked 
under  a  hammer,  or  placed  in  some  form  of  squeezer,  the  slag  with  its  contained  im- 
purities being  driven  out  by  pressure;  the  resulting  bloom  is  then  rolled  into  a  muck 
bar,  which  is  cut  into  short  pieces,  piled  into  a  bundle,  reheated  to  the  welding  point, 
and  again  hammered  and  rolled  to  further  cleanse  the  iron  of  its  impurities,  the  product 
being  known  as  single  refined  iron;  if  subjected  to  a  second  piling,  heating,  hammering, 
or  rolling  it  is  known  as  double  refined  iron.  This  process  of  piling,  reheating,  and  roll- 
ing may  be  repeated  until  the  desired  quality  of  iron  is  attained. 

Chemistry. — As  a  chemical  process  it  consists  essentially  in  the  elimination  of 
carbon  from  pig  iron  in  the  action  of  the  furnace  flame  upon  the  molten  oxide  of  iron, 
the  oxygen  of  which  unites  with  the  carbon  in  the  pig  iron,  carbon  dioxide  is  formed 
which  passes  off  as  a  gas.  The  quantity  of  carbon  remaining  in  the  puddled  iron  is  very 
small,  usually  between  0 . 05  and  0 . 10%,  an  amount  insufficient  to  harden  the  iron  by 
rapid  cooling  from  a  red  heat. 

The  silicon  in  the  pig  iron  unites  with  any  free  oxygen  in  the  furnace,  a  basic  silicate 
of  iron  is  formed  which  passes  off  with  the  slag. 

Manganese  is  readily  removed  from  iron  by  oxidation;  while  restraining  the  oxida- 
tion of  iron  it  permits  oxidation  of  other  elements  combined  with  the  iron,  thus:  Man- 
ganese present  in  pig  iron,  in  which  sulphur  is  also  present  as  iron  sulphide,  changes  the 
latter  into  manganese  sulphide,  liberating  the  iron.  Manganese  sulphide  not  being 
as  soluble  in  iron  as  iron  sulphide  readily  passes  into  the  slag. 

Phosphorus  exists  in  pig  iron  as  phosphide  of  iron.  During  the  process  of  refining 
or  puddling  it  is  reduced  to  phosphate  of  iron  which  may  be  removed  from  iron  by  strong 
bases,  such  as  oxide  of  iron,  oxide  of  manganese,  alkaline  earths,  such  as  lime,  and  by 
basic  silicates  in  a  strongly  oxidizing  atmosphere,  passing  oft7  with  the  other  impurities 
in  the  slag.  When  oxide  of  iron  is  reduced  in  the  presence  of  an  earthy  phosphate, 
phosphorus  is  separated,  and  unites  with  the  iron;  0.3%  phosphorus  in  wrought  iron 
makes  it  hard  and  diminishes  its  tenacity;  0.5%  makes  the  iron  cold-short  but  not 
red-short;  1.0%  makes  iron  brittle.  Phosphorus  imparts  to  iron  a  coarse,  crystalline 
structure,  diminishes  its  strength,  increases  its  fusibility,  and  makes  it  cold-short. 

[465] 


WROUGHT  IRON 

In  the  accompanying  table  a  chemical  analysis  of  an  average  sample  of  white  iron, 
such  as  used  in  the  puddling  furnace,  is  given,  together  with  analysis  of  plate  iron  of 
55,000  pounds  tensile  strength.  The  plate  analysis  shows  0.80%  cinder,  of  which 
only  0.04%  is  carbon. 


Pig  Iron 
Per  Cent. 

Wrought  Iron 
Per  Cent. 

Iron  

89  .  44 

99  20 

Carbon-graphite 

87 

Combined  

2  45 

04 

Manganese 

2  71 

17 

Silicon  

1.11 

.15 

Sulphur  

2.51 

.03 

Phosphorus. 

.91 

.21 

Oxvgen.  . 

.20 

100.00 

100.00 

Wrought  iron  as  distinguished  from  mild  steel  is  traceable  to  its  method  of  manu- 
facture. Steel  is  of  molten  origin,  wrought  iron  is  of  plastic  origin,  that  is,  it  is  made  by 
stirring  into  an  intimate  mixture  white  pig  iron  heated  to  a  pasty  but  not  a  molten 
condition  in  a  bath  of  molten  cinder,  mechanically  working  it  with  a  rake  and  after 
removal  from  the  furnace  squeezing  out  of  the  puddled  mass  much  of  its  contained 
cinder,  and  not  separating  the  molten  metal  by  fusion  as  in  the  case  of  steel.  Nearly 
all  the  carbon  and  most  of  the  other  impurities  in  the  pig  iron  are  taken  up  by  the  cinder 
leaving  comparatively  pure  iron. 

Texture  of  Wrought  Iron. — Irons  are  said  to  be  either  fibrous  or  granular  in  texture. 
When  worked  directly  from  a  bloom  the  forging  presents  a  granular  appearance;  in 
large  forgings,  this  grain,  is  coarser  at  the  center  and  finest  near  the  surface.  Should 
the  process  of  hammering  be  continued,  the  forging  will  become,  when  considerably 
reduced  in  area,  uniformly  fine  grained.  If,  however,  instead  of  this  continued  hammer- 
ing, the  original  forged  billet  be  elongated  by  running  it  through  a  train  of  rolls  the 
texture  of  a  section  cut  longitudinally  from  the  bar  will  have  changed  from  granular 
to  fibrous;  but  if  the  section  be  cut  transversely  or  at  right  angles  to  this  direction,  the 
section  will  have  a  wholly  different  appearance.  This  is  due,  as  explained  by  Sauveur : 

In  longitudinal  section  the  ground  mass  of  the  metal  consists  of  ferrite,  similar  in 
every  respect  to  the  crystalline  grains  of  pure  iron.  The  ferrite  of  wrought  iron  is  not 
pure  iron  but  rather  a  solution  of  iron  in  which  are  dissolved  small  quantities  of  silicon, 
phosphorus,  and  other  minor  impurities.  Slag  which  has  assumed  the  shape  of  fibers,  or 
streaks,  running  in  the  direction  of  the  rolling,  imparts  a  fibrous  appearance  to  the  metal. 

In  transverse  section  there  is  a  polygonal  network  indicating  that  the  metal  is  made 
up  of  crystalline  grains  of  ferrite.  The  slag,  which  in  the  longitudinal  section  occurred 
as  fibers  running  in  a  direction  parallel  to  the  rolling,  here  assume  the  shape  of  irregular 
dark  areas,  corresponding  to  the  cross-sections  of  the  slag  fibers.  In  both  the  longitu- 
dinal and  transverse  sections  the  f errite  grains  are  equi-axed,  and  show  no  sign  of  having 
been  elongated  in  the  direction  of  rolling. 

Certain  peculiarities  noted  by  A.  L.  Hass  in  connection  with  Yorkshire  iron  show 
that,  if  the  iron  is  nicked  %  inch  deep  around,  say,  a  1-inch  bar,  with  a  sharp  set,  and 
broken  short  over  the  anvil  with  a  single  blow,  it  shows  a  fracture  in  which  the  bar 
breaks  dead  short  and  square;  the  fracture  is  coarsely  granular,  resembling  badly 
burned  steel,  only  the  granular  structure  is  coarser.  The  bar  nicked  on  one  side  only, 
and  carefully  bent  with  the  nick  a  couple  of  inches  from  the  edge  of  the  vise  or  anvil, 
shows  a  beautiful  gray,  silky,  fibrous  structure,  free  from  crystals  and  perfect  in  every 
way.  This  peculiarity,  so  perplexing  to  many  iron-workers,  is  fully  covered  in  the 
preceding  explanation  of  the  fibrous  texture  of  wrought  iron  by  Professor  Sauveur. 

[466] 


WROUGHT  IRON 

Iron  when  pure  presents  but  a  single  texture,  and  that  the  granular  one.  Puddling, 
as  already  explained,  consists  in  stirring  a  mass  of  viscous  iron  in  a  bath  of  cinder;  the 
latter  prevents  intimate  contact  of  the  particles  of  iron,  it  opposes  thorough  welding, 
and  favors  the  production  of  fibrous  texture,  since  during  subsequent  working  the 
grains  of  iron  accompanied  by  cinder  can  slide  over  each  other  in  layers,  and  this  gives 
to  iron  its  fibrous  texture. 

Malleability. — So  far  as  engineering  work  is  concerned  there  are  no  restricting 
limitations  to  forgings  of  wrought  iron,  either  as  to  size  or  shape,  but  soft  fibrous  irons 
are  more  malleable,  that  is,  more  easily  worked  than  are  hard  granular  irons. 

Tensile  Strength. — Wrought  iron  bars  or  plates,  as  delivered  from  the  mill,  should 
have  a  tensile  strength  not  less  than  48,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  this  should  be 
accompanied  by  not  less  than  15%  elongation  in  an  8-inch  specimen.  The  fracture 
should  be  90%  fibrous.  Plates  and  bars  should  bend  cold  without  fracture  through 
135°  over  two  thicknesses  of  plate  and  two  diameters  for  bars,  in  order  to  meet  the 
U.  S.  N.  specifications. 

Bar  irons  of  good  quality  should  have  a  tensile  strength  of  about  53,000  pounds  per 
square  inch  with  an  extension  of  about  20%  in  8  inches;  such  irons  must  have  good 
welding  qualities;  therefore  the  carbon  and  the  phosphorus  should  each  be  less  than 
0.20%. 

Irons  which  do  not  require  to  be  welded  may  have  a  tensile  strength  of  60,000 
pounds  per  square  inch,  with  elongation  of  18%  in  8  inches.  Such  irons  are  apt  to  ,be 
hard,  steely,  and  difficult  to  weld;  they  should,  therefore,  be  restricted  to  uses  direct 
from  the  bar  or  simple  forging. 

When  tested  across  the  fiber  wrought  iron  plates  and  wide  bars  show  a  diminution 
in  tensile  strength  of  about  10%  as  compared  with  tests  made  in  the  direction  of  the 
fiber. 

Ductility. — This  property  enables  a  material  to  be  drawn  out  without  breaking. 
It  is  also  called  elongation  or  extension  in  reports  on  the  mechanical  tests  to  which 
plates  or  bars  are  subjected.  Elongation  occurs  when  a  ductile  material  is  subjected 
to  a  tensile  stress  higher  than  its  elastic  limit,  after  which  a  permanent  change  of  form 
takes  place.  It  may  be  measured  in  a  tensile  testing-machine  in  two  ways — by  the 
actual  amount  of  elongation  in  inches  and  parts  of  an  inch,  and  by  reducing  the  amount 
so  found  to  percentage  extension  of  its  original  length. 

Wrought  iron  plates  under  45,000  pounds  tensile  strength  should  show  a  reduction 
of  area  of  not  less  than  12%;  45,000  to  50,000  pounds,  15%;  50,000  to  55,000, 25%;  55,- 
000  pounds  and  over  should  show  35%  reduction  of  area. 

The  following  data  were  obtained  from  Government  tests  of  wrought-iron  plates, 
which  it  will  be  observed  are  of  very  high  quality.  These  were  short  specimens: 


Thickness 

Tensile  Strength 
Pounds 

Reduction  of  Area 
Per  Cent. 

j  inch  with  the  grain 

58373 

38 

j  inch  across  the  grain  

53,333 

9 

Y§  inch  with  the  grain  

62,195 

43 

YS  inch  across  the  grain  . 

60202 

10 

f  inch  with  the  grain  

56,270 

25 

f  inch  across  the  grain 

56461 

17 

The  behavior  of  wrought  iron  under  tension  will  greatly  depend  upon  its  inherent 
hardness  or  softness;  a  hard  specimen  will  elongate  but  little,  while  a  softer  specimen 
will  be  drawn  out  considerably,  the  middle  part  becoming  gradually  smaller,  and  fracture 
will  ultimately  take  place  at  the  smallest  section,  and  probably  at  a  lower  strain  than 
with  a  specimen  of  harder  iron. 

The  stretching  of  wrought  iron  is  seldom  taken  into  account  in  engineering  work, 
and  the  reason  for  selecting  the  softer  iron  is  that  it  can  be  used  with  greater  safety, 

[467] 


WROUGHT  IRON 

since  when  subjected  to  jar  or  sudden  strain  it  is  more  likely  to  be  drawn  out  than 
broken  asunder,  and  thus  gives  timely  warning  before  fracture. 

Elastic  Limit.  —  Wrought  iron  bars  rolled,  4  inches  diameter,  having  a  tensile  strength 
of  about  46,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  will  have  an  elastic  limit  averaging  50%.  Bars 
of  2  inches  diameter,  tensile  strength  about  48,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  will  have  an 
elastic  limit  about  65%.  Bars  of  1-inch  diameter  having  a  tensile  strength  of  about 
51,000  pounds  will  have  an  elastic  limit  of  about  70%.  The  above  are  adaptations 
from  Beardslee's  tests  which  were  intended  primarily  to  show  the  effect  of  continued 
working  of  wrought  iron  from  a  comparatively  large  area  through  successive  operations 
to  small  bars. 

For  wrought  iron,  the  following  physical  properties  are  taken  as  representing  ac- 
ceptable material  in  engineering  work: 

Bar  iron  in  tension  :  50,000  pounds  tensile  strength,  elastic  limit  26,000  pounds  =  52%, 
with  18%  elongation  in  8  inches. 

Shape  iron  in  tension:  48,000  pounds  tensile  strength,  elastic  limit  26,000  pounds  = 
54%,  with  15%  elongation  in  8  inches. 

Safe  Load.  —  Wrought-iron  bars  subject  to  varying  stresses,  such  as  screw  bolts  in 
engineering  structures,  should  have  a  factor  of  safety  of  not  less  than  8,  on  the  net  area. 

For  chains  the  proof  load  up  to  2.5  inches  diameter  is: 

Proof  load  in  tons  =  18  X  (diameter  in  inches).2 

The  breaking  strengths  are  placed  at  40%  above  the  proof  loads.  Thus  the  proof 
load  on  a  2-inch  chain  would  be  18  X  22  =  72  tons  (161,280  pounds).  The  area  of  a 
2-inch  bar  is  3.14  square  inches,  then  161,280  -r-  3.14  =  51,363  pounds  per  square 
inch.  The  safe  working  load  is  one-half  the  proof  load,  or  25,681  pounds  per  square 
inch  of  sectional  area  of  bar;  accepting  this,  we  have: 


Working  load  in  2 

1  6  X  D2  for  close  link 


tons  of  2240  pounds  =      ,  0  ™T  t.  - 

I  4  X  D2  for  ordinary  chains 

In  which  D  =  diameter  of  bar  in  inches. 

Compression. — Of  10  specimens  of  wrought  iron,  cut  from  forgings  of  high  quality, 
the  softest  began  to  yield  with  22,800  pounds,  and  the  hardest  with  31,000  pounds,  the 
average  being  26,900  pounds.  In  each  case  weight  was  added  until  the  specimen 
became  shorter,  by  the  <Kooo  °f  an  inch. 

From  experiments  made  with  10  other  specimens  taken  from  rolled  bar  iron  of  high 
quality,  the  specimens  having  been  reduced  in  a  lathe  from  3-inch  bars,  the  softest 
specimen  required  31,000  pounds,  and  the  hardest  35,000  pounds,  or  an  average  of 
33,000  pounds. 

Structures  rarely  ever  fail  from  the  actual  crushing  of  the  material;  failure  is  more 
often  due  to  the  alteration  of  form  which  takes  place,  disturbing  its  fitness  for  the  par- 
ticular purpose  for  which  it  is  intended.  When  a  pillar,  strut,  or  frame  is  long,  it 
generally  yields  by  flexure  rather  than  actual  crushing. 

By  increasing  the  stress  upon  short  cylinders  0 . 533  inch  diameter,  length  1-inch,  of 
wrought  iron  or  soft  steel,  they  are  found  to  shorten  gradually  by  bulging  outwards  in 
the  middle.  The  effect  of  this  change  of  form  is  to  slightly  stiffen  the  metal,  and  this 
affects  the  malleable  or  flowing  property;  unless  the  specimen  is  extremely  soft,  it  will 
soon  show  symptoms  of  slight  fissures  or  cracks  at  the  part  which  is  bulging.  To  pre- 
vent this,  the  annealing  process  must  be  resorted  to,  and  with  care  the  pillar  can  be 
flattened  down  to  a  thin  disk,  gradually  presenting  a  larger  surface  for  the  machine  to 
act  upon.  Reckoning  the  intensity  of  the  ultimate  pressure  from  the  original  dimen- 
sions, a  stress  of  upwards  of  100  tons  per  square  inch  is  necessary  to  actually  flatten 
down  wrought  iron. 

When  wrought  iron  or  steel  is  flattened  by  compression,  it  might  be  supposed  that 
the  specific  gravity  would  be  increased;  but  such  does  not  appear  to  be  the  case  to  any 
appreciable  extent. 

Welding. — Wrought  iron  possesses  the  property  of  welding  when  the  two  parts  to 
be  joined  are  brought  up  to  a  white  heat.  Welded  joints  are,  when  well  made,  scarcely 

[468] 


WROUGHT  IRON 

inferior  to  the  original  bar;  but  stays,  braces,  etc.,  for  boilers  should  be  made  from 
whole  stock  if  possible,  because  there  is  always  more  or  less  uncertainty  about  welded 
joints,  particularly  when  the  parts  to  be  joined  are  of  considerable  diameter  or  thickness. 

The  lower  grades  of  wrought  iron  make  an  apparent  weld  at  almost  a  melting 
temperature,  as  well  as  at  low  heat.  With  the  better  grades  of  iron,  that  is,  iron  of 
high  tensile  strength,  this  cannot  be  done,  and  a  heat  between  closer  limits  of  temperature 
is  necessary. 

Welded  chain  is  one  of  the  principal  uses  for  which  wrought  iron  is  still  exclusively 
employed.  In  the  making  of  a  high-grade  chain,  reduction  of  area  of  the  bar  iron  under 
tensile  test  is  of  value  as  affecting  the  finished  chain.  The  elongation  of  sample  links 
under  tensile  test  bears  a  direct  relation  to  the  reduction  of  area  obtained  from  the  bar 
iron  from  which  it  is  made.  The  greater  the  reduction  of  area  in  the  bar,  the  greater 
will  be  the  percentage  of  elongation  in  the  finished  chain.  A  well-made  chain  under 
tensile  test  never  breaks  in  the  weld,  but  always  at  the  end  of  the  link  which  is  not 
welded,  or  at  the  side.  A  break  at  the  weld  proves  poor  workmanship,  no  matter 
what  iron  is  used. 

Stiffening. — This  property  of  wrought  iron  is  particularly  valuable  in  the  case  of 
chains  and  similar  link  work.  A  chain,  if  of  the  best  quality  of  iron  and  workmanship, 
will  stiffen  under  breaking  stress.  Chains  from  a  common  grade  of  iron  do  not  stiffen. 
The  stiffening  of  chain  links  is  a  certain  indication  that  the  chain  has  been  overstrained, 
and  should  be  carefully  annealed  before  further  use. 

Annealing. — When  a  piece  of  wrought  iron  has  been  subjected  to  a  long  series  of 
blows,  or  violent  jars,  a  change  takes  place  in  the  structure  of  the  iron.  The  change  to 
rigidity  which  overtakes  iron  when  worked  cold  may,  according  to  Anderson,  partly 
account  for  some  of  the  frequent  fractures  of  the  chains  of  cranes,  and  this  view  is  in 
some  measure  supported  by  the  fact  that  when  such  chains  are  annealed  at  stated 
intervals,  say  annually,  the  liability  to  accident  is  greatly  diminished. 

A  practical  example  of  the  value  of  annealing  can  be  easily  obtained  from  a  wrought- 
iron  chain.  A  link  of  a  chain  known  to  be  in  need  of  annealing  can  easily  be  broken 
by  a  single  blow  of  a  hammer,  with  the  link  held  vertically  on  an  anvil.  The  fracture 
is  coarsely  crystalline  and  the  break  is  sharp  and  nearly  square.  After  proper  heat- 
treatment  the  next  link  can  be  flattened  or  maltreated  in  almost  any  manner  short  of 
actually  cutting  it,  but  it  will  not  break. 

Temperature. — Experimental  research  by  Professor  Rudeloff  on  the  influence  of 
low  temperatures  on  iron  and  steel  showed  that  much  depends  on  the  chemical  com- 
position of  the  material,  but  generally  the  ultimate  strength  is  raised  rapidly  at  first 
and  slowly  afterward,  the  yield  point  slowly  at  first  and  rapidly  afterward,  while  per- 
centage of  elongation  is  generally  decreased.  The  material  is  therefore  less  capable 
of  resisting  shock  at  low  temperatures.  At  high  temperatures  metals  decrease  both  in 
strength  and  ductility. 

The  effect  of  intense  cold  upon  wrought  iron  as  tested  experimentally  showed  that 
of  three  pieces  of  a  f-inch  bar,  one  at  64°  F.  and  the  other,  after  having  been  exposed 
overnight  to  intense  frost,  were  broken  at  23°  F.  At  64°  F.  the  tensile  strength  was 
55,708  pounds,  with  elongation  24.9%. 

At  23°  F.  the  tensile  strength  was  54,387  pounds,  with  23.0%  elongation,  showing 
that  at  the  lower  temperature  the  strength  was  1321.6  pounds  less. 

The  general  effect  of  extreme  cold  upon  wrought  iron  seems  to  affect  its  ductility 
in  greater  degree  than  its  tensile  strength. 


[469] 


WROUGHT  IRON 

WROUGHT  IRON  FOR  BLACKSMITHS'  USE 

NAVY   DEPARTMENT 

Process  of  Manufacture. — The  material  shall  be  of  the  best  quality  of  American 
refined  iron  puddled  from  all-ore  pig  metal,  and  free  from  any  admixture  of  steel  or 
scrap.  Short  pieces  must  not  be  used  in  piling. 

Physical  and  Chemical  Requirement. — All  material  shall  be  free  from  injurious  de- 
fects and  have  a  workmanlike  finish. 

For  sectional  areas  above  4  square  inches  a  reduction  of  1  %  in  elongation  and  con- 
traction and  a  reduction  of  500  pounds  in  tensile  strength  will  be  allowed  for  each  addi- 
tional 2  square  inches,  and  a  proportionate  amount  of  reduction  for  fractional  parts 
thereof,  provided  the  ultimate  strength  shall  not  fall  more  than  3,000  pounds  nor  the 
elongation  more  than  3%  below  the  requirements  of  the  grade  of  iron  tested. 

Tests. — Material  will  be  tested  in  sizes  rolled,  when  practicable,  and  a  sufficient 
number  of  tests  shall  be  taken  to  exhibit  thoroughly  the  character  of  the  material. 
When  material  can  not  be  tested  in  sizes  rolled,  test  pieces  will  be  prepared  to  a  sectional 
area  as  large  as  possible  within  the  capacity  of  the  testing  machine  for  tensile  tests,  and 
reduced  to  suitable  size  for  bending  or  other  physical  tests.  The  number  of  bending 
and  other  physical  tests  shall  equal  the  number  taken  for  tensile  tests. 

Nick  Test. — A  bar  nicked  approximately  20%  of  its  thickness  and  bent  back  at  this 
point  through  an  angle  of  180  degrees  must  show  a  long,  clean,  silky  fiber,  free  from 
slag  or  dirt,  or  any  coarse  crystalline  spots.  A  few  crystalline  spots  may  be  tolerated, 
provided  they  do  not  in  the  aggregate  exceed  10%  of  the  sectional  area  of  the  bar. 

Drift  Test. — A  rod  or  bar  will  be  punched  and  expanded  by  pointed  drifts  until  a 
round  hole  is  formed  the  diameter  of  which  is  not  less  than  nine-tenths  the  diameter 
of  the  rod  or  width  of  the  bar.  Any  indication  of  fracture,  cracks,  or  flaws  developed 
by  this  test  will  be  sufficient  cause  for  rejection  of  the  lot  represented  by  the  rod  or  bar. 

Completed  Forgings. — Forgings,  when  of  wrought,  iron,  will  be  built  up  either  from 
the  rolled  bars  themselves  or  from  fagots  or  slabs  previously  prepared  by  shingling 
from  such  rolled  bars.  No  rolled  bars  of  greater  cross-section  than  1-inch  by  4  inches 
will  be  used  either  directly  in  the  built-up  forging  or  in  the  preparation  of  the  fagots  or 
slabs.  Bending  and  tensile  tests  are  to  be  made  from  the  original  bar  before  reworking 
into  the  forging,  fagots,  or  slabs,  where  practicable,  in  accordance  with  requirements 
stated  above.  Additional  tests  will  be  taken  from  prolongations  of  the  finished  forging, 
using  full-length  specimens  where  practicable.  The  number  of  test  pieces  will  be  such 
as  the  inspector  may  consider  necessary  to  insure  that  the  material  used  is  uniform  in 
character.  « 

The  physical  and  chemical  requirements  shall  be  as  follows: 

Special  Grade. — Minimum  tensile  strength,  48,000  pounds  per  square  inch  with 
minimum  yield  point  of  one-half  ultimate  strength.  Minimum  elongation,  26%.  Mini- 
mum contraction  area  40%.  Maximum  amount  of  phosphorus,  0.10%.  Sulphur, 
0.015%.  Bending  test:  Cold,  180°  around  a  diameter  of  one  thickness.  Quenching 
test:  Heat  to  1700°  F.  and  bend  180°  around  a  diameter  of  one  thickness.  Tempera- 
ture of  the  water  in  which  the  bar  is  to  be  quenched  should  be  about  80°  F. 

Blacksmith  Grade. — Minimum  tensile  strength  45,000  pounds  per  square  inch 
with  minimum  yield  point  of  one-half  ultimate  strength.  Minimum  elongation,  25%. 
Minimum  contraction  area,  rounds  40%,  flats  35%.  Maximum  amount  of  phosphorus, 
0.15%.  Sulphur,  0.020%.  Bending  test:  Cold,  flats  %  inch  and  less  around  a 
diameter  of  two  thicknesses,  all  other  material  to  180°  around  a  diameter  of  one  thick- 
ness. Quenching  test:  Heat  to  1700°  F.  and  bend  to  same  requirements  as  cold  bend. 
Temperature  of  the  water  in  which  the  bar  is  quenched  should  be  about  80°  F. 

Elongation. — The  elongation  will  be  measured  in  8  inches  with  the  following  ex- 
ceptions: Flats  I  inch  and  less  in  thickness  will  be  measured  on  a  length  equal  to 
twenty-five  times  the  thickness  of  the  material  tested. 

On  all  other  material  less  than  f-inch  diameter  or  thickness,  the  elongation  will  be 
measured  on  a  length  equal  to  ten  times  the  diameter  or  thickness  of  the  material 
tested. 

[470] 


STEEL  FORCINGS 


STEEL  FORCINGS  FOR  HULLS,  ENGINES,  AND  ORDNANCE 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General  Instructions. — General  Specifications  for  Inspection  of  Material  issued 
by  the  Navy  Department  shall  form  a  part  of  these  specifications. 

2.  Material. — Forgings  referred  to  herein  are  to  be  machined  as  received  from  the 
contractor  without  reforging  or  further  heat  treatment. 

The  forgings  shall  conform  to  sizes  and  shapes  specified  by  the  order. 

3.  Process. — Forgings  must  be  made  by  the  open-hearth  or  electric  process,  except 
Class  C,  which  may  be  made  by  the  Bessemer  process.     They  must  be  rolled  or  forged 
from  ingots,  the  original  cross-section  of  which  is  at  least  four  times  that  of  the  finished 
forging. 

4.  Discard. — A  sufficient  discard  shall  be  taken  from  each  ingot  to  insure  freedom 
from  piping  and  undue  segregation.     Such  discards  shall,  unless  otherwise  approved 
by  the  bureau  concerned,  be  not  less  than  5  per  cent  from  the  bottom  in  any  case, 
20  per  cent  from  the  top,  if  bottom  poured  or  fluid  compressed,  and  30  per  cent  from 
the  top,  if  top  poured. 

5.  Surface  and  Other  Defects. — All  forgings  shall  be  free  from  slag,  seams,  pipes, 
flaws,  cracks,  blow-holes,  hard  spots,  sand,  foreign  substances,  and  all  other  defects 
affecting  their  value. 

6.  Chemical  and  Physical  Properties. — The  respective  classes  of  forgings  shall  have 
the  following  properties: 


MAXIMUM 

VALUES 

MINIMUM  VALUES 

Elonga- 

Class 

Treatment 

Material 

tion 

Cold     Bend 
Without 

4 

Cracking 

Ten- 

Yield 

| 

a 

C. 

s. 

P. 

sile 

Point 

2 

& 

% 

% 

% 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

% 

% 

Alloy 

0.45 

0.040 

0.04 

105,000 

80,000 

20 

18 

180°  to  inner 
diam.  of  1  in. 

HG.  .  .  . 

Annealed  & 

Nickel 

0.35 

0.045 

0.04 

95,000 

65,000 

21 

18 

Do. 

oil  tempered 

steel 

An  

Annealed.  .  . 

Do. 

0.45 

.045 

.04 

80,000 

50,000 

25 

21 

Do. 

Ac  

Annealed  & 

Carbon 

.60 

.045 

.04 

80,000 

50,000 

25 

21 

Do. 

oil  tempered 

steel 

B-s 

Do.  optional 

Do. 

.60 

.045 

.04 

75,000 

40,000 

22 

19 

Do. 

B  

Annealed.  .  . 

Do. 

.40 

.045 

.04 

60,000 

30,000 

30 

25 

180°  to  inner 
diam.  of  £  in. 

C 

Do. 

.070 

.07 

50,000 

18 

15 

7.  Nickel  steel  shall  contain  not  less  than  3  per  cent  nickel. 

8.  Class  C  forgings  shall  not  be  tested  unless  there  are  reasons  to  doubt  that  they 
are  of  a  quality  suitable  for  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  intended. 

9.  Physical  Test  Specimens. — Test  specimens  shall,  in  general,  be  located  during 
fabrication.     Material  shall  also  be  provided  for  possible  extra  tests.     The  specimens* 
shall  fairly  represent  the  average  strength  of  the  material  and  be  taken  at  a  point 
which  has  received  the  average  amount  of  reduction.     They  should,  in  general,  be 
located  in  that  part  of  the  forging  which  includes  the  top  of  the  ingot  as  cast,  unless 
otherwise  specified  or  requested  by  the  inspector. 

10.  Longitudinal  Test  Specimens. — Longitudinal  test  specimens  shall,  in  general, 
be  taken  from  a  full-sized  prolongation  of  the  forging  in  the  direction  in  which  the 

[471] 


STEEL  FORCINGS 


metal  is  most  drawn.  For  forgings  with  large  palms  or  flanges  this  prolongation  may 
be  of  the  same  cross-section  as  the  part  back  of  the  palm  or  flange.  The  axis  of  the 
longitudinal  test  specimens  shall  be  located  at  any  point  midway  between  the  center 
and  the  surface  of  solid  forgings  and  at  any  point  midway  between  the  inner  and  outer 
surface  of  the  wall  of  hollow  forgings. 

Prolongations  from  which  test  specimens  are  to  be  taken  shall  be  left  on  both  ends 
of  each  forging. 

11.  Transverse  Test  Specimens. — When  required,  or  when,  for  reasons  satisfactory 
to  the  inspector,  it  is  considered  impracticable  to  obtain  longitudinal  test  specimens, 
transverse  test  specimens  shall  be  taken  from  location  selected  by  the  inspector. 

12.  Test,  Individual,  General. — From  forgings  of  or  above  250  pounds  completed 
weight,  at  least,  two  tensile  and  one  cold  bend  test  shall  be  made. 

13.  Test,  Individual,  Special. — The  number  and  location  of  test  specimens  for 
special  forgings  weighing  when  completed  250  pounds  or  over  shall  be  as  listed  in  table 
or  illustrated  on  plates. 

(NOTE. — Letters  in  the  columns  of  the  table  indicate  the  test  specimens  which 
shall  be  taken:  "i"  inner,  "o"  outer,  "c"  center,  "W  and  X"  are  between  the  webs; 
"b"  indicates  bend  specimen.  The  positions  of  the  test  specimens  are  shown  in  the 
plates.  One  specimen  shall  be  taken  for  each  letter  in  the  column  unless  otherwise 
stated.  Round  sections  in  the  plates  indicate  tensile  bars,  square  sections  bending 
bars.  The  letters  under  "Top,"  "Bottom,"  and  "Intermediate"  indicate  the  part 
of  ingot  to  which  they  apply.)  Test  specimens  for  drums  and  spindle  ends  shall  be 
located  as  indicated  in  Plate  II. 


Top 


Bottom 


Interme- 
diate 


All  shafting  10  inches  in  diameter  or  over 

All  shafting  over  5  inches  and  under  10  inches 
in  diameter 

Shafts,  including  crank  shafts  5  inches  in 
diameter  or  less 

Additional  to  above  for  crank  shafts  over  5 
inches  in  diameter,  from  one  web  or  crank 
shaft  section 

Piston  rods,  connecting  rods,  eccentric  rods, 
valve  stems,  columns,  tie-rods,  reverse  arm 
blocks  and  arms,  wrist  pins,  crossheads, 
valve  links,  guides,  forged  bolts  and  nuts, 
feathers,  keys,  collars,  sleeves,  couplings, 
and  caps 


WandX 


NOTE. — For  hollow  forgings  (forged  or  bored),  the  inside  specimens  shall  be  taken 
within  the  finished  section  prolonged,  but  as  near  the  positions  indicated  as  possible. 
See  Plates  I  and  II. 

14.  Test  by  Lot. — Small  forgings,  including  those  listed  in  paragraph  13,  weighing 
less  than  250  pounds  each  as  delivered,  may  be  tested  in  lots  of  1,000  pounds  or  less, 
the  forgings  in  each  lot  being  of  one  class  and  kind  only,  made  from  the  same  melt 
and  heat  treated  (annealed  or  oil-tempered)  in  the  same  furnace  at  the  same  time.  In 
this  case  the  inspector  will  select  at  random  two  tensile  and  one  cold-bending  test 
specimens  to  represent  the  lot,  each  from  a  different  object.  When  the  manufacturer 
so  desires,  extra  forgings  may  be  made  in  order  to  provide  for  test  specimens,  which 
forgings  will  be  selected  by  the  inspector  at  random  from  the  lot.  When  small  forgings 
as  referred  to  in  the  foregoing  are  not  tested  by  lot  the  tests  made  to  determine  the 
physical  properties  thereof  shall  comply  with  requirements  which  may  be  specified  or 
shall  be  as  directed  by  the  inspector. 

[472] 


STEEL  FORCINGS 

15.  Forgings,  List  of  (Partial),  Covered  by  the  Foregoing  General  Requirements.— 

Parts  of  gun  recoil  system,  including  recoil  and  spring  cylinders,  piston  rods;  also  nuts 
and  bolts  for  same.  Gun  elevating  and  training  gear  shafts,  worms,  pinions,  keys, 
and  feathers,  etc.,  for  same.  Parts  of  gun  mount  requiring  high  elastic  limit,  such  as 
gun  yokes,  trunnion-bearing  caps,  floating  supports,  and  other  trunnion  parts,  trunnion 
bands,  and  slides.  Parts  of  torpedo  tubes  and  ordnance  appurtenances  where  high 
elastic  limit  is  required,  shafting,  rammer,  links,  etc.  Turret  rollers,  turret-turning 
pinions,  turret  racks,  and  tracks.  Armor  keys.  Holding-down  bolts  for  gun  mounts 
and  turret  tracks.  Rudder  frames  and  rudder  stocks.  Anchor  crane  stocks. 


IF  THE  COUPLINGS  ARE  FORGED   ON  THE   SHAFT,  THE  TEST  PIECES  SHALL  BE  TAKEN 
f  ROM  A  PROLONGATION    OF,  THE    SHAFT  WHICH   SHALL  HAVE  RECEIVED  THE  SAME 
REDUCTION  AS  THE    SHAFT  AT   ITS  GREATEST  DIAMETER 


T 

PUATJE  1. 

_  j*~  ~~^ 

\ 

\ 
\ 
\ 

\ 

&. 

K 

$ 

--... 

^ 

| 
i 

^—  « 

^ 

c 

1 

i 

] 
| 

W  AND   X 
1 

i 

.... 

X 

"^v^r- 

to 

32 

JK 

04 

i 
i 

L/    m 

l$*~ 

m 

3TTED  LINES  INDICATE    FINISHED  SHAFT 

DRUMS 


TOP 

BOTTOM 

Q  AND   b 
OR  MORE 

C 

OR  MORE 

IF  A  COUPLING  IS  FORGED  ON  A  SPINDLE  END, THE 
TEST  PIECES  FROM  THAT  END  SHALL  BE  TAKEN  FROM 
A  PROLONGATION  OFTHE  SHAFT  WHICH  SHALL  HAVE 
RECEIVED  THE  SAME  REDUCTION  AS  THE  SHAFT  AT 
ITS  GREATEST  DIAMETER. 

PUATE  1C 


SPINDLE  ENDS. 


WHEEL  END 

SHAFT  END 

d  OR  e 

OPTIONAL. 

h  AND   1 

DOT  AND  DASH  LINES  INDICATE  ADDITIONAL 
METAL  REQUIRED  FOR   TEST  PIECES. 


16.  Miscellaneous  Bars. — For  rolled  material  not  otherwise  covered  herein,  pur- 
chased under  these  specifications,  which  is  not  to  be  reforged,  the  inspector  shall  select 
four  tensile  and  two  cold-bending  test  specimens  from  each  melt  of  material  annealed 
under  the  same  conditions  at  the  same  time.  If  material  is  to  be  reforged,  it  should 
not  be  purchased  under  these  specifications,  but  under  Steel  rods  and  bars  for  stanchions, 
davits,  and  drop  and  miscellaneous  forgings,  or  Steel  ingots,  slabs,  blooms,  and  billets. 

[4731 


STEEL  FORCINGS 

16  £.  Treatment. — All  forgings  shall  be  annealed  as  a  final  process,  unless  otherwise 
directed.  All  tempered  forgings,  if  forged  solid,  and  if  more  than  5  inches  in  diameter 
in  any  part  of  their  lengths,  not  including  collars,  palms,  or  flanges,  shall  be  bored 
through  axially  before  tempering,  and  the  bore  shall  be  of  sufficient  size  to  enable  the 
manufacturer  to  get  the  requisite  tempering  effect.  Forgings,  such  as  crank  shafts, 
thrust  shafts,  etc.,  may,  previous  to  tempering,  be  machined  in  a  manner  best  cal- 
culated to  insure  that  the  tempering  effect  reaches  the  desired  portions.  In  this  case 
the  inspector  will  decide  upon  the  location  of  the  test  pieces  if  they  can  not  be  taken 
in  the  manner  herein  described. 

17.  Treatment  of  Hollow  Forgings. — In  case  of  hollow  forgings,  whenever  treatment 
of  any  character  is  specified,  this  treatment  must  be  given  AFTER  THE  FORCINGS  ARE 
BORED. 

18.  Additional  Treatment. — On  approval  by  the  inspector,  forgings  which  fail  to 
meet  the  physical  requirements  specified  in  the  table,  section  6,  may  be  subjected  to 
additional  heat  treatment  to  obtain  the  specified  physical  properties.     Heat  treatment 
shall  consist  of  either  annealing  or  quenching,  and  tempering,  and  annealing.     All 
parts  of  the  forging  shall  be  subjected  to  the  same  treatment  at  the  same  time.     No 
forging  shall  be  submitted  more  than  three  times. 

Note  for  General  Storekeepers. — These  specifications  are  not  intended  to  cover 
rolled  material  for  ordinary  smith  use;  such  material  is  to  be  reforged  and  the  annealing 
called  for  in  these  specifications  is  not  necessary  and  only  results  in  a  higher  price  for 
common  material.  (See  paragraph  16.) 

INGOTS,  SLABS,  BLOOMS,  AND  BILLETS 

NAVY   DEPARTMENT 
(Rounds  shall  be  classed  as  billets  if  they  are  to  be  reforged.) 

Line  between  blooms  and  billets  to  be  drawn  at  size  of  5  inches  square. 

Ingots,  slabs,  blooms,  and  billets  made  by  steel  manufacturers,  and  to  be  forged 
or  rolled  into  finished  objects  by  them,  will  not  require  inspection  or  tests;  the  tests 
and  inspection  will  be  made  of  the  finished  objects. 

Ingots  made  by  steel  manufacturers,  and  to  be  forged  into  finished  objects  by 
establishments  other  than  those  manufacturing  the  ingot,  will  be  subjected  to  chemical 
test  and  surface  inspection  only  at  place  of  manufacture.  All  required  physical  tests 
will  be  made  from  the  finished  objects. 

Slabs,  blooms,  and  billets  from  which  small  objects  are  to  be  machined  without 
heating,  shall  be  tested  by  heats,  four  longitudinal  tensile  and  four  longitudinal  cold- 
bending  test  pieces  being  selected,  each  from  a  different  object;  but  if  less  than  ten 
pieces  are  made  from  one  heat,  then  two  tensile  and  two  cold-bending  test  pieces  will 
be  selected;  but  if  there  is  but  one  slab,  bloom,  or  billet  from  a  heat,  one  longitudinal 
tensile  and  one  longitudinal  cold-bendjng  test  piece  will  suffice,  either  or  both  test 
pieces  to  be  taken  from  upper  or  lower  end  at  discretion  of  the  inspector.  These  slabs, 
blooms,  and  billets  may  be  tempered  and  annealed,  or  only  annealed,  at  the  discretion 
of  the  manufacturer,  to  get  the  physical  requirements,  and  these  requirements  shall 
be  the  same  as  for  the  class  of  forgings  for  which  the  objects  are  intended. 

Slabs,  blooms,  and  billets  to  be  forged  into  finished  objects  by  establishments  other 
than  those  manufacturing  them  shall  be  tested  by  heats,  four  longitudinal  tensile 
and  two  longitudinal  cold-bending  test  pieces  being  selected,  each  from  a  different 
object;  but,  if  less  than  ten  pieces  are  made  from  a  heat,  then  two  tensile  and  two 
bending  test  pieces  will  suffice.  And  if  there  is  but  one  slab,  bloom,  or  billet  from  a 
heat,  test  pieces  will  be  taken  as  in  similar  case  noted  in  preceding  paragraph.  The 
requirements  for  slabs,  blooms,  and  billets  "  for  reforging  "  will  be  as  follows: 

High  grade  or  Class  A,  the  same  as  Class  A  forgings,  except  that  an  elongation  of 
24  per  cent  in  2  inches  will  suffice. 

Class  B,  the  same  as  for  Class  B  forgings,  except  that  an  elongation  of  24  per  cent 
in  2  inches  will  suffice. 

[474] 


STEEL  FORCINGS 


Chemical  Requirements. — Billets  will  be  accepted  on  chemical  analysis  only  and 
shall  be  within  the  requirements  of  the  grade  as  specified  below. 


Grade 

C. 

% 

Mn. 

% 

p. 

%  max. 

s. 

%  max. 

Ni. 
%  min. 

HG  

An 

0.30-0.45 
25-    45 

0.40-0.80 
40-    80 

0.04 
04 

0.045 
045 

3.0 
3  0 

Ac 

.40-  .60 

.40-  .80 

.04 

045 

B-s  

.40-  .60 

.40-  .80 

.04 

.045 

B 

25-    40 

45-    70 

04 

045 

c         

.07 

.07 

GENERAL  REQUIREMENTS  FOR  ENGINE  FORCINGS 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

Treatment. — All  forgings  exce.pt  those  of  Class  C  shall  be  annealed  as  a  final  process 
unless  otherwise  directed.  All  tempered  forgings,  if  forged  solid,  and  if  more  than 
5  inches  in  diameter  in  any  part  of  their  lengths,  not  including  collars,  palms,  or  flanges, 
shall  be  bored  through  axially  before  tempering,  and  the  bore  shall  be  of  sufficient  size 
to  enable  the  manufacturer  to  get  the  requisite  tempering  effect.  Forgings,  such  as 
crankshafts,  thrust  shafts,  etc.,  may,  previous  to  tempering,  be  machined  in  a  manner 
best  calculated  to  insure  that  the  tempering  effect  reaches  the  desired  portions. 

Kind  of  Ingot. — The  tests  herein  laid  down  are  adapted  to  exhibit  the  qualities  of 
forgings  made  from  the  ordinary  square,  cylindrical,  or  polygonal  ingots  cast  on  end. 
If  ingots  are  cast  in  any  unusual  manner,  the  amount  of  the  discard  from  them  will  be 
determined  by  the  bureau  concerned  with  a  view  to  leaving  the  portion  to  be  used  at 
least  as  good  as  the  metal  of  an  ingot  cast  in  the  ordinary  way,  from  which  a  discard 
of  30  per  cent  from  the  top  and  5  per  cent  from  the  bottom  has  been  made,  or  if  the 
ingot  is  bottom  cast,  a  discard  of  20  per  cent  from  the  top  and  5  per  cent  from  the 
bottom. 

Test  Pieces  for  Line,  Thrust,  and  Propeller  Shafts. — From  each  length  of  rough- 
forged  shaft  and  from  the  end  which  was  uppermost  in  the  ingot  one  tensile-test  piece 
shall  be  taken  at  a  distance  from  the  center  equal  to  the  radius  of  the  finished  shaft, 
and  one  tensile-  and  one  bending-test  piece  shall  be  taken  at  half  that  distance  from 
the  center.  From  the  other  end  of  the  same  length  of  shaft  one  tensile-test  piece  shall 
be  taken  at  a  distance  from  the  center  equal  to  half  the  radius  of  the  finished  shaft. 
If  the  shaft  is  10  or  more  inches  in  diameter,  three  tensile-test  pieces  shall.be  taken 
from  the  upper  end  of  the  shaft  and  two  tensile-test  pieces  from  the  other  end,  the 
bending-test  piece  being  taken  as  in  the  case  of  the  smaller  shafts. 

In  the  case  of  hollow  shafting  (either  forged  or  bored)  the  inside  pieces  shall  be 
taken  within  the  finished  section  prolonged,  but  as  near  as  practicable  to  one-half 
the  finished  radius  from  the  center.  If  the  couplings  are  forged  on  the  shaft  the  test- 
pieces  shall  be  taken  from  a  prolongation  of  the  shaft  which  shall  have  received  the 
same  reduction  as  the  shaft  at  its  greatest  diameter. 

Test  Pieces  for  Crankshafts. — Test  pieces  from  such  shafts  shall  be  taken  in  the 
same  manner  and  in  the  same  number  as  described  for  line,  thrust,  and  propeller  shafts. 
In  addition  to  those  test  pieces,  two  test  pieces  shall  be  taken  from  each  crank,  one 
from  the  surface  of  the  metal  slotted  out  and  one  at  a  distance  of  one-half  the  finished 
radius  of  the  shaft  from  the  plane,  passing  through  the  axis  of  the  shaft  and  crank- 
pin,  and  both  taken  in  a  plane  perpendicular  to  that  last  mentioned  and  passing  through 
the  axis  of  the  ingot.  In  the  case  of  crankshafts  having  more  than  one  throw  in  one 
forging  these  test  pieces  may  be  taken  from  one  crank  only. 

Test  pieces  from  piston  rods,  connecting  rods,  eccentric  rods,  valve  stems,  columns, 
tie-rods,  wrist  pins,  crossheads,  valve  links,  guides,  forged  bolts  and  nuts,  feathers, 

[475] 


ENGINE  FORCINGS 

keys,  collars,  sleeves,  couplings,  and  caps:  one  longitudinal  tensile-test  piece  shall  be 
taken  from  the  prolongation  of  one  end  of  the  heads  or  ends  of  the  rough-forged  rod 
stem,  etc.,  and  one  longitudinal  cold-bending  test  piece  shall  be  taken  from  the  pro- 
longation at  the  other  end.  If,  however,  the  single  rough  forging  weighs  less  than 
100  pounds,  the  forgings  may  be  tested  in  lots  of  1,000  pounds  or  less,  the  pieces  in 
each  lot  being  one  kind  only,  made  from  the  same  heat  and  annealed  in  the  same  furnace 
at  the  same  time. 

Test  Pieces  from  Reverse  Shafts.— If  the  shaft  is  5  inches  or  less  in  diameter 
one  longitudinal  tensile-test  piece  shall  be  taken  from  one  end  and  one  longitudinal 
cold-bending  test  piece  shall  be  taken  from  the  other  end.  If  the  shaft  is  over  5  inches 
in  diameter,  one  tensile-  and  one  cold-bending  test  piece  shall  be  taken  from  the  end 
which  was  uppermost  in  the  ingot,  and  one  tensile-test  piece  from  the  other  end. 

ENGINE  FORGINGS 

H.  F.  J.  PORTER 

Having  carefully  considered  the  service  to  which  a  proposed  forging  is  to  be  put, 
the  charge  of  raw  material  for  the  furnace  is  so  made  up  that  the  finished  product 
will  have  the  proper  chemical  composition,  which,  from  previous  experience,  is  found 
to  be  most  satisfactory. 

Furnace. — The  product  of  the  open-hearth  furnace  is  found  to  give  eminent  satisfac- 
tion, and  has  been  generally  adopted  for  making  steel  forgings. 

Size  of  Ingot. — In  order  that  the  metal  of  a  forging  should  be  thoroughly  worked 
to  give  it  strength  and  toughness,  an  ingot  should  be  cast  approximately  50  per  cent, 
larger  in  diameter  than  the  finished  size.  Besides  this  increase  there  should  be  from 
10  to  25  per  cent  added  to  its  length,  for  reasons  which  will  become  apparent. 

Defects. — Various  defects  are  inherent  in  steel  ingots,  as:  (1)  When  pouring  metal 
into  the  mold,  air  is  apt  to  be  entrained  and  cause  "  blow-holes."  (2)  At  certain  stages 
of  the  cooling  process  gas  is  generated,  which  will  also  cause  blow-holes.  There  are 
several  ways  of  overcoming  these  two  defects;  the  most  efficient  is  the  Whitworth 
process  of  fluid  compression,  in  which  the  mold,  when  filled  with  molten  steel,  is  run 
underneath  a  hydraulic  press,  which  should  have  a  capacity  of  over  7,000  tons;  under 
this  enormous  pressure  the  air  entrained  in  the  pouring  is  forced  out  through  joints 
in  the  mold,  vents  having  been  left  for  that  purpose,  and  the  gases  which  are  apt  to 
form  in  the  cooling  of  the  mass  are  prevented  from  generating. 

Piping. — This  defect  is  apt  to  occur  in  an  ingot,  since  the  metal  poured  into  a  mold 
cools  and  solidifies  first  at  its  surface;  as  the  solid  metal  keeps  cooling  toward  the 
center,  it  shrinks  and  draws  away  from  it.  This  shrinkage  draws  principally  from  the 
center  and  from  the  top,  as  these  solidify  last;  to  take  care  of  this  shrinkage,  more 
metal  is  added  to  the  length  of  the  ingot  than  would  otherwise  be  required.  The 
hydraulic  pressure  applied  at  the  top  forces  fluid  metal  from  this  added  part  down 
through  the  center  of  the  ingot,  supplying  the  latter  with  fluid  steel  where,  otherwise, 
there  would  be  formed  a  cavity  or  "pipe." 

Segregation. — This  defect  is  apt  to  occur  in  ingots  of  very  large  size.  It  is  partly 
a  mechanical  and  partly  a  chemical  separation  of  the  various  ingredients  of  steel  (sulphur, 
phosphorus,  manganese,  silicon,  etc.),  each  of  which  has  its  own  temperature  of  cooling. 
As  the  mass  cools  the  tendency  of  these  ingredients  is  to  seek  the  central  and  upper 
portions  which  cool  last,  thus  forming  a  central  core  of  impurities.  This  does  not 
occur  to  great  extent  in  small  ingots;  in  all  large  ingots  it  does  occur,  and  fluid  com- 
pression does  not  entirely  prevent  it.  But  compression  does  succeed  in  producing 
perfectly  solid  steel,  and  the  defect  of  "  segregation  "  in  large  ingots  is  otherwise  taken 
care  of,  as  will  be  explained.  It  is  necessary  to  have  an  absolutely  solid  ingot  at  the 
beginning,  because  steel  will  not  weld,  if  there  are  defects  in  the  ingot  to  start  with, 
they  cannot  be  remedied  later  by  hammering.  The  extra  length  of  ingot  having  served 
its  purpose  of  supplying  metal  to  fill  blow-holes  and  pipes,  and  collecting  segregation, 
is  then  cut  off  and  returned  to  scrap.  The  ingot  is  then  ready  for  the  forging  process. 

Reheating  the  Ingot. — This  operation  is  a  delicate  one,  as  great  care  must  be  taken 

[476] 


FORGING  STEEL  UNDER  PRESSURE 

to  make  the  heat  penetrate  the  metal  slowly  and  uniformly.  The  cold  ingot  is  in  a 
condition  of  strain  throughout  its  interior;  if  put  into  a  hot  furnace  to  be  reheated, 
its  surface  would  immediately  expand  and  an  additional  strain  would  be  put  on  the 
inside  metal.  In  very  large  ingots  cracks  are  thus  apt  to  be  started  in  the  center 
and  forgings  are  liable  to  break  in  subsequent  service. 

Recalescence. — If  the  rate  of  cooling  of  a  steel  ingot  from  the  point  of  solidification 
to  coldness  is  carefully -noted,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  temperature  falls  with  regular 
retardation  in  equal  divisions  of  time  until,  between  1000  and  1200°  F.,  a  point  (de- 
pending on  the  carbon  content)  is  reached  where  it  suddenly  stops  and  for  a  time  either 
remains  stationary  or  perhaps  rises  for  a  short  time,  and  then  the  same  rate  of  cooling 
continues  as  before.  This  point,  where  the  change  of  rate  takes  place,  is  called  the 
"recalescent"  point,  and  from  chemical  and  physical  tests  it  is  known  that  a  change 
in  the  structure  of  the  steel  occurs  here.  The  fluid  steel  begins  to  crystallize  at  the 
point  of  solidification,  and  the  slower  the  rate  of  cooling  from  there  down  the  larger 
the  crystals  will  be  when  the  ingot  is  cold.  At  the  point  of  recalescence,  however,  it 
would  seem  as  if  the  crystallization,  so  to  say,  locks  itself,  for,  if  after  the  ingot  has 
become  cold  it  is  reheated  to  a  temperature  below  this  point,  on  again  becoming  cold 
it  will  be  found  that  the  crystallization  is  not  affected,  but  if  reheated  a  little  above 
the  recalescent  point,  when  it  is  again  cold,  the  crystallization  will  be  found  to  be  much 
smaller  than  before.  If  steel  is  heated  slightly  above  the  recalescent  point  all  previous 
crystallization  is  destroyed,  and  a  fine  amorphous  condition  is  produced  at  that  tem- 
perature. As  soon  as  cooling  begins  again  crystallization  sets  in,  and  continues  until 
the  ingot  is  cold.  As,  however,  the  time  of  cooling  from  the  recalescent  point  is  com- 
paratively short,  the  resultant  crystallization  is  correspondingly  small. 

Forging. — Certain  changes  take  place  in  the  condition  of  the  metal  as  it  passes  through 
the  forging  process.  Beginning  with  the  cold  ingot  which,  having  cooled  slowly,  is  there- 
fore composed  of  large  crystals,  it  must  be  reheated  to  a  forging  temperature  of  from 
1800  to  2000°  F.,  thus  passing  through  the  recalescent  point,  destroying  all  crystalliza- 
tion and  producing  an  amorphous  condition.  As  soon  as  it  is  placed  under  the  forging 
press  it  begins  to  cool,  crystallization  at  once  setting  in;  at  the  same  time,  however, 
the  press  begins  to  work  upon  it.  The  pressure  applied  in  shaping  a  piece  of  steel 
should  be  sufficient  in  amount  and  of  such  a  character  as  to  penetrate  to  the  center 
and  cause  flowing  throughout  the  mass.  This  flowing  of  the  metal  requires  a  certain 
amount  of  time,  and  the  requisite  pressure  should  be  maintained  throughout  a  cor- 
responding period.  The  hydraulic  press  fills  these  requirements  exactly.  Under  the 
slow  motion  of  the  press  time  is  allowed  for  the  molecules  of  the  metal  to  move  easily, 
and  the  pressure  is  felt  throughout  the  forging.  The  center  being  the  hottest,  and 
therefore  softest,  is  squeezed  out,  and  gives  a  convex  shape  to  the  end  of  a  forging. 

The  work  of  forging  tends  to  check  crystallization  just  as  disturbing  water  which 
is  below  freezing  point  will  delay  the  formation  of  ice  crystals.  The  work  of  forging 
may  or  may  not  continue  (depending  upon  the  size  and  shape  of  the  finished  piece) 
until  the  temperature  has  fallen  below  the  recalescent  point,  but  during  this  time  more 
or  less  crystallization  has  occurred,  and  has  been  disturbed  and  distorted.  The  work 
of  forging  has,  moreover,  proceeded  from  one  end  of  the  piece  to  the  other,  the  part 
last  worked  upon  having  crystallized  considerably  before  work  was  applied  to  it,  so 
that  the  two  ends  may  be  entirely  different  as  far  as  their  internal  condition  is  concerned. 

In  order  that  the  metal  should  be  worked  at  the  proper  temperature,  it  is  necessary 
to  reheat  it  a  number  of  times,  and  every  time  the  press  descends  upon  the  metal,  the 
latter  is  worked  under  conditions  differing  from  those  existing  when  the  press  descended 
upon  it.  This  character  of  heat  treatment  is  called  "oil  tempering,"  and  should  be 
followed  by  a  mild  annealing  heat  treatment  to  relieve  the  metal  of  any  hardening 
effect  due  to  the  cooling  process. 

Hollow  Forgings. — In  order  to  successfully  temper  a  piece  of  steel,  great  care  must 
be  taken  both  in  the  process  of  reheating  it  and  also  in  cooling  it  in  the  bath.  In 
reheating  it,  the  surface  metal  is  apt  to  expand  away  from  the  center  and  thus  cause 
cracks  in  the  latter,  and  in  dropping  it  into  the  cold  bath  the  surface  metal  is  apt  to 
contract  on  the  center  to  such  an  extent  as  to  cause  cracks  in  the  former.  In  order, 
therefore,  to  successfully  temper  a  forging,  it  should  be  hollow.  By  taking  out  the 

[477] 


STEAM  HAMMER 

center  it  can  be  reheated  without  danger  of  cracking,  because  the  center  metal  is  absent 
and  the  heat  gets  into  the  interior  and  expands  both  it  and  exterior  together. 

Also  in  dropping  it  into  the  cold  bath  there  is  no  solid  center  on  which  the  metal 
is  contracted,  and  in  that  way  the  danger  of  cracking  during  the  cooling  process  is 
eliminated. 

There  are  two  ways  of  making  a  forging  hollow.  The  ordinary  way  of  getting  rid 
of  the  center  of  a  forging  is  simply  to  bore  it  out.  After  boring,  it  is  tempered,  and 
thus  the  strength  is  restored  which  was  taken  away  with  the  material  which  was  in 
the  center. 

Another  way  of  getting  rid  of  the  center  of  large  forgings  is  to  forge  them  hollow. 
A  person  who  has  not  considered  the  subject  carefully  would  naturally  think  that  the 
first  thing  to  do  in  making  a  hollow  forging  would  be  to  cast  a  hollow  ingot.  It  has 
been  mentioned  that  there  are  various  defects  which  occur  in  ingots,  the  most  serious 
of  which  are  segregation  and  piping,  and  that  it  is  in  the  center  and  upper  portion 
where  those  defects  occur.  If  an  ingot  were  to  be  cast  hollow  a  solid  core  of  fire-brick 
or  similar  material  would  replace  the  center  metal,  and  instead  of  one  on  the  outside 
there  would  be  two  cooling  surfaces,  one  on  the  outside  and  one  around  the  core,  and 
the  position  of  last  cooling  would  be  transferred  to  an  annular  ring  midway  between 
these  surfaces  where  the  piping  and  the  segregation  would  collect.  This  would  not  be 
satisfactory,  because  the  metal  there  is  what  must  be  depended  upon  for  the  strength 
of  the  hollow  forging.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  collect  the  piping  and  segregation 
in  the  center  and  at  the  top,  where  metal  has  been  added  to  the  original  ingot  for  the 
purpose. 

After  the  hole  has  been  bored  in  the  ingot,  the  next  process  is  to  reheat  it;  this 
process  is  not  as  delicate  as  if  the  ingot  were  solid,  because  the  heat  affects  the  center 
equally  with  the  exterior,  and  as  the  two  expand  together  the  danger  of  cracking  is 
not  incurred.  When  the  ingot  is  reheated  a  steel  mandrel  is  put  through  its  hollow 
center,  and  subjecting  the  two  to  hydraulic  pressure,  the  metal  is  forced  down  and 
out  over  the  mandrel.  Thus  an  internal  anvil  is  practically  inserted  into  the  forging, 
and  there  is,  therefore,  really  much  less  than  one-half  the  amount  of  metal  to  work 
on  than  if  the  piece  were  solid. 

When  the  work  of  shaping  is  completed  the  forging  is  reheated  to  the  proper  tem- 
perature and  then  either  annealed  in  the  usual  manner  or  plunged  into  a  tempering 
bath  of  oil  or  brine  to  set  the  fine  grain  permanently  that  has  been  established  by  the 
reheating.  A  mild  annealing  follows  to  relieve  any  surface  or  other  strains  that  may 
have  been  occasioned  by  the  rapid  cooling. 

BELL  STEAM  HAMMER 

The  hammer  shown  on  the  opposite  page,  designed  by  David  Bell,  is  rated  at  1500 
pounds,  which  represents  the  weight  of  the  falling  parts.  The  general  proportions  are 
clearly  shown  and  these  are  further  supplemented  by  leading  dimensions. 

Operation. — This  hammer  is  double  acting,  taking  steam  at  top  and  bottom  of 
stroke  through  ports  arranged  to  give  maximum  force  to  the  blow.  Control  is  main- 
tained by  the  operator  either  by  hand  operation  of  the  main  lever,  or  a  continuously 
sustained  automatic  action  is  obtained,  with  close  and  sensitive  regulation,  by  operation 
of  the  throttle  valve  lever,  with  the  main  lever  stationary  on  its  quadrant. 

Valve  Motion. — The  valve  motion  is  of  few  working  parts  and  these  are  so  designed 
as  to  give  accurate  and  sensitive  control  to  the  blow.  The  main  operating  valve  is  of 
the  vertical  piston  type,  its  motion  is  obtained  by  sliding  contact  of  a  cam  against  a 
beveled  path  formed  by  the  surface  of  a  removable  plate  attached  to  the  back  of  the 
hammer  head.  The  downward  movement  of  the  piston  valve  is  by  gravity  alone; 
the  upward  movement  is  by  the  thrust  of  the  cam  plate  in  sliding  contact  against  the 
cam.  This  construction  eliminates  positive  connections  in  the  valve  gear ;  the  sliding  con- 
tact prevents  any  shock  or  jar  from  the  blow  being  transmitted  to  the  valve  gear  parts. 

The  column  of  this  hammer  is  cast  solid  with  its  bed  plate;  the  latter  is  provided 
with  heavy  vertical  ribs  cast  on  its  under  side. 

Cylinder. — The  cylinder,  and  its  piston  valve  and  throttle  valve  chests,  are  in- 

[478] 


BELL  STEAM  HAMMER 

Buffalo  Foundry  &  Machine  Co.,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
[479J 


HEAT  TREATMENT  OF  CARBON  STEEL 

eluded  in  one  casting.  The  cylinder  is  heavily  flanged  at  top  and  bottom,  the  latter 
flange  being  reinforced  by  heavy  ribs.  The  cylinder  is  dowel  pinned  and  secured  to  the 
main  frame  by  through-going  machine  fitted  bolts.  The  steam  ports  cast  in  the  cylinders 
are  of  ample  size  and  arranged  to  give,  through  the  operation  of  the  valves,  a  maximum 
efficiency  and  force  to  the  blow.  The  lower  steam  port  slopes  downward  from  the 
cylinder  allowing  the  water  of  condensation  to  drain  from  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder 
through  the  piston  valve  chest  into  the  exhaust  pipe  outlet,  which  is  always  lower 
than  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder  and  valve  chest.  This  automatic  drainage  prevents 
damage  from  freezing. 

Valves. — The  main  operating  valve  is  of  the  vertical  balanced  piston  type,  it 
operates  without  friction  due  to  steam  pressure,  and  gives  sensitive  control  in  operation. 
The  piston  valve  bushing  has  the  steam  port  edges  finished  so  as  to  give  accurate 
admission,  cut-off,  and  exhaust  points  in  the  movement  of  the  valve.  Reference  marks 
are  provided  on  the  upper  end  of  the  valve  stem,  that  the  valve  may  be  adjusted  with- 
out disconnecting  any  of  the  other  parts  of  the  hammer.  The  throttle  valve  is  of  the 
plain  circular  or  rolling  type  opened  and  closed  by  a  hand  lever. 

Falling  Parts.— The  hammer  head  is  an  open-hearth  steel  forging,  hammered  from 
the  ingot  or  billet  and  then  finished  from  the  solid.  The  piston  rod  and  head  is  a  single 
forging  of  open-hearth  steel,  or  heat  treated  and  annealed  alloy  steel.  Its  lower  end 
is  turned  taper  to  fit  the  tapered  hole  in  the  hammer  head;  this  taper  constitutes  the 
real  hold  of  the  rod  in  place.  There  is,  however,  a  safety  pin  to  prevent  the  hammer 
head  falling,  in  the  event  of  its  coming  loose  from  the  rod.  The  piston  head  can  be 
raised  above  the  top  flange  of  the  cylinder  to  examine  or  replace  the  piston  packing 
rings;  to  do  which,  it  is  not  necessary  to  disconnect  the  piston  rod  from  the  hammer 
head,  but  simply  to  remove  the  piston  rod  gland  (which  is  made  in  halves,  bolted  to- 
gether), and  the  buffer  springs. 

Guides. — The  guides  are  of  cast  iron;  this  material  possesses  the  best  wearing 
qualities  for  sliding  contact  of  the  hammer  head.  The  face  of  these  slides  has  ac- 
curately machined  "  V  "  projections  scraped  to  a  perfect  bearing  surface  correspond- 
ing to  the  recesses  in  the  hammer  head.  Slides  are  adjustable  by  taper  keys  extending 
their  full  length. 

Anvil  Block. — The  anvil  block  is  in  two  pieces;  the  upper  part  is  easily  removable 
to  give  additional  space,  the  lower  part  extends  through  a  cored  hole  in  the  bedplate 
and  is  provided  with  a  heavy  base  resting  on  a  separate  foundation,  so  that  the  jar  of 
the  blow  is  not  transmitted  to  the  hammer  itself. 

Buffer  Springs. — Spiral  springs  are  fastened  either  to  the  under  side  of  cylinder 
flange,  or  to  the  top  of  the  cylinder,  to  cushion  the  up  stroke,  to  prevent  injury  through 
careless  handling;  ample  clearance  is  provided  between  the  top  of  the  piston  and  the 
cylinder  cover,  when  these  springs  are  compressed  solid. 

This  hammer  is  suitable  for  the  heavier  class  of  blacksmith  work,  and  will  make 
forgings  from  round  and  square  stock  up  to  6  inches. 

HEAT  TREATMENT  OF  CARBON   STEEL 

The  quantity  of  carbon  present  in  tool  steels  will  vary  from  about  0.70%  for  such  tools 
as  sledge  hammers  to  about  1.25%  for  taps,  dies,  reamers,  lathe  tools,  etc.;  the  inter- 
mediate grades  are  very  numerous  to  supply  real  or  fancied  needs  in  shop  practice. 

Carbon  and  Iron. — Carbon  exists  in  iron  in  at  least  two  forms,  (1)  as  cementite,  or 
Fe3C,  which  is  a  definite  carbide  of  iron,  and  is  the  non-hardening  form  in  which  it 
appears  in  annealed  steel;  (2)  as  martensite,  or  a  solid  solution  of  carbon  in  iron,  a 
hard  brittle  substance  varying  in  its  characteristics  with  the  amount  of  carbon.  It  is 
the  chief  constituent  in  suddenly  cooled  and  hardened  steel. 

Molecular  Structure. — This  will  vary  with  the  percentage  of  carbon,  the  tem- 
perature to  which  it  is  subjected,  and  to  the  rate  of  cooling,  whether  slowly  as  in  anneal- 
ing or  rapidly  as  in  quenching.  The  leading  crystalline  groups  have  been  named 
cementite,  pearlite,  martensite,  austenite,  troostite,  sorbite,  etc.,  but  the  two  important 
molecular  groups  are  cementite  and  martensite.  Cementite  is  the  carbide  of  iron,  Fe3C; 
when  it  is  distributed  uniformly  in  minute  crystals  throughout  the  iron,  its  fracture  is 

[480] 


.TEMPERING  AND  ANNEALING  STEEL 

clean;  it  strengthens  and  hardens  the  mass.  Martensite  is  the  chief  constituent  in 
suddenly  cooled  and  hardened  steel.  It  is  thought  possible  that  ferrite  and  cementite 
unite  to  form  martensite  when  the  steel  is  highly  heated,  and  the  structure  is  retained 
when  the  steel  is  rapidly  quenched.  Professor  Arnold's  view  is  that  martensite  is  not  a 
constituent,  but  a  crystalline  structure  developed  at  high  temperatures.  Austenite  is 
obtained  by  quenching  steel  containing  from  1.1%  to  1.6%  of  carbon,  from  1000°  C.  (1832° 
F.)  in  ice  brine.  It  is  not  so  hard  as  martensite,  can  be  machined,  and  is  non-magnetic. 
Tempering  and  Annealing. — The  effect  of  temperature  on  the  condition  of  carbon 
is  shown  in  the  accompanying  diagram  after  Howe,  indicating  the  influence  of  tem- 
perature on  the  tendencies  to  form  graphite,  hardening,  and  cement  carbon.  The 
graphite-forming  tendencies  are  at  a  maximum  at  N,  or  at  a  white  heat.  The  tendency 
to  form  cement  carbon  is  at  a  temperature  of  dull  redness;  and  the  tendencies  to  form 
hardening  carbon  seem  to  reach  two  corresponding  distinct  maxima,  one  at  above  a 
white  heat  N,  and  the  other  at  a  low  yellow  heat,  the  W  of  Brinnell.  The  tendency 
to  form  graphite  is  confined  to  the  range  of  temperature  represented  between  the  points 


/CimeAf  Carlon  ftjC 


M0    N       0          W    V  P         X 

HOOC  tow  Uo/i  S+raw    Cold 

Yellow  Red 

M  and  O,  and,  if  steel  be  kept  for  a  long  period  at  the  temperature  N,  it  becomes  coarse- 
grained, due  to  the  crystallization  both  of  graphite  and  of  the  iron.  The  crystalline 
structure  of  steel  is  generally  unfavorable  from  the  point  of  view  of  its  industrial  use, 
but  this  structure  may  be  broken  by  the  mechanical  work  of  forging  the  steel  while  hot; 
but,  if  the  forging  be  continued  below  the  point  V,  the  iron  is  then  in  a  different  state 
and  will  possess  different  properties. 

In  annealed  steel,  practically  all  the  carbon  is  in  the  cement  state  unless  the  anneal- 
ing temperature  has  been  too  high,  so  as  to  approach  the  temperature  represented  by 
the  point  N.  Moreover,  at  the  point  W,  and  up  to  the  point  O,  the  cement  carbon  is 
in  solution  in  the  iron,  and,  if  suddenly  cooled,  will  remain  in  what  has  been  con- 
veniently termed  the  hardening  carbon  state.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  steel  has 
been  gradually  cooled  to  below  the  point  V,  the  hardening  carbon  will  be  changed  to 
cement  carbon.  At  a  temperature  between  W  and  V,  iron  undergoes  a  sudden  ex- 
pansion, and  its  thermo-electric  behavior  is  abnormal.  Also  a  change  in  its  magnetic 
properties  is  observed. 

Reheating  hardened  steel  to  P,  a  straw  color  appears  on  the  brightened  surface,  which 
passes  to  a  deep  straw,  a  purple,  a  blue,  and  finally  a  black  as  the  temperature  is  gradu- 
ally raised,  all  the  above  temperatures  being  below  the  point  V,  at  which  the  carbon 
passes  into  the  cement  form  on  slow  cooling,  or  into  the  hardening  or  solution  form  on 
heating  up.  Now  the  question  arises,  Does  the  hardening  carbon,  in  hardened  steel, 
pass  partially  into  the  cement  form  during  this  tempering  process  ?  Howe  considers 
that,  while  the  tendency  exists,  it  is  held  in  check  by  what  may  be  termed  chemical 
inertia  or  viscosity.  That  as  the  temperature  rises  to  a  straw  heat  this  viscosity  is 
released  and  some  of  the  carbon  passes  into  the  cement  state,  and  the  steel  is  therefore 
softened.  At  a  blue  heat  still  more  of  this  change  occurs.  This  harmonizes  with  the 
fact  that  while  hardened  steel  is  softened  by  reheating,  annealed  steel  is  not  hardened 
by  being  -quenched  below  V.  Hence  below  this  point  the  cement  state  is  permanent. 

Elements  Other  than  Carbon. — Carbon  tool  steels  contain  slight  percentages  of 
silicon,  manganese,  sulphur,  and  phosphorus.  Silicon  and  manganese,  being  useful 
constituents,  give  improved  fusing  and  working  qualities,  together  with  increased 

[481] 


ALLOTROPIC  THEORY  OF  HARDENING  STEEL 

ductility  and  resistance  to  shocks.  Silicon  and  manganese  exert  some  influence  on 
the  hardening  properties  of  steel.  Sulphur  and  phosphorus  are  impurities,  and  affect 
the  toughness  of  the  material,  phosphorus  tending  to  make  the  steel  cold-short  or 
brittle,  and  sulphur  making  it  red-short  or  difficult  to  forge. 

Carbon  Theory  of  Hardening  Steel. — Carbon  steel  is  essentially  iron  and  carbon, 
each  element  contributing  a  well-defined  constitution,  and  characteristic  structure. 
Pure  iron  has  a  definite  freezing  point,  about  1600°  C.  (2912°  F.).  Carbon  is  prac- 
tically infusible;  it  therefore  maintains  separate  existence,  but  its  action  is  limited 
to  the  influence  it  exerts  upon  the  iron.  In  pig  iron  carbon  is  present  in  both  the 
graphitic  and  combined  states;  in  steel  the  carbon  is  combined  with  the  iron;  for  this 
reason  steel  is  often  termed  an  alloy  of  iron  and  carbon;  there  is  also  a  close  analogy 
to  that  class  of  compounds  termed  solutions. 

Highly  carburized  steel,  if  long  exposed  to  a  sufficiently  high  temperature  while 
cooling,  will  contain  graphite  crystals  in  addition  to  its  chemically  combined  carbon, 
but  if  the  steel  be  cooled  rapidly  as  in  quenching,  no  graphite  crystals  are  formed;  the 
whole  of  the  carbon  continues  in  the  combined  state,  giving  to  steel  the  quality  of 
hardness. 

The  carbon  in  steel  changes  form  suddenly  at  the  critical  temperature.  If  the  steel 
contains  about  0.90%  carbon  it  remains  unchanged  in  structure  until  heated  to  about 
738°  C.  (1360°  F.).  An  increase  in  temperature  beyond  this  point  causes  the  ferrite 
and  pearlite  to  decompose;  the  reaction  is  completed  at  about  793°  C.  (1460°  F.), 
which  is  called  the  critical  point;  the  ferrite  and  pearlite  change  to  martensite.  By 
quenching  at  this  point  the  martensite  grain  is  preserved  and  the  steel  is  hardened. 
If  the  steel  be  again  heated  to  a  still  higher  temperature  the  martensite  in  turn  will 
be  decomposed  and  the  original  ferrite  and  pearlite  condition  will  be  restored. 

Solution  Theory. — In  the  case  of  pure  iron  in  a  state  of  fusion,  cooling  to  the  solidifi- 
cation point,  say,  1600°  C.  (2912°  F.),  the  solidified  iron  is  then  in  a  plastic  state,  to 
which  the  name  of  "gamma"  iron  has  been  given  by  Osmond.  While  it  is  in  this  form 
it  is  capable  of  dissolving  about  0.90%  of  carbon  at  900°  C.  (1652°  F.),  and  rather 
more  at  higher  temperatures.  At  1000°  C.  (1832°  F.)  it  dissolves  1.50%  carbon. 
When  pure  gamma  iron  cools  to  890°  C.  (1634°  F.),  it  undergoes  a  change  to  another 
allotropic  form,  known  as  "  beta  "  iron,  and  this  change  is  accompanied  by  a  con- 
siderable evolution  of  heat.  This  beta  iron,  like  the  gamma  modification,  is  non- 
magnetic, but  it  is  less  capable  of  holding  carbon  in  solid  solution  than  gamma  iron. 
As  the  iron  cools  down  to  770°  C.  (1418°  F.),  another  molecular  change  occurs  and 
the  beta  iron  changes  to  what  is  termed  "alpha"  iron,  which  is  magnetic.  Much  heat 
is  evolved,  but  less  suddenly  than  at  the  previous  change,  probably  because  the  iron 
is  less  mobile  at  the  lower  temperature.  As  beta  iron  dissolves  less  than  0.10%  carbon, 
the  influence  of  carbon  upon  iron  is  practically  eliminated  at  temperatures  below  the 
point  of  change  from  gamma  to  beta  iron.  When  the  metal  cools  down  to  about  610°  C. 
(1130°  F.)  another  critical  point  is  reached,  which  appears  to  be  the  beginning  of  a 
slight  molecular  change  extending  over  a  range  of  100°  C.  (212°  F)  and  is  accompanied 
by  a  change  in  magnetic  properties. 

Allotropic  Theory  of  Hardening. — The  general  acceptance  of  this  theory  is  based 
upon  results  obtained  in  investigations  on  the  cooling  of  steel.  It  is  known  that  molec- 
ular change  is  accompanied  with  evolution  or  absorption  of  heat;  if  now  a  bar  of 
unhardened  steel  be  heated  to,  say,  500°  C.  (932°  F.)  and  allowed  slowly  to  cool,  no 
break  in  the  uniformity  of  cooling  occurs;  but  if  the  steel  be  heated  to  900°  C.  (1652°  F.), 
or  even  750°  C.  (1382°  F.),  there  are  stages  where  the  cooling  is  arrested.  This  is  due 
to  some  molecular  change  in  the  steel  that  produces  heat.  Osmond  observed  that  the 
effects  of  cold  working  and  quenching  from  a  high  temperature  were  somewhat  similar, 
and  concluded  that  they  must  arise  from  a  common  cause.  He  supposes  that  the 
condition  of  the  carbon  is  not  changed  by  cold  working,  and  therefore  the  hardening 
effect  is  due  to  an  allotropic  effect  in  the  iron  itself.  Although  the  presence  of  carbon 
is  essential  to  the  hardening  of  steel,  the  change  in  the  mode  of  existence  of  the  carbon  is 
less  important  than  was  formerly  supposed.  Howe  suggests  that  it  is  the  hard,  strong, 
brittle  beta  modification  of  the  iron  that  causes  hardening,  and  that  the  carbon  simply 
acts  in  retarding  the  change  from  hard  beta  to  soft  alpha  iron.  One  argument  in 

[482J 


ALLOTROPIC  THEORY  OF  HARDENING  STEEL 


favor  of  allotropy  is  the  sudden  disappearance  of  magnetic  properties  on  heating 
caused  by  the  sudden  change  of  specific  heat,  and  the  spontaneous  retardations  that 
occur  in  cooling  practically  carbonless  iron. 

The  three  critical  points  which  occur  on  cooling  a  piece  of  very  mild  steel  from  a 
temperature  of  1000°  C.  (1832°  F.)  are  shown  in  the  accompanying  diagram.  Accord- 
ing to  Osmond  these  are:  (1)  A  slight  evolution  of  heat  at  about  890°  C.  (1634°  F.), 
termed  Ar3.  (2)  A  disengagement  of  heat  at  about  765°  C.  (1409°  F.),  termed  Ar2. 
(3)  Another  point  at  about  690°  C.  (1264°  F.),  small  in  very  mild  steel  and  highly 
accentuated  in  steels  high  in  carbon,  termed  ATI. 


1100 


as  0.5"    0-7    0*9    hi 


t<s    /»7   AS 


In  pure  iron,  Oft  cooling  from  1000°  C.  (1832°  F.),  when  the  iron  is  in  the  gamma 
state,  an  evolution  of  heat  is  observed  at  895°  C.  (1643°  F.),  (the  point  Ar3)  when  the 
iron  is  said  to  change  from  the  gamma  to  the  beta  form.  Another  change  occurs 
in  very  mild  steel  at  765°  C.  (1409°  F.),  after  which  the  iron  is  said  to  be  in  the  alpha 
form.  The  presence  of  dissolved  cementite  lowers  the  temperature  at  which  these 
changes  occur. 

In  steel  containing  less  than  0.30%  carbon,  in  which  the  points  Ar3  and  Ar2  both  occur, 
the  formation  of  beta  iron  from  gamma  iron  occurs  at  points  differing  with  the  content 
of  carbon.  Iron  in  the  gamma  form  will  dissolve  about  1.00%  carbon  as  cementite, 
at  about  890°  C.  (1634°  F.),  but  beta  iron  will  scarcely  dissolve  any  carbon,  so  that 
the  beta  iron,  being  practically  free  from  combined  carbon,  undergoes  the  change  to 
alpha  iron  at  the  normal  temperature  of  765°  C.  (1409°  F.).  Meanwhile,  as  the  iron 
falls  out,  the  residual  solution  becomes  richer  in  cementite,  until  at  690°  C.  (1274°  F.)  it 
is  saturated,  forming  an  eutectic  solid  solution,  and  the  cementite  and  iron  (in  the  alpha 
form)  separate  out,  side  by  side,  to  form  the  well-known  "pearlite."  The  evolution 
of  heat  at  690°  C.  (1274°  F.)  marks  the  point  known  as  An. 

If  the  steel  contains  0.34%  of  the  carbon  the  point  Ar3  occurs  at  the  same  tempera- 
ture as  Ar2,  and  further  additions  of  carbon  result  in  the  lowering  of  the  temperature 
of  the  combined  point  Arz-s.  In  such  steels  the  excess  of  iron  separates  out  in  the 
alpha  form,  and  the  residual  solid  solution  is  decomposed  as  before  at  the  point  Art 
690°  C.  (1274°  F.). 

Sorbite. — This  is  a  transition  form,  passing  into  pearlite,  intermediate  between 
troostite  and  pearlite,  probably  having  the  composition  Fe9C3,  and  existing  in  a  solu- 
tion of  iron.  It  may  be  simply  unsegregated  pearlite.  Sorbite  is  obtained  by  a 
moderately  slow  cooling,  as  in  the  cooling  of  small  samples  in  air.  Also  by  quenching 
in  water  at  the  end  of  the  recalescence  period. 

[483] 


HEATING  CARBON  STEEL 

Heating  Carbon  Steel. — The  first  effect  of  heat  upon  a  piece  of  steel  is  a  physical 
one,  consisting  principally  in  an  increase  of  size,  possibly  a  change  in  shape  through 
mechanical  strains  which  occur  in  its  structure;  these  changes  are  not  great  even 
when  the  steel  is  hot,  they  largely  but  not  wholly  disappear  upon  cooling. 

Chemical  changes  take  place  in  steel  by  altering  the  condition  of  the  carbon  when 
the  temperature  is  raised  sufficiently  high;  the  greater  the  percentage  of  carbon,  the 
more  fusible  the  steel  and  the  more  easily  overheated.  When  a  piece  of  steel,  hardened 
or  unhardened,  is  heated  up  to  a  low-yellow  heat,  about  996°  C.  (1825°  F.),  all  previous 
crystallization,  however  coarse,  is  obliterated  and  replaced  by  the  finest  structure  the 
metal  is  capable  of  assuming.  Steel  containing  0.90%  carbon  remains  unchanged 
in  structure  until  heated  to  about  738°  C.  (1360°  F.).  As  the  temperature  of  the 
furnace  is  increased  beyond  this  point  the  ferrite  and  pearlite  suddenly  begin  to  de- 
compose. The  reaction  is  completed  at  a  temperature  of  about  790°  C.  (1460°  F.), 
which  is  called  the  critical  point  or  point  of  recalescence.  To  obtain  the  best  results 
the  steel  must  be  heated  to  a  temperature  slightly  above  this  point.  Otherwise  it 
fails  to  harden  on  quenching.  If  the  heating  is  carried  much  above  the  critical  point 
the  grain  is  coarser  and  there  are  increased  weakness  and  brittleness  after  quenching. 

There  are  three  important  factors  in  the  heating  of  steel: 

1.  A  neutral  atmosphere,  that  is,  an  atmosphere  containing  no  free  oxygen.     Par- 
ticular attention  must  be  given  to  the  thickness  of  the  fire;  steel  of  whatever  kind  should 
never  be  heated  in  a  thin  fire,  especially  in  one  having  a  force  blast,  because  more  air 
passes  through  the  fire  than  is  needed  for  combustion;  in  consequence,  there  is  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  free  oxygen  in  the  fire  which  will  oxidize  the  steel,  or  in  other 
words,  burn  it. 

2.  Uniformity  in  Heating. — The  temperature  of  a  heating  furnace  must  be  adjusted 
to  the  composition  of  the  steel  in  process  of  working,  and  a  further  adjustment  suited 
to  forging,  hardening,  or  annealing,  as  the  case  may  be.     Each  requires  its  own  tem- 
perature, and  whatever  that  temperature,  it  must  be  maintained  without  variation 
during  the  whole  process. 

3.  The  temperature  of  the  furnace  should  be  fixed  to  suit  the  composition  of  the 
steel  and  the  size  of  the  piece  to  be  heated.     For  pieces  in  which  the  section  is  not 
uniform,  the  temperature  should  be  carefully  graded,  as  a  high  heat  produces  a  coarse, 
open  grain,  and  irregularity  of  heating  is  likely  to  cause  cracking  from  internal  strain. 
Any  difference  in  temperature  sufficiently  great  to  be  seen  by  color  will  cause  a  cor- 
responding difference  in  the  grain.     Any  temperature  so  high  as  to  open  the  grain 
so  that  a  hardened  piece  will  be  coarser  than  the  original  bar  will  cause  the  hardened 
piece  to  brittle.     A  temperature  high  enough  to  cause  the  piece  to  harden  through, 
but  not  enough  to  open  the  grain,  will  cause  the  piece  to  refine,  to  be  stronger 
than  the  untempered  bar.     A  temperature  which  will  harden  and  refine  the  corners 
and  edges  of  a  bar  but  will  not  harden  the  bar  through  is  just  the  right  heat  at 
which  to  harden  taps  and  complicated   cutters   of  any  shape,  as  it  will  harden  the 
teeth  sufficiently  without  risk  of  cracking  and  will  leave  the  mass  of  the  tool  soft 
and  tough. 

Carbon  Tool  Steel. — An  outline  of  the  proper  grades  and  tempers  of  carbon  tool 
steel  for  various  uses  by  Mr.  W.  B.  Sullivan,  together  with  suggestions  as  to  heat  treat- 
ment, is  summarized  below: 

Grade  A  steel  containing  1.00  to  1.15%  carbon  is  used  for  lathe  tools,  taps,  dies, 
and  reamers.  Steel  with  a  carbon  content  of  1.15  to  1.25%  is  recommended  for  brass 
tools,  finishing  tools,  and  machine-shop  small  tools.  Heating  temperature  should  not 
exceed  927°  C.  (1700°  F.),  a  bright  cherry  to  salmon  color,  for  forging.  This  steel 
hardens  at  793°  C.  (1460°  F.),  a  light  cherry  red.  The  temper  should  be  drawn  to 
suit  the  character  of  the  work,  annealing  temperature  from  705°  to  732°  C.  (1300  to 
1350°  F.)  corresponding  to  a  full  cherry  red. 

Grade  B  steel  containing  0.90  to  1.00%  carbon  is  used  for  shear  blades,  and  punching 
tools.  Steel  with  a  carbon  content  1.00  to  1.15%  carbon  is  used  for  machine  drills, 
counter  bores,  milling  cutters,  and  general  machine-shop  tools.  Heating  temperature 
should  not  exceed  955°  C.  (1750°  F.),  a  light  orange  color,  for  forging.  This  steel 
hardens  at  796°  C.  (1465°  F.),  a  light  cherry  red.  The  temper  should  be  drawn  to 

[484] 


COLOR  SCALE  INDICATING  TEMPER 


suit  the  character  of  the  work,  annealing  temperature  from  705  to  732°  C.  (1300  to 
1350°  F.)  corresponding  to  a  full  cherry  red. 

Grade  C  steel  for  sledges  and  hammers  should  contain  0.70  to  0.80%  carbon.  Heat- 
ing temperature  should  not  exceed  960°  C.  (1800°  F.),  a  yellow  color  inclining  to  a  light 
orange,  for  forging.  This  steel  hardens  at  807°  C.  (1485°  F.),  a  light  cherry  red.  The 
temper  should  be  drawn  to  suit  the  character  of  the  work,  annealing  temperature 
from  705  to  732°  C.  (1300  to  1350°  F.)  corresponding  to  a  full  cherry  red. 

Grade  C  steel  for  smith  tools,  track  tools,  and  boiler-makers'  tools,  should  contain 
O.80  to  0.90%  carbon.  Heat  treatment  same  as  above. 

Grade  C  steel  for  cold  chisels,  hot  chisels,  and  rock  drills,  should  contain  0.90  to 
1.00%  carbon.  Heating  temperature  should  not  exceed  955°  C.  (1750°  F.),  a  light 
orange  color,  for  forging.  This  steel  hardens  at  796°  C.  (1465°  F.),  a  light  cherry  red. 
The  temper  should  be  drawn  to  suit  the  character  of  the  work,  annealing  temperature 
from  705  to  732°  C.  (1300  to  1350°  F.)  corresponding  to  a  full  cherry  red. 

Grade  D  steel  containing  0.70  to  0.80%  carbon  is  used  for  crow  bars,  pinch-bars, 
pickpoints,  and  wrenches.  Heating  temperature  should  not  exceed  960°  C.  (1800°  F.), 
a  yellow  color  inclining  to  a  light  orange,  for  forging.  This  steel  hardens  at  807°  C. 
(1485°  F.),  a  light  cherry  red.  The  temper  should  be  drawn  to  suit  the  character  of 
the  work,  annealing  temperature  from  705  to  732°  C.  (1300  to  1350°  F.)  corresponding 
to  a  full  cherry  red. 

The  hardness  of  a  piece  of  steel  properly  treated  is  governed  by  the  size,  character 
of  steel,  temperature  of  bath,  and  character  of  bath.  In  general,  for  small  sections 
lower  temperatures  should  be  used  than  for  large  pieces.  The  degree  of  hardness 
depends  on  the  rapidity  with  which  the  heat  is  extracted  from  the  steel.  A  bath  of 
high  temperature  will  produce  less  hardness.  A  piece  of  steel  quenched  in  water  will 
be  harder  than  one  quenched  in  oil.  Tests  made  by  the  Carpenter  Steel  Company 
showed  that,  compared  with  water  on  a  basis  of  unity  No.  1,  mineral  oil  had  a  tempering 
quality  of  0.241;  cottonseed  oil,  0.161;  fish  oil,  0.149. 

COLOR  SCALE  INDICATING  TEMPER  OF  CARBON  STEEL  TOOLS 


COLORS  INDICATING  TEMPER 
DRAWN  AFTER  HARDENING 

COMPOSITION  AND  TEMPERATURES  OF  MOLTEN 
ALLOYS  OF  LEAD  AND  TIN 

Cent. 
Deg. 

Fahr. 
Deg. 

Temper  Color 

Suitable 
for 

Parts  of 
Lead 

Parts  of 
Tin 

Fahr. 
Deg. 

Cent 
Deg. 

221 
227 
232 
238 
243 
249 
254 
260 
266 
271 
277 
282 
288 
293 

430 
440 
450 
460 
470 
480 
490 
500 
510 
520 
530 
540 
550 
560 

Pale  yellow  
Light  yellow 

A 

15 
16 
17 
19 
21 
24 
28 
33 
39 
48 
60 
75 
100 
200 

8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 

430 
440 
450 
460 
470 
480 
490 
500 
510 
520 
530 
540 
550 
560 

221 
221 
232 
238 
243 
249 
254 
260 
266 
271 
277 
282 
288 
293 

Pale  straw-yellow.  .  .  . 

Straw  yellow  
Deep  straw-yellow 

B 

Dark  yellow  

Yellow  brown  

• 

Brown  yellow  
Spotted  red-brown.  .  . 

C 

Brown  purple 

Light  purple  
Full  purple  

D 

Dark  purple  

E 

Full  blue 

A.  Suitable  for:    Lathe  and  planer  tools.     Profile  cutters  for  milking  machines. 
Slight  turning  tools.     Scrapers  for  brass.     Hammer  faces. 

B.  Suitable  for:     Milling  cutters.     Taps  and  screw  cutting  dies.     Reamers.     Bor- 
ing cutters.     Hollow  mills.     Counter  bores.     Punches  and  dies.     Wire-drawing  dies. 
Thread  chasers.     Planing  and  molding-machine  cutters.     Inserted  saw  teeth.     Rock 
drills.     Stone-cutting  tools. 

[485] 


FURNACES  FOR  TEMPERING  STEEL 

C.  Suitable  for:     Twist  drills.     Flat  drills  for  brass.     Drifts.     Wood-boring  cutters. 
Gouges.     Hand-plane  irons. 

D.  Suitable  for:     Cold  chisels  for  steel.    Axes.    Augers. 

E.  Suitable  for:     Cold  chisels  for  wrought  and  cast  iron.     Circular  saws  for  metal. 
Hack  saws.    Springs.     Molding  cutters  for  wood.     Circular  saws  for  wood.     Wood- 
working chisels. 

FURNACES 

Furnaces  for  heating,  hardening,  tempering  or  annealing  steel  are  made  for  the  use 
of  coke,  oil,  gas  and  electricity.  A  coke  furnace  recommended  by  Mr.  R.  H.  Probert, 
so  simple  that  a  sketch  is  not  needed,  has  proportions  as  follows:  The  inside  of  the 
furnace  proper  should  be  36  X  60  inches  with  a  door  12  inches  high  by  24  inches  wide; 
ash  space  about  24  inches  high  and  32  inches  wide;  grate  bars  of  cast  iron,  with  £-inch 
openings,  giving  an  evenly  distributed  supply  of  air  to  the  fuel,  which  should  be  hard 
coke,  about  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg.  In  the  clear  flame  of  a  coke  fire,  the  whole  interior 
of  a  furnace  can  be  seen  easily. 

Tool  Tempering  Furnace. — A  tool  tempering  furnace  which  can  be  built  with  about 
one  hundred  standard  fire-bricks  on  any  tool  temperer's  forge  is  here  shown.  The 
advantages  of  the  type  of  fire  obtained  with  this  furnace,  as  compared  with  the  ordinary 
forge  fire,  are,  that  it  gives  the  three  most  important  qualities  of  a  good  tempering 
fire:  First,  a  deep  permanent  fire;  secondly,  an  intensely  hot  fire,  when  wanted;  and 
thirdly,  a  fire  in  which  it  is  possible  to  get  a  very  short  heat  on  a  tool,  the  high  heat  ex- 
tending only  to  the  cutting  edge  or  nose  of  the  tool. 


ASBESTOS  o«  *HcrriROM:COVM 


As  shown  in  the  sectional  view,  the  fire  is  deep  below  the  nose  of  the  tool,  and  does 
not  burn  out,  as  new  fuel  constantly  works  down  from  the  hopper.  This  insures  a  good 
heat  continuously,  so  that  tool  after  tool,  or  two  or  three  at  a  time,  may  be  tempered 
at  a  high  heat  without  placing  them  in  contact  with  the  coals. 

By  resting  the  tool  on  a  fire-brick  with  the  cutting  edge  down,  a  heat  is  obtained  just 
where  it  is  wanted,  that  is,  on  the  cutting  edge,  and  at  the  same  time  the  heat  is  confined 
to  the  nose  of  the  tool.  For  fuel,  either  coke  or  hard  coal  may  be  used  to  advantage. 

Muffle  Furnaces. — In  this  type  of  furnace  a  separate  vessel  is  heated  usually  by 
means  of  a  coal  or  coke  fire  located  underneath  the  muffle,  the  products  of  combustion 
being  made  to  circulate  around  it  with  rotary  motion,  thus  distributing  the  heat  evenly 
throughout  the  inclosed  space.  The  work  is  not  heated  by  contact  with  or  radiation 
from  the  flame,  but  by  radiation  from  the  hot  walls  of  the  muffle.  For  certain  classes 
of  work,  such  as  taps,  dies,  reamers,  milling  cutters,  etc.,  where  it  is  desired  that  the 
work  be  wholly  separated  from  the  products  of  combustion,  this  type  of  furnace  is 
commonly  used. 

Oven  Furnaces. — This  type  of  furnace  in  which  oil  or  gas  is  used  for  fuel  is  largely 
displacing  the  muffle  furnace  in  which  coal  or  coke  is  used  as  fuel.  Muffles  were  then 
necessary  to  keep  the  products  of  combustion  from  coming  in  contact  with  the  steel 

[486] 


FURNACES  FOR  TEMPERING  STEEL 


under  treatment,  these  products  being  injurious  to  hot  steel.  In  the  modern  oven 
furnace  using  gas  or  oil  as  fuel  these  injurious  gases  do  not  come  in  contact  with 
the  work;  instead  of  a  muffle  the  furnace  is  equipped  with  a  U-shaped  bottom  slab, 
having  extensions  up  the  sides  about  1£  inches  high;  these  sides  prevent  the  flame 
from  coming  in  direct  contact  with  the  work. 

Oil  Furnaces. — (1)  To  begin  with,  oil  fuel  does  not  burn  as  a  liquid.  It  first  passes 
into  the  condition  of  a  vapor.  (2)  This  vapor  cannot1  burn  without  mixture  with  air. 
(3)  A  suitable  temperature  for  combustion  must  be  maintained.  Means  for  vaporizing 
the  oil,  for  insuring  an  adequate  air  supply,  and  for  producing  an  intimate  mixture 
within  a  chamber  kept  at  a  suitable  temperature,  lie  at  the  foundation  of  all  methods 
of  oil  burning. 

The  conditions  favoring  vaporization  are  fine  subdivision;  that  is,  the  production 
of  a  large  surface  for  a  given  weight,  together  with  high  temperature.  Both  of  these 
are  fulfilled  by  breaking  the  oil  up  into  a  fine  spray  and  forcing  it  into  the  furnace  in 
this  condition.  When  the  spraying  is  done  by  steam  the  subdivision  into  a  fine  mist 
results,  in  the  furnace,  in  the  almost  instantaneous  vaporization  of  the  oil.  The  air 
which  is  led  in  with  the  spray  becomes  mechanically  mixed  with  it,  and  with  the  high 
temperature  in  the  furnace  all  conditions  are  fulfilled  and  combustion  ensues. 

Gas  Furnaces. — With  the  exception  of  a  few  favored  localities  where  natural  gas  is 
to  be  had,  the  gas  used  in  the  furnaces  for  heating  or  tempering  steel  is  either  coal  gas 
or  water  gas  from  the  city  mains,  or  producer  gas  made  on  the  premises. 

The  heating  value  of  natural  gas,  at  Pittsburgh,  is  about  900  B.t.u.  per  cubic  foot. 
Coal  gas  (illuminating)  has  a  heating  value  of  about  600  B.t.u.  per  cubic  foot.     The 
gross  heating  value  of  carburetted  water  gas  enriched  by  the  addition  of  oil  gas  will 
average  the  same,  approximately  equivalent 
to  550  B.t.u.  net.     Water  gas,  because  of  its 
convenience,  moderate  cost,  and  heating  pow- 
er, is  now  largely  used  in  industrial  plants, 
and  its  use  is  constantly  extending. 

Flameless  Combustion  Furnace. — The  un- 
derlying principle  of  this  furnace  is  much  the 
same  as  that  of  a  Welsbach  gas  mantle;  it 
consists  in  burning  a  mixture  of  gas  and  air 
in  intimate  contact  with  a  highly  refractory 
granulated  material  surrounding  the  muffle 
to  be  heated.  Common  fire-brick  begins  to 
soften  at  a  temperature  of  about  1300°  C. 
(2372°  F.),  and  melts  at  about  1740°  C. 
(3164°  F.). 

The  accompanying  sketch  shows  a  muffle 
furnace  arranged  for  the  application  of  gas 
heating  by  this  system.  The  upper  limit  of 
temperature  attainable  with  this  system  is  about  1500°  C.  (2732°  F.).  The  highest 
thermal  efficiency  (95%)  is  obtained  under  these  conditions,  for  the  mixture  of  gas  and 
air  is  then  almost  in  theoretical  proportions,  and  there  is  no  unnecessary  surplus  of  air 
being  raised  to  this  high  temperature.  The  broad  advantages  of  this  system  of  heating 
are,  that  a  considerably  higher  temperature  and  efficiency  are  obtained  than  by  the 
ordinary  methods  of  heating  by  gas,  and  that  the  control  of  the  temperature  and  heat- 
ing effect  is  simple  and  instantaneous. 

The  thermal  efficiency  as  compared  with  the  ordinary  methods  of  flame  heating 
is  shown  in  results  obtained  with  a  muffle  furnace  in  which  the  muffle  was  9£  inches 
long  by  5^  inches  wide  by  3£  inches  high,  maintained  at  temperatures  between 
815  and  1425°  C.  (1499  to  2597°  F.),  with  coal  coal-gas  of  540  B.t.u.  net.  (See  table 
on  page  488.) 

The  temperature  of  the  escaping  products  is  300  to  350°  C.  (572  to  662°  F.)  lower 
than  that  of  the  muffle;  with  a  muffle  temperature  of  1424°  C.  (2595°  F.)  there  was 
no  appearance  of  flame  at  the  top  of  the  furnace.  The  gas  consumptions  recorded  are 
economical  in  comparison  with  those  required  for  ordinary  heating  by  flame  contact. 

[487] 


FURNACES  FOR  TEMPERING  STEEL 


In  a  similar  test  with  a  muffle  of  the  same  size  heated  by  flame  contact,  the  gas  con- 
sumption to  maintain  the  muffle  at  1055°  C.  (1931°  F.)  (the  maximum  temperature 
obtainable)  was  105  cubic  feet  per  hour,  whereas  consumption  on  the  flameless  com- 
bustion furnace  at  the  same  temperature  would  have  been  about  43  cubic  feet  per  hour. 


TEMPERATURE  IN  MIDDLE  OF  MUFFLE 

Gas  Consumption 
to  Maintain 

TEMPERATURE  OF  PRODUCTS 

Temp.  Constant 

Deg.  Cent. 

Deg.  Fahr. 

Cubic  Feet  per 
Hour  at  15°  C. 

Deg.  Cent. 

Deg.  Fahr. 

815 

1,499 

21.0 

540 

1;004 

1,004 

1,840 

35.3 

645 

1,193 

1,205 

2,201 

58.0 

870 

1,598 

1,424 

2,595 

79.0 

1,085 

1,985 

Electric  Heating  Furnace. — The  modern  electric  furnace,  with  its  perfect  heat 
control,  reducing  atmosphere,  absence  of  all  products  of  combustion,  and  thermo- 
electric pyrometer  for  measuring  the  temperature,  offers  a  most  attractive  method 
for  the  heat  treatment  of  tool  steel. 

Electric  heat  can  be  produced  by  means  of  the  electric  arc,  as  in  the  arc  lamp,  or 
by  the  resistance  of  a  conductor,  as  in  the  incandescent  lamp.  It  is  the  latter  principle 

utilized  by  Mr.  A.  L.  Marsh  in  the 

electric  furnace  here  described  for 
the  heat-treatment  of  steel.  The 
chamber  in  this  furnace  is  18  inches 
deep  (front  to  back),  12  inches  wide 
and  8  inches  high;  the  relation  of 
the  various  constructional  parts  is 
clearly  shown  in  the  illustration,  in 
which:  A  represents  the  fire-clay 
insulation;  B,  the  carbon  connector 
plates;  C,  the  graphite  bottom 
plates;  D,  the  draft  hole;  E,  the 
pyrometer  hole;  F,  the  electrodes; 
G,  the  resister  plates;  H,  fire  sand; 
K,  cement  filling;  L,  the  inlet  for 
the  water  used  for  cooling  the  elec- 
trode clamps;  M,  the  outlet  for  this 
water;  N,  the  electrode  clamps; 
and  O,  the  pressure  regulating 
screws.  The  electrodes  are  sur- 
rounded by  asbestos  at  P. 

The  full  length  of  the  side  walls 
and  the  entire  roof  of  the  chamber 
are  formed  by  the  heating  elements; 
the  walls  are  composed  of  a  series 
of  thin  carbon  plates  resting  on  the 
top  of  a  heavy  block  of  the  same 
material,  and  the  roof  of  a  thick  graphite  plate  connecting  these  two  columns  at  the 
top.  One  graphite  electrode  projects  up  to  the  middle  of  each  side-wall  plate  and  con- 
nects electrically,  through  water-cooled  clamps  at  the  lower  end,  with  the  source  of 
energy.  The  chamber  floor  is  of  cement.  Outside  of  the  carbon  plates  there  is  a  lining 
of  the  same  material.  This  lining,  with  a  carefully  designed  backing  of  heat-resisting 
material,  retains  the  heat  developed  within  the  furnace.  A  counterweighted  door 
fitted  with  a  peep-hole  serves  as  a  quick  access  to  the  chamber,  while  in  the  rear 
wall  are  holes  for  the  insertion  of  a  pyrometer  tube  and  for  draft  regulation.  A  rigid 
enclosing  case  of  steel  holds  all  parts  securely. 

[488] 


BATHS  FOR  HEATING  STEEL 

Principle  of  Operation. — A  heavy  low-voltage  electric  current  is  supplied  through 
the  electrodes  to  the  resister  plates  forming  the  side  walls  of  the  working  chamber. 
Heat  is  generated  here,  due  to  the  resistance  offered  by  these  plates  to  the  passage 
of  the  current.  The  electrical  "resistivity"  of  the  carbon  causes  each  plate  to  heat 
exactly  as  the  carbon  filament  in  the  incandescent  lamp  "  lights  "  when  the  current 
is  turned  on.  In  addition  to  this  action,  advantage  is  taken,  in  the  furnace,  of  a  second 
form  of  electrical  resistance — that  of  the  contact  of  one  plate  with  another.  This  may 
be  readily  varied  by  altering  the  mechanical  pressure  on  the  plate  columns  by  means 
of  the  hand-screws.  The  turning  of  these  changes  the  resistance  of  the  circuit  and 
hence  the  resulting  temperature  produced. 

Normal  working  temperatures  are  acquired  in  a  little  over  an  hour's  time  after  the 
switch  has  been  closed.  An  average  of  12^  kilowatt  energy  consumption  will  maintain 
the  chamber  at  approximately  1232°  C.  (2250°  F.);  higher  temperatures,  up  to  1371°  C. 
(2500°  F.),  which  is  above  the  requirements  of  high-speed  steels,  or  lower,  as  desired, 
may  be  obtained  by  increasing  or  decreasing  the  energy  supply. 

HEATING  BATHS 

Crucible  furnaces  adapted  for  lead,  cyanide  of  potassium,  or  barium  chloride  are 
in  very  general  use.  The  furnace  fuel  is  either  gas  or  oil.  The  flame  from  the  burners 
is  projected,  tangentially,  into  the  heating  chamber  and  rotates  about  the  crucible, 
the  products  of  combustion  escaping  through  an  opening  in  the  rear.  The  temperature 
is  uniform  and  easily  controlled.  Baths  are  in  favor  for  heating  and  tempering  small 
tools  and  other  articles  of  steel.  The  temperature  of  the  bath  can  be  continuously 
maintained  at  any  degree  between  the  melting  and  the  vaporizing  points  of  the  material 
used.  The  work  being  submerged  in  the  bath  soon  acquires  that  temperature  and 
can  go  no  higher;  the  work  is  also  protected  from  the  atmosphere,  and  oxidation  does 
not  take  place. 

The  Lead  Bath.— Lead  melts  at  327°  C.  (621°  F.);  it  is  said  to  vaporize  at  about 
649°  C.  (1200°  F.);  its  boiling  point  is  given  as  about  1480°  C.  (2700°  F.).  The  avail- 
able work  temperatures  of  the  bath  for  carbon  tool  steel  will  range  from  332°  C.  (630°  F.) 
to,  say,  870°  C.  (1600°  F.),  which  can  be  attained  through  proper  furnace  control.  A 
lead  bath  operating  at  high  temperatures  should  be  provided  with  a  hood  to  carry  off 
the  poisonous  vapors  arising  from  the  crucible.  The  temperature  of  the  molten  metal 
«hould  be  obtained  by  pyrometer  measurement  only.  A  thick  coating  of  powdered 
charcoal  should  be  put  on  top  of  the  molten  lead  to  lessen  oxidation,  it  also  assists  in 
maintaining  an  even  temperature.  For  hardening  purposes  the  lead  bath  is  mostly 
confined  to  carbon  steel  tools,  which,  if  of  large  size,  should  be  slowly  preheated  before 
immersing  in  the  lead  bath;  a  temperature,  at  least  half  that  of  the  melted  lead  in 
the  crucible,  will  lessen  the  risk  of  breakage  through  unequal  expansion.  The  specific 
gravity  of  cast  lead  is  11.25  or  0.406  pound  per  cubic  inch.  The  specific  gravity  of 
steel  is  7.8  or  0.220  pound  per  cubic  inch— nearly  one-half  lighter  than  the  lead  bath. 
Steel  tools  must,  therefore,  be  held  down  in  the  bath,  as  if  left  free  they  would  float. 
For  hardening  purposes  the  lead  should  be  free  from  sulphur  or  other  impurities  which 
have  an  injurious  effect  on  the  polished  surfaces  of  steel  tools. 

The  sticking  of  lead  to  the  surface  of  tools  immersed  in  it  is  very  annoying  as  it 
contributes  to  uneven  hardness  during  the  process  of  quenching.  An  efficient  protective 
coating  which  does  not  interfere  with  heating  or  hardening  is  to  apply  with  a  paint  brush 
a  thin  coating  of  whiting  mixed  in  denatured  alcohol. 

Cyanide  of  Potassium  Bath. — The  specific  gravity  of  KCN  is  1.52;  its  melting  point 
is  that  of  a  dull  red  heat,  about  540°  C.  (1000C  F.).  Furnaces  for  melting  cyanide 
of  potassium  are  similar  to  those  for  melting  lead.  The  melting  pot  may  be  cast  iron 
or  pressed  steel,  in  either  case  it  is  suspended  in  the  heating  chamber  by  its  flanged  top. 
The  furnace  should  be  provided  with  a  hood  to  carry  off  the  poisonous  fumes  from  the 
melting  pot  and  pass  them  into  the  chimney. 

Cyanide  hardening  is  employed  by  bank-note  engravers  for  hardening  transfer 
rolls  and  engraved  plates,  also  by  manufacturers  of  cutters,  dies,  springs,  and  other 
steel  work  requiring  a  hard  surface  without  great  depth  of  case 

[489] 


BATHS  FOR  HEATING  STEEL 

When  the  molten  cyanide  is  raised  to  the  proper  temperature  the  parts  to  be  treated 
are  entirely  immersed  by  suspending  on  a  wire,  or  a  number  of  small  parts  may  be 
treated  at  once  by  placing  them  in  an  open  mesh-wire  basket  which  is  suspended  in 
the  bath.  The  extreme  depth  of  hardening  is  obtained  in  about  20  minutes,  a  longer 
treatment  in  the  bath  will  not  add  to  the  depth  of  hardness  already  obtained. 

Barium  Chloride  Bath. — Barium  chloride  crystallizes  in  transparent,  colorless, 
rhombic  tables,  having  a  specific  gravity  2.66  to  3.05.  The  crystals  have  an  unpleasant, 
bitter,  sharply  saline  taste,  exciting  nausea,  and  are  very  poisonous.  The  fusing 
temperature  is  890°  C.  (1635°  F.). 

The  furnace  should  preferably  be  gas  fired,  the  flame  encircling  the  crucible  as 
already  described  for  melting  lead.  The  crucible  should  be  of  graphite  and  rest  upon 
fire-bricks  so  spaced  that  the  hot  gases  shall  pass  under  as  well  as  around  it.  To  start 
the  bath:  fill  the  crucible  with  barium  chloride  including  about  2%  of  sodium  carbonate 
(soda  ash),  heat  the  crucible  until  these  two  substances  are  melted  together,  about 
1200°  C.  (2192°  F.).  The  furnace  is  then  ready  for  use. 

High  speed  steel  requires  a  higher  temperature  for  hardening  than  does  carbon 
steel;  the  barium  chloride  bath  will  range  from  1000  to  1200°  C.  (1832  to  2192°  F.). 
It  is  expected  of  the  man  operating  the  furnace  that  the  composition  of  the  steel  be 
known  as  also  the  best  temperature  for  its  treatment.  A  pyrometer  should  be  used 
in  all  temperature  measurements. 

When  the  bath  has  been  heated  to  the  temperature  suited  to  the  composition  of 
the  steel  the  tool,  if  a  small  one,  is  then  placed  in  the  bath  and  kept  there  until  it  has 
acquired  the  same  temperature.  Large  tools  should  be  preheated  to  a  low  red  in  a 
muffle  or  other  suitable  furnace  to  prevent  chilling  the  bath.  The  time  required  will 
vary  according  to  the  size  and  form  of  the  tools.  Mr.  Becker  states  that  in  the  case 
of  small  and  regularly  shaped  tools  it  will  range  from  a  few  seconds  to  a  minute;  those 
of  |-inch  section  or  less  should  be  ready  in  less  than  a  minute. 

When  a  tool  not  preheated  is  plunged  into  the  bath  a  coating  of  barium  chloride 
immediately  solidifies  upon  its  surface;  this  coating  protects  the  tool  until  its  tem- 
perature rises  to  that  of  the  bath  when  it  melts  off.  This  coating  is  useful  in  prevent- 
ing blisters  on  the  surface  of  the  steel,  and  hi  preventing  the  melting  down  of  sharp 
corners  or  points  of  a  tool  which  sometimes  occurs  when  a  cold  tool  is  put  into  a  very 
hot  oven  furnace.  This  coating  also  prevents  oxidation  of  the  tool  by  protecting  it 
from  the  atmosphere  when  removing  it  from  the  crucible  to  the  cooling  bath.  Since 
the  temperature  of  the  bath  is  no  higher  than  that  to  which  the  tool  is  to  be  raised, 
the  latter  is  not  damaged  by  remaining  in  the  bath  for  some  time  longer  than  would 
be  required  merely  to  heat  it  through  uniformly;  but  tools  should  not  be  left  in  the 
bath  longer  than  is  absolutely  necessary. 

Sodium  carbonate  (soda  ash),  when  the  quantity  exceeds  about  2%,  affects  the  liquid 
barium  chloride  by  lowering  its  capacity  for  heat  at  the  higher  temperatures;  it  also 
makes  regulation  of  temperature  more  difficult.  Mr.  Becker  says  the  boiling  point 
of  the  bath  seems  to  be  lowered  approximately  in  proportion  to  the  excess  of  soda 
ash;  and  since  it  is  very  difficult,  if  indeed  it  is  at  all  possible,  to  raise  the  temperature 
above  the  boiling  point,  the  tools  cannot  be  heated  high  enough  to  be  properly  hardened. 
The  soda  ash  gradually  becomes  exhausted  and  requires  renewal;  in  renewing,  the 
soda  ash  should  be  intimately  mixed  with  several  times  its  own  bulk  of  barium  chloride 
before  being  added  to  the  bath.  It  is  dangerous  to  throw  soda  ash  crystals  into  the 
melted  barium  chloride. 

Disadvantages  of  Barium  Chloride  Bath. — In  a  leading  article  published  in  Machin- 
ery, April,  1911,  it  is  stated  that  tools  heated  for  hardening  in  a  crucible  containing 
barium  chloride  have  a  soft  scale  or  film  of  soft  metal,  perhaps  about  0.003  to  0.006 
inch  deep,  all  over  the  surface  of  the  tool.  Careful  experiments  have  been  made  to 
ascertain  as  nearly  as  possible  the  conditions  which  contribute  to  produce  such  un- 
satisfactory results.  Comparison  has  been  made  between  tools  made  from  the  same 
material  of  which  some  were  hardened  by  heating  in  barium  chloride  and  some  in  an 
oven  furnace.  The  results  of  these  experiments  are  recorded  below. 

To  make  the  tests  as  simple  and  conclusive  as  possible,  pieces  of  high-speed  steel, 
f  inch  thick,  were  cut  off  from  one  bar  of  steel.  These  were  hardened,  heating  some  in 

[490] 


TEMPERING  HIGH-SPEED  STEEL 

a  common  oven  furnace,  and  others  in  barium  chloride.  The  pieces  were  heated  from 
the  room  temperature  to  the  hardening  temperature  without  preheating.  The  barium 
chloride  was  chemically  pure.  The  temperatures  were  measured  by  a  pyrometer,  and 
the  hardness  tests  were  by  scleroscope.  After  heating,  the  pieces  were  immersed  in 
a  cooling  bath  of  cottonseed  oil  at  38°  C.  (100°  F.).  The  temper  was  drawn  in  an  oil 
tempering  bath  at  260°  C.  (500°  F.). 

When  the  pieces  were  heated  in  the  oven  furnace,  the  operator  used  his  own  judg- 
ment as  to  when  to  remove  each  piece  from  the  furnace  and  plunge  it  into  the  hardening 
bath;  the  time  required  for  the  piece  to  acquire  proper  hardening  heat  was  recorded, 
and  given  in  the  table. 

After  the  pieces  had  been  hardened  and  tempered  as  described,  an  amount  equal 
to  0.005  inch  was  ground  off  from  one  side  of  each  piece,  which  we  call  the  face,  and 
an  amount  of  0.002  inch  was  ground  off  the  other  side,  the  back.  The  surfaces  pre- 
sented to  the  scleroscope  were  thus  perfectly  smooth  and  uniform.  The  results  are 
given  in  the  table,  the  values  being  the  average  of  the  several  readings. 

The  pieces  heated  in  barium  chloride  at  1149  to  1316°  C.  (2100  to  2400°  F.)  were 
found  to  be  pitted,  and  small  beads  of  a  metallic  structure  adhered  to  the  pieces.  Similar 
small  pieces  were  found  in  the  bottom  of  the  crucible  after  all  the  test  pieces  had  been 
hardened.  This  residue  was  chemically  analyzed  and  was  found  to  consist  principally 
of  ferro-tungsten. 

Heating  in  an  oven  furnace  gave  results  almost  uniformly  better  according  to  the 
heat  at  which  the  pieces  were  hardened.  The  higher  the  heat,  the  higher  the  sclero- 
scopic  test  number.  When  the  pieces  were  heated  in  barium  chloride,  a  result  entirely 
different  was  obtained,  and  at  temperatures  of  1149  to  1316°  C.  (2100  to  2400°  F.), 
the  results  were,  in  general,  very  unsatisfactory.  Pieces  that  were  18  minutes  in  the 
heating  bath  were  almost  uniformly  softer,  the  higher  the  hardening  heat,  indicating 
that  some  soft  scale  remained  after  removal  of  0.005  inch  by  grinding.  In  almost 
every  case  the  back,  where  0.002  inch  was  removed,  is  softer  than  the  face  of  the  test 
piece,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  soft  scale  is  deeper  than  0.002  inch;  whereas  the  face, 
where  0.005  inch  had  been  ground  off,  shows  greater  hardness.  Tests  were  next  made 
to  ascertain  the  influence  on  the  cutting  qualities  of  tools  hardened  either  by  heating 
in  barium  chloride  or  in  an  oven  furnace.  These  tests  proved  conclusively  that  tools 
heated  in  the  barium  chloride  bath  did  not  stand  as  high  a  cutting  speed  as  did  those 
hardened  after  heating  in  an  oven  furnace. 

HARDENING  AND  TEMPERING  HIGH-SPEED  STEEL  TOOLS 

A  method  of  preparing  such  tools  is  thus  given  by  J.  M.  Gledhill:  After  forging 
the  tools,  and  when  quite  cold,  grind  to  shape  on  a  dry  stone  or  dry  emery  wheel;  the 
tool  then  requires  heating  to  a  white  heat,  just  short  of  melting,  and  afterward  com- 
pletely cooling  in  the  air  blast.  This  method  of  first  roughly  grinding  to  shape  also 
lends  itself  to  cooling  the  tools  in  oil,  which  is  specially  efficient  where  the  retention 
of  a  sharp  edge  is  a  desideratum,  as  in  finishing  tools,  capstan  and  automatic  lathe 
tools,  brass-workers'  tools,  etc.  In  hardening  where  oil  cooling  is  used,  the  tools  should 
be  first  raised  to  a  white  heat,  but  without  melting,  and  then  cooled  down  either  by 
air  blast  or  in  the  open  to  a  bright  red  heat,  say,  927°  C.  (1700°  F.),  when  they  should 
be  instantly  plunged  into  a  bath  of  rape  or  whale  oil,  or  a  mixture  of  both. 

Specially  formed  tools  of  high-speed  steel,  such  as  milling  and  gear  cutters,  twist 
drills,  taps,  screwing  dies,  reamers,  and  other  tools  that  do  not  permit  of  being  ground 
to  shape  after  hardening,  and  where  any  melting  or  fusing  of  the  cutting  edges  must  be 
prevented,  the  method  of  hardening  is  as  follows:  A  specially  arranged  muffle  furnace 
heated  either  by  gas  or  oil  is  employed,  and  consists  of  two  chambers  lined  with  fire- 
clay, the  gas  and  air  entering  through  a  series  of  burners  at  the  back  of  the  furnace, 
and  under  such  control  that  a  temperature  up  to  1204°  C.  (2200°  F.)  may  be  steadily 
maintained  in  the  lower  chamber,  while  the  upper  chamber  is  kept  at  a  much  lower 
temperature.  Before  placing  the  cutters  in  the  furnace  it  is  advisable  to  fill  up  the 
hole  and  keyways  with  common  fire-clays  to  protect  them. 

The  mode  of  procedure  is  as  follows:  The  cutters  are  first  placed  upon  the  top 

[491], 


TEMPERING  HIGH-SPEED  STEEL 

of  the  furnace  until  they  are  warmed  through,  after  which  they  are  placed  in  the  upper 
chamber  and  thoroughly  and  uniformly  heated  to  a  temperature  of  about  816°  C. 
(1500°  F.),  or,  say,  a  medium  red  heat,  when  they  are  transferred  into  the  lower  chamber 
and  allowed  to  remain  therein  until  the  cutter  attains  the  same  heat  as  the  furnace 
itself,  viz.,  about  1204°  C.  (2200°  F.),  and  the  cutting  edges  become  a  bright  yellow 
heat,  having  an  appearance  of  a  glazed  or  greasy  surface.  The  cutter  should  then  be 
withdrawn  while  the  edges  are  sharp  and  uninjured,  and  revolved  before  an  air  blast 
until  the  red  heat  has  passed  away,  and  then  while  the  cutter  is  still  warm — that  is, 
just  permitting  of  its  being  handled — it  should  be  plunged  into  a  bath  of  tallow  at 
about  93.3°  C.  (200°  F.)  and  the  temperature  of  the  tallow  bath  then  raised  to  about 
271°  C.  (520°  F.),  on  the  attainment  of  which  the  cutter  should  be  immediately  with- 
drawn and  plunged  in  cold  oil. 

Electric  Hardening. — One  method  of  heating  and  hardening  the  point  of  a  high- 
speed steel  tool  and  the  arrangement  of  apparatus  are  shown  in  the  accompanying 
sketch. 

It  consists  of  a  cast-iron  tank,  of  suitable  dimensions,  containing  a  strong  solution 
of  potassium  carbonate  K2CO3  together  with  a  dynamo,  the  positive  cable  from  which 


riEXIBLE  CABLE 


is  connected  to  the  metal  clip  holding  the  tool  to  be  heated,  while  the  negative  cable 
is  connected  direct  on  the  tank.  The  tool  to  be  hardened  is  held  in  a  suitable  clip  to 
insure  good  contact.  To  harden  the  tool:  The  current  is  first  switched  on,  and  then 
the  tool  is  gently  lowered  into  the  solution  to  such  a  depth  as  is  required  to  harden 
it.  The  act  of  dipping  the  tool  into  the  alkaline  solution  completes  the  electric  circuit 
and  at  once  sets  up  intense  heat  on  the  immersed  part.  When  it  is  seen  that  the  tool 
is  sufficiently  heated  the  current  is  instantly  switched  off,  and  the  solution  then  serves 
to  rapidly  chill  and  harden  the  point  of  the  tool,  so  that  no  air  blast  is  necessary. 

Colors  of  Heated  Steel. — The  following  table  by  White  and  Taylor  gives  results 
of  extended  experiments  upon  colors  of  heated  steel  corresponding  to  different  degrees 
of  temperatures.  Pouillet  constructed  a  table  in  1836,  which  has  been  published  in 
various  text  books;  other  tables  have  appeared  from  time  to  time,  but  these  differ 
so  widely  among  themselves  that  they  lack  authoritative  standing,  a  condition  due  to 
defective  apparatus  used  for  determining  the  higher  temperatures,  and  to  the  fact 
that  observers  have  a  different  eye  for  color,  which  leads  to  quite  a  range  of  temperatures 
covering  the  same  color.  White  and  Taylor  found  that  the  quality  or  intensity  of  light 
in  which  color  heats  are  observed — that  is,  a  bright  sunny  day,  or  cloudy  day,  or  the 
time  of  day,  such  as  morning,  afternoon,  or  evening,  with  their  varying  light — influences 
to  a  greater  or  less  degree  the  determination  of  temperatures  by  the  eye. 

After  many  tests  with  the  Le  Chatelier  pyrometer,  and  different  skilled  observers 
working  in  all  kinds  of  intensity  of  light,  they  adopted  the  following  nomenclature  of 
color  scale  with  the  corresponding  determined  values  in  degrees  Fahr.  as  best  suited 
to  the  ordinary  conditions  met  with  in  the  majority  of  smith's  shops: 

[492] 


QUENCHING  BATHS 


Fahr. 
Deg. 

Cent. 
Deg. 

Dark  blood  red,  black  red  

990 

532 

Dark  red  blood  red  low  red 

1,050 

566 

Dark  cherry  red  ...       

,175 

635 

Medium  cherry  red  

,250 

677 

Cherry  full  red                                            . 

,375 

746 

Light  cherry,  bright  cherry,  light  red  (heat  at  which  scale  forms)  .  . 
Salmon,  orange,  free  scaling  heat  

,550 
,650 

843 
899 

Light  salmon  light  orange 

,725 

935 

Yellow                          .  .            ....            

,825 

996 

Light  yellow  

,975 

1,079 

White 

2200 

1  204 

With  the  advancing  knowledge  of  the  heat  treatment  of  steel,  the  foregoing  will 
prove  of  value  to  those  engaged  in  the  handling  of  steel  at  various  temperatures.  The 
importance  of  knowing  with  close  approximation  the  temperatures  used  in  the  treat- 
ment of  steel  cannot  be  overestimated,  as  it  holds  out  the  surest  promise  of  success 
in  obtaining  desired  results. 

This  demand  for  more  accurate  temperatures  must  eventually  lead  to  the  use  of 
accurate  pyrometric  instruments;  but  at  present  the  only  available  instruments  do 
not  lend  themselves  readily  to  ordinary  uses,  and  the  eye  of  the  operator  must  be 
largely  depended  upon;  therefore,  the  training  of  the  eye,  by  observing  accurately 
determined  temperatures,  will  prove  of  much  material  assistance  in  the  regulation 
of  temperatures  which  cannot  be  otherwise  controlled. 


QUENCHING  BATHS 

Carbon  tool  steels  are  usually  quenched  in  water,  the  most  efficient  of  all  quenching 
fluids,  because  of  its  high  specific  heat  and  great  capacity  for  taking  up  heat  at  any  tem- 
perature between  freezing  and  boiling  points.  The  bath  should  be  large  and  supplied 
with  running  water  where  large  pieces  are  to  be  hardened.  In  water  quenching,  a  thin 
film  of  vapor  forms  on  the  surface  of  the  tool,  checking  the  absorption  of  heat  from  the  tool 
in  still  water;  a  stream  of  boiling  water  often  hardens  more  than  does  still,  but  cold  water. 

The  temperature  at  which  hardening  occurs  in  carbon  tool  steel  seems  to  be  that 
at  which  the  metal  begins  to  exhibit  color,  a  low,  barely  visible  red  heat  as  seen  in  the 
dark.  Any  treatment  which  by  quickly  reducing  this  temperature,  as  in  water  quench- 
ing, will  harden  the  steel. 

The  change  which  occurs  in  hardening  carbon  steel  is  a  physical  alteration  of  struc- 
ture at  some  point  between  427  and  538°  C.  (  800  and  1000°  F.),  and  is  the  more  complete 
as  the  reduction  of  temperature  of  the  metal  is  the  more  rapid.  Cooling  should,  there- 
fore, be  moderately  rapid,  complete,  and  perfectly  regular. 

Brine  produces  the  sharpest  results,  but  is  severe,  and  has  a  greater  tendency  to 
warp  the  parts.  It  produces  a  higher  elastic  limit  than  either  water  or  oil.  Water  is 
intermediate  between  brine  and  oil  in  its  tendency  to  warp  the  parts,  nor  can  so  high 
an  elastic  limit  be  obtained  with  it  as  with  brine. 

•  Fish  oil,  cottonseed,  lard,  tallow,  and  paraffine  oils  are  the  mildest  of  the  quenching 
mediums,  and  are  extensively  used.  It  does  not  make  much  difference  which  oil  is 
used,  but  the  quenching  bath  must  be  sufficiently  large  that  the  heat  be  absorbed 
quickly  from  the  tool.  Tools  cooled  in  oil  are,  in  general,  harder  than  those  cooled  by 
means  of  an  air  blast. 

Air  quenching  is  rendered  less  objectionable  as  regards  oxidation  when  the  high- 
speed tool  has  been  heated  in  a  barium  chloride  bath  because  a  thin  film  of  the  chloride 
completely  covers  it  and  effectually  prevents  metallic  contact  with  the  air.  When 
tools  are  air  quenched  a  force  blast  is  necessary  in  order  to  carry  off  the  heat  quickly. 

[493] 


ANNEALING  STEEL 

Tools  with  delieate  edges  will  require  tempering  after  air  quenching,  which  is  usually 
accomplished  in  an  oil  bath.  After  the  removal  of  the  barium  chloride  film  the  tool 
will  be  found  to  be  of  its  original  size,  and  much  the  same  appearance  as  before  heating. 

Quenching  and  hardening  high-speed  steel:  The  methods  employed  are  by  no 
means  uniform,  largely  depending  upon  the  composition  of  the  steel. 

Mushet's  self-hardening  steel  (1868),  also  known  as  air-hardening  steel,  derived  its 
name  from  the  fact  that  when  heated  to  an  orange  color,  say,  910°  C.  (1670°  F.)  and 
allowed  to  cool  slowly  in  the  air  it  becomes  exceedingly  hard.  The  usual  composition 
of  this  steel  was  2  to  3%  manganese;  4  to  6%  tungsten,  and  carbon  high.  The  dis- 
tinctive, persistent  hardness  of  manganese  steel  indicates  that  it  is  manganese  that 
gives  this  steel  its  so-called  self -hardening  property.  Air-hardening  steel,  as  a  rule, 
is  not  tough,  that  is  to  say,  if  it  is  made  tough  it  will  not  be  very  hard.  The  edge  of 
the  tool  will  flow,  and  when  it  is  so  hard  that  it  will  not  flow  then  it  is  so  brittle  that 
it  will  crumble  easily. 

Heating  and  hardening  the  later  high-speed  tool  steels,  a  composition  such  as  for 
lathe  and  planer  use,  it  is  necessary  to  almost  melt  the  point  of  the  tool,  quench  it  in 
a  strong  air  blast,  and  then  grind  to  shape.  Such  tools  are  made  from  annealed  bars, 
differing  in  this  respect  from  the  earlier  air-hardening  steels.  The  finished  tools  are  heated 
in  a  lead  bath  of  982  to  1093°  C.  (1800  to  2000°  F.),  and  quenched  quickly  in  ordinary 
tempering  oil  which  must  be  kept  cool  by  a  coil  containing  circulating  cold  water;  they 
are  then  tempered  in  a  bath  of  heavy  oil  heated  to  about  232°  C.  (450°  F.),  the  tools 
should  come  out  of  the  bath  bright  and  clean. 

Double  Hardening. — This  consists  of  a  preliminary  hardening,  followed  by  annealing 
at  a  lower  or  higher  temperature,  with  a  view  to  eliminating  strains,  and  again  harden- 
ing. This  double  hardening  does  not  affect  the  strength  and  extensibility  of  the  metal, 
but  it  eliminates  the  yield-point,  which  is  very  important  in  the  case  of  springs,  etc. 
A  spring,  hardened  in  the  ordinary  way,  is  completely  pressed  together  when  the  yield- 
point  is  reached,  but  with  a  double  hardened  spring  this  is  different.  As  soon  as  the 
limit  of  elasticity  is  exceeded,  it  suffers  a  slight  deformation,  but  the  limit  of  elasticity 
immediately  increases  again,  and  the  deformation  ceases.  Double  hardening  also 
decreases  brittleness. 

ANNEALING 

If  carbon  tool  steel  is  annealed  at  a  temperature  where  martensite  is  formed  it  will 
contain  a  portion  of  the  hardening  element.  By  a  judicious  application  of  heat  it  is 
possible  to  obtain  almost  any  desired  combination  of  ferrite,  pearlite,  and  martensite. 
Tools  when  properly  handled  should  be  heated  first  to  the  proper  temperature  or  critical 
point,  and  then  quenched.  Heating  above  this  point  tends  to  produce  decarbonization. 
If  a  tool  is  heated  too  hot  and  then  allowed  to  cool  slowly  before  quenching  it  will, 
according  to  Sullivan,  have  a  grain  structure  developed  by  the  higher  temperature 
which  is  not  corrected  by  allowing  the  tool  to  cool  before  quenching.  Tools  should  not 
be  allowed  to  soak  too  long  even  at  the  proper  temperature,  as  this  tends  to  produce 
decarbonization  on  the  surface. 

Annealing  Mild  Steel. — The  following  is  an  abstract  from  a  communication  by 
Professor  Heyn  to  the  Iron  and  Steel  Institute,  1902: 

1.  When  low  carbon  mild  steel  is  annealed  at  1000°  C.  there   occurs  an  increase 
hi  the  degree  of  brittleness  if  the.  annealing  period  is  sufficiently  long.     By  a  judicious 
adjustment  of  the  annealing  temperature  and  period,  it  is  possible  to  produce  any 
desired  degree  of  variation  in  the  brittleness  of  mild  steel  within  definite  limits. 

2.  Prolonged   annealing,  say,  uninterrupted  for  fourteen   days,    at   temperatures 
between  700°  and  890°,  produces  no  increase  in  the  brittleness.     In  such  cases  where 
the  brittleness  of  the  metal  in  its  initial  state  is  not  yet  at  the  lowest  degree  possible, 
by  this  treatment  the  lowest  degree  of  brittleness  will  be  attained. 

3.  Between  1100°  and  900°  there  exists  a  temperature  limit,  above  which,  if  anneal- 
ing is  carried  on  for  a  longer  period  and  at  an  increasing  temperature,  the  degree  of 
brittleness  increases.     Below  these  limits,  however,  this  is  not  the  case. 

4.  Overheating  not  only  occurs  at  a  most  extreme  white  heat,  but  manifests  itself 
already  at  considerably  lower  temperatures,  which  must,  however,  exceed  the  tem- 

[494] 


ANNEALING  STEEL 

perature  limit  referred  to  in  No.  3,  the  degree  being  more  marked  the  longer  the  anneal- 
ing period. 

5.  By  suitable  annealing,  the  brittleness  of  overheated  mild  steel  can  be  eliminated. 
If  annealing  is  carried  on  above  900°  C.,  the  short  period  of  about  half  an  hour  is  suffi- 
cient.    Below  800°  an  annealing  of  even  five  hours  is  not  sufficient  to  eliminate  the 
brittleness  in  overheated  mild  steel. 

6.  If  mild  steel,  which  has  been  annealed  for  a  longer  period,  at  a  high  enough  tem- 
perature, so  that  after  undisturbed  cooling  it  would  show  extreme  brittleness,  is  rolled 
or  forged  during  cooling  at  a  bright  red  heat,  it  will  exhibit  no  brittleness  when  cold. 

7.  The  fracture  of  overheated  mild  steel  generally  shows  a  coarse  grain,  although 
it  is  not  necessarily  always  the  case. 

8.  The  single  crystal  grains  of  which  the  structure  of  the  iron  is  built  up,  and  which 
can  be  detected  under  the  microscope  by  suitable  etching,  are  often  of  considerable 
dimensions  when  in  the  state  of  overheating.     Nevertheless,  this  is  not  to  be  considered 
as  proof  positive  that  overheating  has  taken  place,  since  the  period  of  cooling  also 
exercises  a  great  influence  on  the  size  of  the  ferrite  grains.     Rapid  cooling,  from  the 
temperature  causing  overheating,  produces  fine  ferrite  grains,  without  appreciably 
reducing  the  brittleness. 


COMPOSITION  AND  HEAT  TREATMENT  OF  CARBON  STEEL  OTHER  THAN 

TOOL  STEELS 

The  30,  80  and  95%  carbon  steels  given  below  are  abstracted  from  second  report 
made  by  the  Iron  and  Steel  Division  of  the  Society  of  Automobile  Engineers'  Standards 
Committee,  1911. 

While  the  steels  and  methods  of  heat  treating  them  have  been  prepared  more  espe- 
cially for  automobile  construction,  they  also  can  be  used  in  a  large  number  of  cases  for 
manufacturing  other  products. 

Carbon  Steel— 0.45% 

Composition. — Carbon,  0.40  to  0.50%  (0.45%  desired);  manganese,  0.50  to  0.80% 
(0.65%  desired);  silicon,  not  over  0.20%;  phosphorus,  not  over  0.04%;  sulphur,  not 
over  0.04%. 

Characteristics  and  Uses. — The  natural  sources  of  supply  of  this  steel  are  basic  or 
acid  open  hearth,  and  crucible  or  electric  furnace,  the  most  common  being  the  basic 
open  hearth.  This  steel  possesses  greater  strength  for  structural  purposes  than  0.30 
carbon  steel.  Its  uses,  however,  are  more  limited  and  are  confined  in  a  general  way  to 
such  parts  as  demand  a  high  degree  of  strength  and  a  relatively  low  degree  of  toughness. 
With  proper  heat  treatment  the  fatigue  resisting  qualities  are  very  high.  The  principal 
uses  for  this  steel  are:  Crankshafts,  driving-shafts,  propeller-shafts  and  transmission 
gears.  It  is  not  hard  enough,  however,  without  case-hardening,  and  is  not  tough 
enough  with  case-hardening  to  make  safe  transmission  gears,  and  should  not  be  used 
for  case-hardened  parts,  except  in  an  emergency.  In  the  annealed  condition  this  steel 
should  have  an  elastic  limit  of  about  50,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  after  heat 
treating  the  elastic  limit  may  be  nearly  doubled. 

Heat  Treatment. — After  forging  or  machining;  1.  Heat  to  1550°  F.  2.  Quench. 
3.  Anneal  by  heating  to  1450°  F.  4.  Cool  slowly  in  furnace,  in  lime  or  soft  coal. 
5.  Reheat,  1400  to  1500°  F.  6.  Quench.  7.  Heat,  800  to  1000°  F.  and  cool  slowly. 

Carbon  Steel— 0.80% 

Composition. — Carbon,  0.75  to  0.90%  (0.80%  desired) ;  manganese,  0.25  to  0.50% 
(0.35%  desired);  silicon,  0.10  to  0.30%;  phosphorus,  not  over  0.035%;  sulphur,  not 
over  0.035%. 

Characteristics  and  Uses. — This  steel  is  used  principally  for  springs,  and,  generally 
speaking,  for  springs  of  light  section.  Its  sources  of  supply  may  be  the  open  hearth, 
crucible,  or  elastic  furnace. 

[495] 


HEAT  TREATMENT  OF  CARBON  STEEL 

Heat  Treatment. — It  must  be  understood  that  the  higher  the  drawing  temperature, 
the  lower  will  be  the  elastic  limit  of  the  material.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  material 
be  drawn  to  too  low  a  temperature  it  will  be  brittle.  The  hardening  and  drawing  of 
springs,  that  is,  the  heat  treatment  of  them,  is  as  a  rule  in  the  hands  of  the  spring-maker, 
but  for  small  coil  springs,  the  following  treatment  is  recommended:  1.  Coil.  2.  Heat, 
1400  to  1500°  F.  3.  Quench  in  oil.  4.  Reheat,  400  to  500  or  600°  F.  in  accordance 
with  the  degree  desired,  and  cool  slowly. 

Carbon  Steel— 0.95% 

Composition.— Carbon,  0.90  to  1.05%  (0.95%  desired);  manganese,  0.25  to  0.50% 
(0.35%  desired);  silicon,  0.10  to  0.30%;  phosphorus,  not  over  0.035%;  sulphur,  not 
over  0.035%. 

Characteristics  and  Uses. — This  steel  is  obtained  from  the  same  sources  as  0.80 
carbon  steel  and  is  used  principally  for  springs. 

Heat  Treatment. — Substantially  the  same  remarks  apply  to  this  steel  as  to  0.80 
carbon  steel.  The  heat  treatment  may  be  reduced  slightly  because  of  the  increased 
carbon  content,  and  possibly  the  drawing  temperature  will  be  different. 

HARDENING  OF  CARBON  AND  LOW-TUNGSTEN   STEELS 

A  research  on  the  hardening  of  carbon  and  low-tungsten  tool  steels  has  been  con- 
ducted by  Mr.  Shipley  N.  Brayshaw,  of  Manchester,  England,  and  the  results  of  his 
investigations  were  presented  to  the  Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers  in  1910. 

The  paper  deals  exclusively  with  the  results  obtained  from  two  kinds  of  carbon  tool 
steel  that,  except  for  minute  variations,  differed  only  in  the  fact  that  one  of  them  con- 
tamed  about  0.5%  of  tungsten.  The  steel  contained  on  an  average  of  1.16%  carbon, 
0.15%  silicon,  0.36%  manganese,  0.018%  sulphur,  and  0.013%  phosphorus.  The  whole 
work  of  investigation  was  devoted  to  questions  directly  connected  with  machine-shop 
hardening. 

Hardening  Temperatures. — The  hardening  point  of  both  low-tungsten  and  carbon 
steel  may  be  located  with  great  accuracy,  and  the  complete  change  from  soft  to  hard 
is  accomplished  within  a  range  of  about  10°  F.  or  less.  After  the  temperature  has  been 
raised  more  than  from  35  to  55°  F.  above  the  hardening  point,  the  hardness  of  the 
steel  is  lessened  by  further  increases  in  the  temperature,  provided  the  heating  is  suffi- 
ciently prolonged  for  the  steel  to  acquire  thoroughly  the  condition  pertaining  to  the 
temperature. 

Change  Point. — There  is  a  change  point  at  about  879°  C.  (1615°  F.)  in  low-tungsten 
steel  and  at  a  somewhat  higher  temperature  in  carbon  steel.  One  of  the  several  in- 
dications of  this  change  point  is  the  shortening  of  bars  hardened  in  water  at  temperatures 
below  that  point,  whereas  the  bar  lengthens  if  this  temperature  is  exceeded  at  the 
time  of  quenching.  Practically  the  same  results  are  obtained  by  heating  low-tungsten 
bars  to  any  temperature  from  760  to  940°  C.  (1400  to  1725°  F.)  and  quenching  in  oil 
as  by  quenching  in  water. 

Length  of  Time  of  Heating. — Prolonged  soaking  up  to  120  minutes  at  temperatures 
at  which  the  hardening  change  is  half  accomplished  in  30  minutes  does  not  suffice 
to  complete  the  change.  Prolonged  soaking  for  hardening  at  a  temperature  of  760°  C. 
(1400°  F.)  has  a  slightly  injurious  effect  on  the  steel,  but  does  not  materially  influence 
the  hardness.  At  a  temperature  of  about  810°  C.  (1490°  F.)  a  great  degree  of  hardness 
is  attained  by  quick  heating,  but  the  hardness  is  impaired  with  30  minutes'  soaking. 
Prolonged  soaking  for  hardening  at  a  temperature  of  about  879°  C.  (1615°  F.)  has  a 
seriously  injurious  effect  upon  the  steel.  A  specially  great  degree  of  hardness  may  be 
obtained  by  means  of  soaking  at  a  high  temperature,  such  as  879°  C.  (1615°  F.)  for  a 
very  short  time,  but  even  as  long  a  time  as  1\  minutes  is  long  enough  to  seriously  impair 
the  hardness. 

The  temperature  of  brine  for  quenching  is  of  considerable  importance.  Both  low- 
tungsten  and  carbon  steel  bars  quenched  at  5°  C.  (41°  F.)  were  decidedly  harder  than 
bars  quenched  at  24°  C.  (75°  F.),  and  quenching  at  51°  C.  (124°  F.)  rendered  the  bars 
much  softer. 

[496] 


HARDENING  CARBON  AND  TUNGSTEN  STEELS 

Previous  Annealing. — The  method  of  previous  annealing  affects  the  hardness  of 
steel  considerably.  The  elastic  limit  of  low-tungsten  bars  hardened  at  either  760°  C. 
(1400°  F.)  or  860°  C.  (1580°  F.)  varies  according  to  the  annealing  they  have  undergone. 
The  elastic  limit  is  higher  after  annealing  at  about  799°  C.  (1470°  F.)  for  30  minutes,  or 
699°  C.  (1290°  F.)  for  120  minutes,  but  it  is  seriously  impaired  by  annealing  at  799°  C. 
(1470°  F.)  for  120  minutes.  If  low-tungsten  steel  is  annealed  at  941°  C.  (1725°  F.) 
and  hardened  at  760°  C.  (1400°  F.)  the  elastic  limit  is  inferior,  and  the  adverse  effect 
of  the  previous  annealing  is  much  more  pronounced  if  the  hardness  is  done  at  860°  C. 
(1580°  F.).  The  elastic  limit  of  carbon  steel  annealed  at  any  temperature  between 
699  and  941°  C.  (1290  and  1725°  F.)  and  hardened  at  either  760°  or  860°  C.  (1400  or 
1580°  F.)  does  not  vary  by  nearly  such  great  amounts  as  the  elastic  limit  of  the  low- 
tungsten  bars,  and  the  highest  annealing  temperature  given  above  is  not  injurious 
so  far  as  the  elastic  limit  is  concerned. 

The  hardness  of  low-tungsten  bars  hardened  at  760°  C.  (1400°  F.)  decreases  from  a 
high  scleroscope  figure  to  a  low  one  as  the  temperature  of  annealing  increases  from 
699  to  941°  C.  (1290  to  1725°  F.).  The  hardness  is  increased  by  prolonging  the  annealing 
at  the  lower  temperature.  The  hardness  of  low-tungsten  steel  hardened  at  860°  C. 
(1580°  F.)  is  fairly  constant  at  a  moderately  high  scleroscope  figure,  whatever  the  tem- 
perature of  annealing. 

Heating  in  Two  Furnaces. — Experiments  show  that  low-tungsten  and  carbon  steel 
bars  heated  for  half  an  hour  to  temperatures  between  841  and  899°  C.  (1545  and  1650° 
F.)  are  not  much  affected  so  far  as  their  elastic  limit  and  maximum  strength  are  con- 
cerned by  a  further  immediate  soaking  for  half  an  hour  at  760°  C.  (1400°  F.).  If, 
however,  the  temperature  in  first  furnace  is  941°  C.  (1725°  F.),  the  low-tungsten  steel 
is  much  improved  by  a  further  soaking  at  760°  C.  (1400°  F.),  but  the  carbon  steel  is 
much  injured  by  the  same  treatment.  Bars  of  low-tungsten  steel  heated  for  30  minutes 
at  880°  C.  (1616°  F.),  and  then  soaked  at  722°  C.  (1332°  F.)  for  a  further  30  minutes, 
give  a  high  elastic  limit  and  maximum  strength,  and  are  harder  than  if  the  second 
soaking  were  at  a  temperature  of  760°  C.  (1400°  F.).  The  carbon  steel,  again,  is  but 
little  affected  by  these  variations  in  the  second  furnace. 

Change  of  Length  in  Hardening. — Both  low-tungsten  and  carbon  steel  is  much 
affected  by  the  above  variations  in  the  temperature  of  the  second  furnace.  Good 
results  as  regards  elastic  limit  and  maximum  strength,  and  also  as  regards  hardness, 
are  obtained  by  very  short  soaking,  first  at  a  high  temperature,  say,  879°  C.  (1615°  F.), 
and  then  at  a  low  one,  the  results  being  best  when  the  second  temperature  is  near  to 
or  a  little  below  the  hardening  point.  If  the  furnace  be  at  a  sufficiently  high  temperature 
it  is  easy  either  by  variations  of  the  temperatures  of  the  two  furnaces,  or  by  variations 
in  the  time  of  soaking,  to  arrive  at  a  treatment  of  the  steel,  both  low-tungsten  and 
carbon,  whereby  they  neither  lengthen  nor  shorten.  Under  the  same  treatment  carbon 
steel  has  a  greater  tendency  to  shorten  than  low-tungsten  steel. 

Miscellaneous  Results. — Other  experiments  showed  that  low-tungsten  steel  heated 
at  860°  C.  (1580°  F.)  for  15  minutes  and  quenched  in  oil  has  a  higher  elastic  limit  and 
is  harder  than  carbon  steel  similarly  treated.  As  regards  annealing,  it  was  found  that 
bars  annealed  at  a  temperature  of  799°  C.  (1470°  F.)  or  below  became  slightly  shorter 
by  the  annealing  process,  and  its  action  was  more  pronounced  in  the  case  of  carbon 
steel  than  tungsten  steel.  Annealing  at  a  temperature  of  899°  C.  (1650°  F.)  causes 
both  low-tungsten  and  carbon  steel  to  lengthen. 

It  was  found  that  recalescence  of  low-tungsten  steel  takes  place  gradually  at  a 
temperature  of  731°  C.  (1348°  F.)  and  more  readily  at  725°  C.  (1337°  F.)  and,  further, 
that  the  recalescence  at  either  of  the  above  temperatures  is  very  much  retarded  if  the 
steel  is  cooled  from  a  maximum  heat  of  890°  C.  (1634°  F.). 

Regarding  hardening  cracks,  it  is  shown  that  both  for  low-tungsten  and  carbon 
steel,  such  treatment  as  produced  the  highest  elastic  limit  accompanied  by  the  greatest 
hardness  is  frequently  the  most  risky.  The  risk  of  hardening  cracks  is  reduced  if  the 
steel  is  heated  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to  a  temperature  of  899°  C.  (1650°  F.) 
or  a  little  above.  Low-tungsten  steel  is  more  liable  to  crack  in  hardening  than  is 
carbon  steel. 

Effect  of  Tempering. — Tempering  experiments  showed  that  little  effect  was  pro- 

[497] 


HEAT  TREATMENT  OF  CARBON  AND  ALLOY  STEELS 

duced  by  the  tempering  of  carbon  steel  to  149°  C.  (300°  F.)  for  30  minutes.  Tempering 
the  same  steel  to  249°  C.  (480°  F.)  for  15  minutes,  however,  caused  it  to  soften  con- 
siderably and  to  shorten  in  length.  For  low-tungsten  steel  the  elastic  limit  was  in- 
creased considerably  by  tempering,  up  to  a  temperature  of  249°  C.  (480°  F.).  The 
maximum  strength  of  the  same  steel  coincides  with  the  elastic  limit  for  bars  either  un- 
tempered  or  tempered  at  149°  C.  (300°  F.)  for  15  minutes,  but  it  then  rises  rapidly  with 
further  tempering.  The  hardness,  as  measured  by  the  scleroscope,  was  considerably 
reduced  by  tempering  at  149°  C.  (300°  F.)  and  still  more  at  199°  C.  (390°  F.),  but 
was  not  so  much  affected  by  further  tempering  at  249°  C.  (480°  F.).  The  length  of 
the  low-tungsten  bars  was  reduced  by  tempering  up  to  a  temperature  of  249°  C  (480°  F.), 
the  higher  the  temperature,  the  greater  was  the  reduction  in  length. 

Tensile  Strength. — The  following  conclusions  refer  to  low-tungsten  steel,  but  there 
is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  they  are  also  applicable  to  carbon  steel.  A  very  good  bar 
was  produced  by  quenching  from  a  temperature  fully  42°  C.  (108°  F.)  above  the  harden- 
ing temperature.  A  heat  of  only  5  minutes'  duration  produced  a  harder  bar  than  a 
heat  of  25  minutes,  the  maximum  temperature  in  both  cases  being  799°  C.  (1470°  F.), 
or  a  little  above;  but  the  bar  heated  for  a  shorter  time  gave  a  much  lower  elastic  limit. 
The  following  has  reference  to  both  tungsten  and  carbon  steels:  Tempering  up  to  a 
temperature  of  299°  C.  (570°  F.)  gradually  increases  the  maximum  strength,  the  elastic 
limit,  and  reduces  for  a  given  stress  the  extension  under  load  and  the  permanent 
extension. 

COMPOSITION  AND  HEAT  TREATMENT  OF  CARBON  AND  ALLOY 

STEELS 

Soc.  Auto.  Engrs.,  Standards  Committee,  1911) 
Nickel  Steel-0.30%  Carbon,  3i%  Nickel 

Composition. — Carbon,  0.25  to  0.35%  (0.30%  desired);  manganese,  0.50  to  0.80% 
(0.65%  desired);  silicon,  not  over  0.20%;  phosphorus,  not  over  0.04%;  sulphur,  not 
over  0.04%;  nickel,  3.25  to  3.75%  (3.50%  desired). 

Characteristics  and  Uses. — This  steel  is  primarily  intended  for  heat  treating,  and 
is  used  for  structural  parts  where  much  strength  and  toughness  are  desired :  such  parts 
as  axles,  spindles,  crankshafts,  driving-shafts,  and  transmission-shafts.  The  elastic 
limit  in  the  annealed  condition  is  about  55,000  pounds  per  square  inch.  By  heat 
treatment  this  may  be  increased  to  160,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  the  ductility  at 
this  point  being  satisfactory,  and  a  reduction  of  area  of  at  least  45%  being  obtainable. 
The  wide  variation  in  the  elastic  limit  is  obtained  by  the  use  of  different  quenching 
mediums — brine  and  oil — and  a  difference  in  the  drawing  temperatures. 

Heat  Treatment.— After  forging  and  machining:  1»  Heat,  1450  to  1500°  F.  2. 
Quench.  3.  Heat,  600  to  1200°  F.  and  cool  slowly. 

A  higher  refinement  of  this  treatment  is:  After  forging  and  machining:  1.  Heat, 
1450  to  1500°  F.  2.  Quench.  3.  Reheat,  1350  to  1400°  F.  4.  Quench.  5.  Heat,  600 
to  1200°  F.  and  cool  slowly. 

By  the  proper  regulation  of  the  quench  and  drawing  temperatures,  a  wide  range  of 
physical  characteristics  may  be  obtained.  The  thickness  of  the  mass  treated,  the 
volume  and  temperature  of  the  quenching  medium,  and  other  details  peculiar  to  most 
hardening  plants  must  be  recognized  in  order  to  get  intelligent  and  desirable  results. 
This  material  may  be  case-hardened,  but  it  contains  a  rather  high  carbon  content  for 
this  purpose.  The  lower  ranges  of  carbon — 0.25% — are  satisfactory,  but  the  upper 
ranges — in  the  neighborhood  of  0.35%,  approach  the  danger  point,  and  steel  of  this 
carbon  content  must  be  correspondingly  carefully  hardened. 

Chrome-Nickel  Steel— 0.30%  Carbon 

Composition. — Carbon,  0.25  to  0.35%  (0.30%  desired);  manganese,  0.30  to  0.50% 
(0.40%  desired);  silicon,  0.10  to  0.30%;  phosphorus,  not  over  0.04%;  sulphur,  not 
over  0.04%;  nickel,  3.25  to  3.75%  (3.50%  desired);  chromium,  1.25  to  1.75%  (1.50% 
desired). 

[498] 


HEAT  TREATMENT  OF  CHROME-VANADIUM  STEEL 

Characteristics  and  Uses. — This  grade  of  chrome-nickel  steel  is  intended  largely 
for  structural  parts  of  the  most  important  character;  parts  requiring  this  high  grade 
of  steel  must  be  heat  treated,  otherwise  there  is  no  gain  commensurate  with  the 
increased  cost  of  the  steel.  It  is  suitable  for  crankshafts,  axles,  spindles,  driving- 
shafts,  transmission-shafts,  and,  in  fact,  the  most  important  structural  parts  of  an 
automobile.  The  elastic  limit  in  the  annealed  condition  is  of  no  importance,  as  this 
steel  should  not  be  used  in  the  annealed  state.  The  elastic  limit  after  heat  treating 
may  be  as  high  as  175,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  with  a  generous  reduction  of  area 
and  elongation. 

Heat  Treatment.— After  forging  and  machining:  1.  Heat,  1450  to  1500°  F. 
2.  Quench.  3.  Reheat  to  a  temperature  between  500  and  1250°  F.  and  cool  slowly. 

A  higher  refinement  of  this  treatment  is,  after  forging:  1.  Heat,  1450  to  1500°  F. 
2.  Quench,  3.  Reheat  to  1400°  F.  4.  Quench.  5.  Reheat  to  a  temperature  between 
500  and  1250°  F.  and  cool  slowly. 

The  temperatures  when  treating  and  annealing  should  be  controlled  by  a  pyrometer. 

The  lower  the  temperature  at  which  the  proper  response  to  treatment  is  obtained, 
the  better  will  be  the  results.  At  the  same  time,  if  a  sufficient  temperature  is  not  used, 
there  will  be  an  incomplete  or  unsatisfactory  response.  This  steel  is  not  intended  for 
case-hardening,  but  may  be  so  treated  in  an  emergency.  If  case-hardening  is  attempted 
the  highest  degree  of  care  must  be  exercised. 

Chrome-Vanadium  Steel— 0.30%  Carbon 

Composition. — Carbon,  0.25  to  0.35%  (0.30%  desired);  manganese,  0.40  to  0.70% 
(0.50%  desired);  silicon,  0.10  to  0.30%;  phosphorus,  not,  over  0.04%;  sulphur,  not 
over  0.04%;  chromium,  0.80  to  1.10%  (0.90%  desired);  vanadium,  not  less  than 
0.10  (0.18%  desired). 

Characteristics  and  Uses. — This  steel  is  used  for  structural  purposes,  and  for  crank- 
shafts, driving-shafts,  axles,  etc.  The  physical  characteristics  in  the  annealed  condition 
are  unimportant,  as  the  steel  should  not  be  used  in  that  condition — not  that  it  is  unsafe, 
but  because  there  will  be  no  gain  commensurate  with  the  increased  cost  of  the  material. 

Heat  Treatment.— After  forging  and  machining:  1.  Heat,  1600  to  1700°  F. 
2.  Quench.  3.  Reheat  to  a  temperature  between  500  and  1300°  F.  and  cool  slowly. 

The  elastic  limit  after  heat  treatment  may  be  from  60,000  to  150,000  pounds  per 
square  inch,  with  good  toughness  as  represented  by  the  reduction  of  area  and  elongation. 
This  steel  may  be  case-hardened,  but  if  so  treated  it  must  be  handled  with  care  on 
account  of  the  relatively  high  carbon  content. 

Chrome-Vanadium  Steel — 0.45%  Carbon 

Composition.— Carbon,  0.40  to  0.50%  (0.45%  desired);  manganese,  0.60  to  0.90% 
(0.75%  desired);  silicon,  0.10  to  0.30%;  phosphorus,  not  over  0.035%;  sulphur,  not 
over  0.035%;  chromium,  1.00  to  1.30%  (1.20%  desired);  vanadium,  not  less  than 
0.10%  (0.18%  desired). 

Characteristics  and  Uses. — This  steel  contains  sufficient  carbon  in  combination  with 
vanadium  to  harden  when  quenched  at  a  proper  temperature.  The  elastic  limit  after 
suitable  treatment  may  be  carried  as  high  as  200,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  with  a 
reduction  of  area  great  enough  to  indicate  good  toughness.  This  steel  may  be  used 
for  structural  parts  where  exceedingly  great  strength  is  required. 

Heat  Treatment. — The  information  given  relative  to  the  heat  treatment  of  0.30% 
carbon,  chrome-vanadium  steel,  also  applies  to  this  steel.  The  drawing  temperature 
must  be  considerably  modified  to  produce  proper  stiffness.  For  gears  this  steel  must 
be  annealed  after  forging.  The  heat  treatment  is  as  follows:  1.  Heat  to  1600°  F. 
2.  Quench.  3.  Reheat  to  1450°  F.  4.  Cool  slowly.  5.  Reheat,  1600  to  1650°  F. 
6.  Quench.  7.  Reheat,  250  to  550°  F.  and  cool  slowly. 

This  last  drawing  operation  (7)  must  be  modified  to  obtain  any  desired  hardness. 


[499] 


CASE-HARDENING 


CASE-HARDENING 

This  is  a  process  by  which  to  carburize  and  harden  the  surface  of  wrought  iron  or 
mild  steel  by  packing  the  finished  articles  in  an  air-tight  iron  box  in  contact  with  some 
substance  rich  in  carbon,  commonly  charcoal,  bone,  or  charred  animal  matter;  luting 
the  box  cover  with  fire  clay  to  exclude  the  air;  subjecting  the  box  to  a  high  temperature 
for  several  hours  and  then  chilling  its  contents.  The  effect  is  to  convert  the  surface 
of  each  article  in  the  box  in  contact  with  the  carburizing  material  into  a  hardening 
steel.  This  casing  of  steel  is  of  varying  degrees  of  thickness,  from  a  mere  skin  for  small 
parts  to  ^s  inch,  depending  upon  the  shape  and  thickness  of  the  part,  and  upon  the 
furnace  temperature — usually  about  815°  C.  (1500°  F.) — and  upon  the  length  of  time 
the  article  is  subjected  to  this  heat;  in  any  case  the  time  is  only  such  as  to  case  the 
articles  with  steel  to  the  desired  thickness,  which  is  then  hardened  by  quenching,  leaving 
the  inside  of  the  article  soft  and  tough. 

Metals  to  be  Case-Hardened. — Wrought  iron  contains  but  little  carbon,  seldom 
more  than  0.20%,  and  from  that  down  to  a  mere  trace  the  operation  of  case-hardening 
is  analogous  to  that  of  cementation,  the  difference  being  that  case-hardening  is  merely 
a  surface  conversion  of  wrought  iron  into  hardening  steel,  while  in  cementation  the 
carbon  becomes  so  incorporated  with  the  wrought  iron  as  to  completely  alter  its  com- 
position, structure,  and  properties.  The  manner  in  which  carbon  is  thus  passed  into 
the  iron  is  not  exactly  known,  probably  in  the  form  of  gaseous  compounds  of  carbon 
deposited  at  the  surface  of  the  wrought  iron,  the  combined  carbon  being  then  trans- 
mitted to  the  interior  by  the  iron  itself. 

As  the  case-hardening  process  does  not  eliminate  any  of  the  impurities  ordinarily 
found  in  wrought  iron,  such  as  sulphur,  phosphorus,  etc.,  an  iron  should  be  selected 
as  free  as  possible  from  these  impurities. 

Mild  Steel. — The  carbon  content  in  ordinary  carbon  steel  for  case-hardening  should 
be  from  0.10  to  0.15%,  and  in  no  case  should  it  exceed  0.20%.  In  alloy  steels  the 
carbon  content  may  be  as  high  as  0.30%.  The  manganese  content  should  not  exceed 
0.40%  if  a  single  quenching  only  is  employed,  but  can  be  somewhat  higher  if  two 
quenchings  are  used.  Silicon  increases  the  brittleness  in  all  cases,  and  should  not 
exceed  0.30%.  Tungsten  and  molybdenum  both  increase  the  brittleness  of  the  core. 
Nickel  seems  to  retard  the  process  somewhat,  and  the' hardness  of  the  case  is  somewhat 
lower  than  that  obtainable  in  ordinary  carbon  steels.  Steels  with  from  1.0  to  1.2% 
chromium  are  sometimes  used  when  an  especially  hard  case  is  required.  This  element 
aids  crystallization  of  the  core,  and  double  quenching  is  absolutely  necessary.  Chrome- 
nickel  steels  with  a  low  chromium  content  require  about  the  same  heat  treatment  as 
pure  nickel  steels. 

Nickel  Steel. — In  the  treatment  of  nickel  steel  the  first  quenching  for  refining 
the  core  is  not  always  necessary,  although  it  noticeably  increases  the  tenacity  of  the 
core.  With  a  2%  nickel  steel  the  following  temperatures  are  recommended  by  Guillet. 
The  first  quenching  should  be  from  a  temperature  of  1000°  C.  (1830°  F.).  The  second 
heating  should  be  to  749°  C.  (1380°  F.),  after  which  the  quenching  should  take  place 
after  the  objects  have  cooled  off  to  about  700°  C.  (1292°  F.).  A  single  quenching  from 
700°  C.  (1292°  F.)  gives  the  greatest  hardness  in  the  case  but  not  the  greatest  tenacity 
in  the  core.  Quenching  from  750°  C.  (1382°  F.)  gives  a  somewhat  higher  tenacity 
but  a  slightly  lower  hardness  in  the  case.  A  6%  nickel  steel  should  be  quenched  in 
the  first  instance  from  850°  C.  (1562°  F.),  and  after  reheating  from  675°  C.  (1247°  F.). 
Since  this  high  nickel  percentage  almost  completely  prevents  the  brittleness  of  the 
core,  one  quenching  from  about  700°  C.  (1292°  F.)  is  in  most  cases  sufficient. 

Chrome  Steel. — Steels  with  from  1  to  1.2%  chromium  are  sometimes  used  when  an 
especially  hard  case  is  required.  This  element,  however,  aids  the  crystallization  of 
the  core  and  the  double  quenching  is,  therefore,  absolutely  necessary.  Chrome-nickel 
steels  with  a  low  chromium  content  require  about  the  same  heat  treatment  as  pure 
nickel  steels. 

Carburizing  Materials. — To  convert  the  surface  of  wrought  iron  or  mild  steel  into 
hardening  steel,  the  present  practice  is  to  pack  the  work  in  raw_bone,  leather  scrap, 

[500] 


CASE-HARDENING 

wood  charcoal,  charred  bone  or  charred  leather.  In  general,  the  granulated  bone  may 
be  mixed  with  an  equal  bulk  of  granulated  wood  charcoal,  the  granules  of  each  to  be 
of  the  same  size,  since  should  one  be  finer  than  the  other  the  finer  will  settle  to  the 
bottom  and  produce  an  uneven  mixture.  Carbon  should  exist  chiefly  as  fixed  carbon, 
although  it  is  essential  that  some  hydrocarbons  or  nitrogenous  matter  be  also  present 
to  act  as  carriers  of  the  carbon  and  to  create  a  more  active  carburizing  atmosphere 
in  the  box. 

Bone. — An  analysis  of  bone  yielded:  8.0%  carbon;  25.5%  volatile  matter  and 
hydrocarbons;  3.5%  nitrogen;  60%  ash;  1.0%  sulphur;  2.0%  moisture  =  100.0%. 
Alumina,  lime,  and  ammonia  were  included  in  the  ash,  as  also  16.0%  phosphoric  acid. 
Granulated  bone  as  a  carburizer  is  in  common  use,  but  raw  bone  does  not  work  well 
for  articles  that  are  comparatively  weak,  and  which  are  to  be  subjected  to  strain; 
raw  bone  is  rich  in  phosphorus,  and  phosphorus  causes  brittleness  in  steel.  Charred 
bone  is  to  be  preferred  because  the  fixed  carbon  is  in  a  better  state  for  carburizing 
work. 

Charred  Leather.— 69.0%  carbon;  15.2%  volatile  matter  and  hydrocarbons;  3.8% 
nitrogen;  3.5%  ash;  0.55  sulphur;  8.0%  moisture  =  100.05%.  Alumina,  lime,  iron 
and  silica  were  present  in  the  ash,  as  also  0.10%  phosphoric  acid.  Charred  leather 
contains  more  fixed  carbon  than  bone,  but  bone  contains  more  volatile  hydrocarbons; 
the  total  carburizing  matter  for  each  of  the  respective  compositions  is  practically: 
Bone  =  37%,  charred  leather,  88%.  Sulphur  when  present  in  such  a  quantity  as  in 
charred  leather  is  likely  to  produce  deteriorating  effects.  Charred  leather  is  some- 
times objected  to  as  a  case-hardening  material  because  it  works  too  actively;  Guillet 
recommends  a  mixture  of  60  parts  wood  charcoal  and  40  parts  of  barium  carbonate, 
as  best  to  use. 

Moisture,  when  present  in  amounts  over  12%,  causes  a  rough  surface  to  be  produced 
on  the  work  to  be  case-hardened.  This  action  appears  to  be  intensified  by  the  presence 
of  sulphur. 

Cyanides. — Carbon  does  not  combine  with  nitrogen  under  ordinary  circumstances. 
If,  however,  they  are  brought  together  at  very  high  temperatures  in  the  presence  of 
metals,  they  combine  to  form  compounds  known  as  cyanides.  When  refuse  animal 
substances,  such  as  blood,  horns,  claws,  hair,  etc.,  are  heated  together  with  potassium 
carbonate,  and  iron,  a  substance  known  as  potassium  ferro-cyanide,  or  yellow  prussiate  of 
potash,  is  formed.  When  this  is  heated  it  is  decomposed,  yielding  potassium  cyanide. 
When  this  salt  is  treated  with  chlorine  it  is  converted  into  potassium  ferrocyanide,  or 
red  prussiate  of  potash. 

The  Effect  of  Nitrogen  (in  combination  as  cyanogen)  has  been  dealt  with  by  recent 
workers.  Charpy,  for  example,  made  experiments  in  an  atmosphere  of  carbon  monoxide, 
together  with  cyanides,  and  also  in  an  atmosphere  of  the  same  gas,  but  devoid  of  nitro- 
gen, the  result  of  which  indicated  that  the  presence  of  cyanides  was  not  essential  in 
case-hardening,  and  that  the  case-hardening  is  produced  chiefly  by  the  gases  evolved 
by  the  case^-hardening  agents. 

Carburizing  Gas. — The  effective  power  for  case-hardening  of  the  following  gases, 
illuminating  gas,  acetylene,  and  carbon  monoxide,  carried  out  experimentally  with 
each  gas  alone  and  also  mixed  with  ammonia  in  definite  amounts,  showed  that  the 
presence  of  ammonia  facilitates  case-hardening  in  all  cases  except  that  of  carbon  monox- 
ide, which  acts  as  well  without  it  as  with  the  ammonia  treatment.  Of  the  three  gases 
studied,  the  carburizing  efficiency  is  in  the  following  order:  Carbon  monoxide,  acety- 
lene, methane.  Carbon  monoxide  appears  to  be  the  best  for  case-hardening,  as  no 
ammonia  seems  necessary,  and  it  gives  the  best  penetration  in  the  same  time. 

By  this  process  the  articles  to  be  case-hardened  are  not  packed  but  simply  placed  in 
a  cylindrical  retort  mounted  within  a  suitable  furnace,  where  the  articles  are  heated 
to,  say,  816  to  982°  C.  (1500  to  1800°  F.).  Carburizing  gas  under  pressure,  25  pounds 
per  square  inch,  or  even  higher,  is  then  introduced  and  surface  carburization  of  each 
article  begins.  -The  retort  is  slowly  rotated  to  bring  each  article  in  contact  with  the 
carburizing  gas,  the  spent  gas  escaping  from  the  retort  according  as  the  carburizing 
gas  is  supplied  at  the  other  end  under  pressure. 

This  operation  may  be  arrested  at  any  point;  the  contents  of  the  retort  are  per- 

[501] 


CASE-HARDENING 

mitted  to  cool  from  the  carburizing  heat  to  a  cherry  red  and  then  quenched  in  a  cooling 
bath,  to  be  afterward  tempered  as  desired. 

Method  of  Case-Hardening. — An  iron  box  is  used  in  which  the  articles  are  packed 
in  carburizing  material;  these  boxes  are  made  from  either  cast  iron,  wrought  iron, 
or  low-grade  sheet  steel.  E.  R.  Markham  states  that  after  an  experience  of  many 
years  he  has  used  boxes  made  of  cast  iron  almost  exclusively  and  with  uniformly  good 
results. 

In  packing  a  box  with  articles  to  be  case-hardened,  such  as  bolts,  nuts,  wrenches, 
bushings,  etc.,  there  is  first  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  box  a  layer  of  carburizing 
material  about  one  inch  in  depth;  then  a  layer  of  the  articles  to  be  case-hardened; 
the  space  between  each  article  is  to  be  closely  packed  with  the  carburizing  material. 
For  small  work,  several  pieces  may  be  loosely  wired  together  and  spread  out  in  the 
packing;  the  wiring  facilitates  removal  from  the  box  after  heating,  preparatory  to 
quenching.  After  the  first  layer  of  work  has  been  packed  in  the  box  and  covered 
with  about  an  inch  of  carburizing  material,  another  layer  of  work  is  similarly  packed 
and  covered,  and  so  on  in  alternate  layers  until  the  box  is  filled  to  within  about  an 
inch  of  the  top,  including  an  inch  layer  of  carburizer;  the  lid  is  then  placed  on  top  of 
the  carburizing  material,  the  joint  between  the  lid  and  the  box  being  luted  with  fire- 
clay or  asbestos  cement  to  prevent  escape  of  gas  from  the  carburizing  material. 

Heating. — The  box  packed  and  luted  is  now  ready  for  the  furnace,  the  temperature 
of  which  should  not  greatly  exceed  426°  C.  (800°  F.).  After  placing  one  or  more  boxes 
in  the  furnace  the  gas  flame  is  increased,  the  furnace  temperature  is  slowly  raised  to 
the  carburizing  temperature,  which  may  he  between  816  to  982°  C.  (1500  to  1800°  F.). 
These  temperatures  should  be  by  pyrometer  readings  only. 

The  length  of  time  required  to  bring  the  box  and  its  contents  up  to  the  furnace 
temperature  is  often  a  matter  of  judgment  based  up  n  previous  experience;  it  may 
be  two  hours  or  more,  but  timing  for  carburizing  is  to  begin  when  the  contents  of  the 
box  have  reached  the  carburizing  temperature.  After  which,  for  small  and  medium 
work,  the  box  may  remain  in  the  furnace  4  to  8  hours,  depending  upon  the  depth  of 
hardening  desired.  Markham  states  that  ordinarily  carb  n  penetrates  iron  at  the 
rate  of  about  Y%  inch  in  24  hours. 

Case-Hardening  Temperatures. — In  an  article  in  Le  Genie  Civil  (1912),  Dr.  L.  Guillet 
states  that  for  regular  carbon  steels  the  carburizing  temperature  should  be  about  850°  C. 
(1562°  F.).  After  carburizing,  the  objects  should  be  permitted  to  cool  to  about  590° 
C.  (1094°  F.),  or  lower.  They  are  then  again  heated  and  quenched  from  a  temperature 
of  about  1025°  C.  (1875°  F.)  for  refining  the  core,  after  which  they  are  again  heated 
and  quenched  from  a  temperature  of  750°  C.  (1380°  F.)  for  the  final  hardening.  The 
quenching  in  both  cases  is  done  in  water. 

Withdrawal  test  wires  are  useful  in  approximating  temperatures  in  the  box;  these 
are  simply  stiff  wires  passing  through  the  side  of  box  and  into  the  carburizing  material. 
When  it  is  desired  to  know  the  temperature  of  the  contents,  one  of  the  wires  is  with- 
drawn without  disturbing  the  box  in  the  furnace;  the  color  of  the  wire  will  give  a  close 
approximation  of  temperature,  thus  a  medium  cherry  red  indicates  a  temperature  of 
about  677°  C.  (1250°  F.),  too  low  for  case-hardening;  a  bright  cherry  red  indicates  a 
temperature  of  about  800°  C.  (1500°  F.),  a  good  temperature  for  small  and  medium 
work.  Carburization  is  not  effective  at  temperatures  below  760°  C.  (1400°  F.),  a 
full  cherry  red.  The  pyrometer  will  give  the  temperature  of  the  furnace  at  the  time 
of  the  withdrawal  of  the  wire.  When  the  proper  temperature  has  been  reached  it  can 
be  maintained  through  manipulation  of  the  fuel  supply.  Uniformity  in  furnace  tem- 
perature is  of  the  greatest  importance,  too  high  a  temperature,  or  a  variable  temperature 
promotes  crystallization  in  the  central  portion  of  the  work,  making  it  brittle. 

Quenching. — In  a  trade  catalogue  relating  to  case-hardening  furnaces,  it  is  recom- 
mended that  the  boxes  taken  from  the  furnace,  the  covers  having  been  removed,  the 
hardened  parts  should  be  dumped  upon  a  perforated  screen  so  that  the  hardening 
material  shall  not  adhere  to  the  pieces  when  they  are  raked  into  the  water  for  quench- 
ing. The  case-hardening  material  drops  through  the  screen  into  a  can  or  box  placed 
under  it.  When  this  material  dries  it  may  be  used  again,  if  mixed  with  fresh  material. 
The  screen  should  be  near  the  shelf  of  the  furnace,  at  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees, 

[502] 


CASE-HARDENING 

and  attached  to  the  water  tank  into  which  the  carburized  pieces  are  raked.  A  jet 
of  cold  water  should  be  opened  into  the  tank  at  the  bottom  whenever  a  box  is  about 
to  be  removed  from  the  furnace.  A  blast  of  cold  air  into  the  water  near  the  bottom 
of  the  tank  is  also  an  aid. 

Cooling  and  Reheating. — If  the  work  to  be  hardened  consists  of  bolts,  nuts,  screws, 
etc.,  it  is  satisfactory  to  dump  them  into  water  directly  from  the  furnaces,  without  any 
reheating,  but  in  more  important  hardening  the  boxes  should  be  allowed  to  cool  down 
with  the  work  in  them,  after  which  they  are  reheated  and  hardened  in  water.  The 
reheating  refines  the  grain  of  the  steel  and  prevents  the  formation  of  a  distinct  line 
between  the  outer  hardened  case  and  the  soft  core. 

A  still  more  refined  method  of  case-hardening  is  to  repack  the  work,  after  it  has  been 
carburized,  in  old  bone,  and  after  heating  for  two  or  three  hours  take  it  out  and  dip 
the  pieces  in  the  hardening  tank  directly  as  they  come  from  the  boxes.  This  will 
produce  a  very  fine  grain  and  in  many  cases  prevent  warping.  If  the  work  is  large 
and  it  is  required  to  toughen  the  inner  core,  it  should  be  reheated  to  a  higher  heat 
than  otherwise;  than,  after  dipping,  reheat  again  to  1500  or  1600°  F.  according  to  the 
size  of  the  work,  and  redip. 

Gears  and  other  parts  which  should  be  tough,  but  not  glass  hard,  should  preferably 
be  hardened  in  an  oil  bath.  There  is  then  less  liability  of  warping  the  work,  and  the 
hardened  product  will  stand  shocks  and  severe  stresses  without  breakage.  Cotton- 
seed oil  is  the  best  hardening  medium  to  be  used  in  this  case. — R.  H.  Grant. 

Case-Hardening  Mixture. — The  following  formula  is  in  use  at  the  Juniata  Shops 
of  the  Pennsylvania  R.R.  Co. 

11  pounds  prussiate  of  potash. 
30  pounds  sal  soda. 
20  pounds  coarse  salt. 
6  bushels  powdered  charcoal  (hickory  preferred). 

The  whole  is  mixed  thoroughly,  using  about  30  quarts  of  water  in  the  mixing;  the 
above  quantity  is  sufficient  to  harden  three  boxes  of  material  containing  the  following 
parts:  2  links,  2  link  blocks,  2  link-block  pins,  2  valve-rod  pins,  4  knuckle-joint 
pins,  and  24  gibs  for  spring  rigging. 

The  box  required  to  hold  these  parts  measures  40  inches  long,  16  inches  wide,  and 
12  inches  deep.  In  packing,  the  bottom  of  the  box  is  covered  to  a  depth  of  2  inches 
with  the  compound;  the  parts  to  be  hardened  are  placed  solidly,  so  that  the  compound 
is  in  contact  with  the  bottom  surface  of  the  work;  care  is  taken  that  the  work  does 
not  touch  the  sides  of  the  box  or  other  pieces  in  the  box.  After  the  first  layer  of  the 
material  is  placed,  it  is  covered  on  all  sides  and  on  the  top  with  the  compound,  and 
is  solidly  packed.  After  which  the  same  process  may  be  repeated,  being  sure  to  have 
sufficient  compound  between  the  two  layers  to  prevent  contact.  There  should  not  be 
less  than  2  inches  of  compound  on  top  of  the  last  layer.  The  lid  which  fits  inside  the 
box  is  then  thoroughly  sealed  with  a  luting  of  fire-clay. 

When  in  the  furnace,  the  box  rests  on  rollers  to  allow  the  flames  to  pass  under  it. 
The  furnace  is  kept  at  a  bright  red  heat,  but  not  hot  enough  to  scale  or  blister  the  work; 
the  time  required  to  harden  them  properly  is  fourteen  hours;  then  quenched  in  an 
overflowing  tank  supplied  with  cold  water. 

The  Cyanide  Process  of  Case- Hardening. — Pure  cyanide  of  potassium,  when  melted 
in  a  crucible  furnace,  furnishes  a  rapid  method  for  case-hardening  large  quantities  of 
thin  machinery  steel  parts.  By  this  method  the  pieces  to  be  hardened  are  placed  in  a 
wire  basket,  and  when  the  cyanide  has  been  melted,  the  basket  containing  the  work 
is  lowered  into  the  liquid  and  left  for  a  short  time — sometimes  twenty  minutes — depend- 
ing on  the  depth  of  the  case  required.  The  pieces  are  then  dumped  into  a  bath  of  cold 
water. 

While  this  method  is  very  rapid  and  uniform,  it  is  objectionable  because  cyanide 
of  potassium  is  a  deadly  poison,  and  when  it  is  used,  the  furnace  must  always  be  con- 
nected with  the  chimney  so  that  the  fumes  can  be  carried  away.  The  furnace  is  almost 
identical  with  the  single  crucible  furnace,  but  is  made  low  for  convenience  in  placing 
a  sheet-iron  hood  on  top  when  used  for  cyanide  hardening.  The  pot  is  of  cast  iron 

[503] 


CASE-HARDENING 

or  pressed  steel,  gas  is  used  for  fuel,  the  cyanide  can  be  raised  to  the  desired  tempera- 
ture quickly  and  kept  there  with  little  attention  on  the  part  of  the  operator. 

Case-Hardening  for  Colors. — In  order  to  produce  colors  on  iron  and  steel  it  is 
necessary  that  the  surfaces  be  polished,  and  usually  the  finer  the  polish  the  better 
the  colors.  The  metal  must  be  entirely  free  from  grease  and  dirt. 

Certain  carbonaceous  materials  will  not  produce  colors.  Raw  bone  is  not  used, 
neither  is  prussiate  of  potash;  but  cyanide  of  potassium  works  satisfactorily;  charred 
bone  produces  a  nicely  colored  surface,  while  charred  leather  is  one  of  the  best  agents 
for  this  purpose.  Any  carbonizer  that  is  to  be  used  for  colored  work  must  be  kept 
clean  and  dry,  since  moisture  will  generate  steam  and  prevent  good  results. 

When  articles  must  have  a  deeply  hardened,  colored  surface,  it  is  necessary  to 
undergo  several  operations.  Markham  suggests  a  large  hexagon  nut,  as  an  example, 
in  which  the  depth  of  penetration  is  specified,  and  that  the  walls  of  the  hole  must  not 
be  hard,  so  that  threads  can  be  cut  after  the  nut  is  hardened. 

The  nuts  must  be  packed  in  coarse  granulated  bone,  run  for  a  period  of  ten  to  twelve 
hours  and  allowed  to  cool  in  the  box.  Then  repack  in  the  same  manner  and  run  for 
the  same  length  of  time.  After  cooling  they  are  repacked  in  charred  bone,  to  which 
is  added  a  small  amount  of  charred  leather,  and  run  for  three  or  four  hours  after  they 
become  red-hot.  While  the  first  two  carbonizing  heats  are  fairly  high,  viz.,  a  high 
red  or  low  yellow,  the  last  heat  which  is  to  produce  colors  must  be  a  low  red.  After 
they  have  been  in  the  fire  the  proper  length  of  time,  remove  them  one  at  a  time  and 
harden  in  a  bath  of  clear  water. 

To  cause  the  walls  of  the  holes  to  be  soft,  each  of  the  nuts  is  to  be  provided  with 
two  plates  of  such  size  as  to  protect  the  top  and  bottom  surfaces  of  the  nut  .around  the 
holes  for  a  distance  equal  to  the  depth  of  thread. 

It  is  necessary  to  work  quickly  when  handling  pieces  that  are  to  be  colored,  as 
exposure  to  the  air  for  any  great  length  of  time  will  prevent  colors;  the  oxygen  in  the 
air  attacks  the  surfaces  and  causes  oxidation.  When  comparatively  small  pieces  are 
to  be  colored,  and  the  penetration  need  not  be  deep,  the  articles  may  be  packed  in 
charred  bone,  charred  leather,  or  a  mixture  of  the  two,  run  at  a  low  red  until  the  proper 
penetration  is  insured,  the.n  dumped  direct  into  the  bath. 

When  large  quantities  of  work  are  to  be  colored,  a  bath  having  a  continuous  water 
supply  from  a  pipe  at  the  bottom,  together  with  a  jet  of  air  introduced  with  the  water, 
gives  good  results.  If  the  work  comes  in  contact  with  air  before  entering  the  water, 
good  colors  cannot  be  produced;  but  air  in  the  water  tends  to  produce  better  colors 
than  can  be  obtained  without  it. 

Cyanide  Coloring. — The  method  frequently  employed  consists  in  melting  cyanide 
of  potassium  in  a  cast-iron  crucible,  suspending  the  articles  in  the  cyanide,  which  is  at 
red  heat.  The  articles  are  allowed  to  remain  there  until  they  attain  a  low  red,  when 
they  are  removed,  one  at  a  time,  and  dipped  into  an  overflowing  bath  of  clear  water. 

It  is  sometimes  desirable  to  color  surfaces,  and  yet  not  have  the  pieces  hardened. 
This  may  be  accomplished  by  what  is  commercially  termed  50%  fused  cyanide,  and  if 
stock  is  used  that  will  not  harden  of  itself,  beautifully  colored  soft  surfaces  result. 
The  treatment  is  exactly  the  same  as  where  the  regular  commercial  cyanide  is  used. 
The  use  of  the  fused  cyanide  is  recommended  where  the  pieces  must  be  straightened 
or  bent  to  some  desired  form  after  coloring. 


[504] 


SECTION  9 

NON-FERROUS  METALS  AND  ALLOYS 

Non-ferrous  alloys  used  in  engineering  work  are  commonly  divided  into  three 
classes:  (1)  Bronzes  or  alloys  consisting  chiefly  of  copper  and  tin,  though  sometimes 
containing  small  proportions  of  other  metals  and  non-metals  in  combination.  Thus, 
gun  metal  originally  consisted  of  90%  copper  and  10%  tin;  the  later  alloys  contain 
about  88%  copper;  10%  tin;  2%  zinc,  with  perhaps  a  small  percentage  of  iron  and  of 
lead.  A  bronze  is  sometimes  given  the  name  of  an  added  element  which  imparts  a 
special  quality  to  the  alloy,  for  example:  Phosphor-bronze  is  ordinary  bronze  to  which 
phosphorus  has  been  added  either  as  phosphor-copper  or  phosphor-tin.  Manganese 
bronze  is  an  alloy  of  bronze  and  ferro-manganese.  Silicon  bronze  is  an  alloy  of  copper 
and  tin  containing  silicon.  Alloys  with  about  9.0%  tin  show  the  greatest  strength  of 
all  bronzes,  and  alloys  with  about  15.0%  tin  possess  the  greatest  hardness  and  strength. 

(2)  Brasses  or  alloys  consisting  chiefly  of  copper  and  zinc;  most  varieties,  however, 
contain  other  metals,  such  as  lead,  tin,  and  iron.     The  English  standard  brass  consists 
of  66.6%  copper;  33.4%  zinc.    The  normal  composition  of  brass  for  the  United  States 
Navy  is  62%  copper;  1%  tin;   37%  zinc,  with  which  are  also  incorporated  small  per- 
centages of  iron  (0.06%)  and  lead  (0.3%)  as  a  maximum.     The  physical  properties 
of  brass  vary  according  to  the  relative  quantities  of  copper  and  zinc,  that  alloy  con- 
taining about  28.5%  zinc  showing  the  greatest  strength.    Complex  brasses  are  copper- 
zinc  alloys  to  which  other  constituents  have  been  purposely  added,  for  example:  brass 
with  lead;  brass  with  tin;  brass  with  manganese;   brass  with  aluminum,  etc. 

Nickel  alloys  form  a  class  distinct  from  ordinary  bronzes  and  brasses.  A  com- 
position of  copper,  nickel,  and  zinc  widely  used  in  the  arts  is  commonly  known  as 
German  silver,  sometimes  as  nickel  silver.  German  silver  is  superior  to  brass,  as  regards 
strength,  hardness,  and  power  of  resisting  chemical  influences.  For  engineering  use 
the  United  States  Navy  composition  is  64%  copper;  20%  zinc;  16%  nickel.  For 
commercial  use:  46%  copper;  34%  nickel;  20%  zinc  is  considered  the  best. 

(3)  White  metals  for  bearings  commonly  known  as  anti-friction  metals  include  in 
their  composition  copper,  tin,  antimony,  zinc,  and  lead.     The  alloys,  however,  seldom 
consist  of  more  than  three  metals;    of  the  alloys  containing  copper,  Babbitt  metal  is 
probably  the  best  known.    The  following  formula  has  been  attributed  to  him:   Melt 
together  4  pounds  copper ;  8  pounds  antimony;  24  pounds  tin;  this  is  called  the  harden- 
ing compound.    For  each  pound  of  the  hardening  compound  add  2  pounds  additional  of 
tin.     A  good  alloy  for  low  pressures  and  medium  speeds  consists  of:  6.0%  tin;   16.0% 
antimony;   78.0%  lead.    An  alloy  for  light  pressures  and  slow  speeds  may  consist  of 
10.0%  antimony;   90.0%  lead.    The  melting  point  of  each  of  the  above  anti-friction 
metals  is  below  red  head;   they  can  be  readily  melted  in  an  iron  ladle  in  an  ordinary 
forge  fire. 

NON-FERROUS  METALS 

Non-ferrous  metals  are  those  which  do  not  partake  of  the  nature  of  iron.  The 
metals  have  been  conveniently  grouped  by  chemists  according  to  their  base-forming 
propei ties;  this  grouping  is  too  elaborate  for  our  present  purpose;  we  have  therefore 
shortened  it  somewhat  as  follows,  limiting  the  groups  to  the  non-ferrous  metals  used  in 
engineering: 

Copper  Group. — Copper,  Cu.  Atomic  weight,  63.6.  Specific  gravity,  8.93  =  551 
pounds  per  cubic  foot  =  0.321  pound  per  cubic  inch.  Specific  heat,  0.093.  Melting 
point,  1083°  C.  (1981.5°  F.).  Tenacity,  27,800  pounds  per  square  inch.  Fracture, 
fibrous;  color,  red. 

[505] 


NON-FERROUS  METALS 

Mercury. — Symbol  Hg.  Atomic  weight,  200.6.  Specific  gravity,  13.59  =  848 
pounds  per  cubic  foot  =  0.491  pound  per  cubic  inch.  Specific  heat,  0.032.  It  is  liquid 
at  ordinary  temperatures.  It  unites  with  most  metals  forming  amalgams. 

Lead. — Symbol  Pb.  Atomic  weight,  207.1.  Specific  gravity,  11.37  =  708  pounds 
per  cubic  foot  =  0.410  pound  per  cubic  inch.  Specific  heat,  0.031.  Melting  point, 
327.4°  C.  (621.1°  F.).  Tenacity  varies,  averages  about  2,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 
Color  a  bluish-gray. 

Bismuth. — Symbol  B.  Atomic  weight,  208.0.  Specific  gravity,  9.80  =  612  pounds 
per  cubic  foot  =  0.354  pound  per  cubic  inch.  Specific  heat,  0.031.  Melting  point, 
271°  C.  (520°  F.).  Color,  grayish  white.  It  has  the  property  of  expanding  in  the  act 
of  solidifying.  This  metal  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  fusible  alloys. 

Tin  Group. — Tin,  Sn.  Atomic  weight,  119.0.  Specific  gravity,  7.29  =  455  pounds 
per  cubic  foot  =  0.263  pound  per  cubic  inch.  Specific  heat,  0.055.  Melting  point, 
231.9°  C.  (449.4°  F.).  Tenacity,  3,500  pounds  per  square  inch.  Fracture  fibrous.  Color, 
-grayish  white.  Tin  is  an  inferior  conductor  of  heat  and  electricity. 

Antimony. — Symbol,  Sb.  Atomic  weight,  120.2.  Specific  gravity,  6.71  =  418 
pounds  per  cubic  foot  =  0.242  pound  per  cubic  inch.  Specific  heat,  0.051.  Melting 
point,  630°  C.  (1166°  F.).  It  can  be  distilled  at  white  heat.  When  heated  to  a  suffi- 
ciently high  temperature  in  the  air  it  takes  fire  and  burns.  Ordinary  commercial 
antimony  is  often  very  impure,  containing  iron,  lead,  arsenic,  and  sulphur,  and  is  called 
"  regulus  of  antimony."  It  is  hard  and  brittle,  has  a  silver-white  color,  and  a  high 
metallic  luster. 

Arsenic. — Symbol,  As.  Atomic  weight,  75.0.  Specific  gravity,  5.67  =  353  pounds 
per  cubic  foot  =  0.0204  pound  per  cubic  inch.  Specific  heat,  0.081.  Melting  point, 
850°  C.  (1560°  F.).  It  can  be  volatilized  without  melting.  At  red  heat  it  burns  with 
a  bluish  flame,  and  the  vapor  given  off  has  the  odor  of  garlic.  The  metal  has  a  brilliant, 
dark  steel-gray  color,  and  metallic  luster.  It  is  a  poor  conductor  of  heat  and  electricity. 

Iron  Group. — Iron,  Fe.  Atomic  weight,  55.8.  Specific  gravity,  7.86  =  490  pounds 
per  cubic  foot  =  284  pounds  per  cubic  inch.  Specific  heat,  0.110.  Melting  point, 
1520°  C.  (2768°  F.).  Iron  is  now  included  in  the  composition  of  many  of  the  brass 
alloys  because  it  imparts  to  the  resultant  metal  increased  hardness,  elasticity,  and 
tenacity,  important  examples  of  which  are  Sterro  metal;  Aich's  metal;  Delta  metal; 
Admiralty  metal;  and  nearly  all  the  brass  for  the  United  States  Navy. 

The  constitution  of  the  iron  brasses  has  not  been  sufficiently  investigated,  but 
when  present  in  small  amounts  the  iron  enters  into  the  alloy  in  the  form  of  a  solid 
solution  and  does  not  form,  according  to  Law,  definite  chemical  compounds.  When 
more  than  about  2%  of  iron  is  present  a  compound  of  iron  and  zinc  is  formed. 

Ferro- manganese. — Iron  and  manganese  will  combine  in  nearly  all  proportions  up 
to  80%  manganese,  or  even  higher.  Mr.  P.  M.  Parsons,  in  developing  his  manganese 
bronze,  melted  the  ferro-manganese  in  a  separate  crucible,  which  was  added  to  the 
copper  when  in  a  melted  state.  The  effect  of  this  combination  is  similar  to  that  pro- 
duced by  the  addition  of  ferro-manganese  to  the  decarburized  iron,  in  a  Bessemer  con- 
verter; the  manganese  in  a  metallic  state  having  a  great  affinity  for  oxygen  cleanses 
the  copper  of  any  oxides  it  may  contain,  by  combining  with  them  and  rising  to  the 
surface  in  the  form  of  slag,  which  renders  the  metal  dense  and  homogeneous.  A  por- 
tion of  the  manganese  is  utilized  in  this  manner,  and  the  remainder,  with  the  iron,  becomes 
permanently  combined  with  the  copper,  improving  and  modifying  the  quality  of  the 
alloys,  afterward  prepared  from  the  copper  thus  treated. 

Manganese. — Symbol,  Mn.  Atomic  weight,  55.  Specific  gravity,  8.00  =  499 
pounds  per  cubic  foot  =  0.289  pound  per  cubic  inch.  Specific  heat,  0.120.  Melting 
point,  1225°  C.  (2237°  F.).  This  metal  is  obtained  principally  by  the  reduction  of 
black  oxide  of  manganese;  the  resultant  metal  being  in  appearance  similar  to  cast 
iron;  it  is  hard  and  brittle;  it  easily  oxidizes  and  must  therefore  be  excluded  from  the 
air.  It  is  used  as  a  constituent  of  some  useful  alloys,  notably  iron,  steel,  and  copper. 

The  important  qualities  of  manganese  bronze  consist  in  adding  the  manganese  in 
its  metallic  state,  in  the  form  of  ferro-manganese,  to  the  copper,  by  which  the  copper  is 
cleansed  from  oxides.  The  amount  of  manganese  required  for  deoxidizing  the  copper 
and  for  permanent  combination  with  it,  having  been  ascertained  by  .experience,  very 

[506] 


NON-FERROUS  METALS 

slight  variations  in  quantity  have  a  perceptible  and  ascertained  effect  in  modifying  the 
qualities  of  alloys  produced;  thus,  toughness  can  be  increased,  and  hardness  diminished, 
or  vice  versa,  at  will. 

In  preparing  the  ferro-manganese  for  use,  that  which  is  rich  in  manganese  con- 
taining, say,  from  50  to  60%,  is  preferred;  this  is  melted  with  a  certain  proportion  of 
the  best  wrought-iron  scrap,  so  as  to  bring  down  the  manganese  to  the  various  pro- 
portions required. 

Nickel. — Symbol,  Ni.  Atomic  weight,  58.7.  Specific  gravity,  8.8  =  549  pounds 
per  cubic  foot  =  0.318  pound  per  cubic  inch.  Specific  heat,  0.108.  Melting  point, 
1452°  C.  (2646°  F.).  Nickel  is  a  white  metal  with  a  slight  cast  of  yellow.  In  its  ordi- 
nary or  unrefined  condition  it  is  brittle,  due  to  the  presence  of  iron,  copper,  silicon, 
sulphur,  arsenic,  and  carbon,  but  when  it  contains  a  small  quantity  of  magnesium 
or  phosphorus  it  becomes  malleable.  The  magnesium  is  supposed  to  reduce  the 
occluded  carbonic  oxide  CO,  forming  magnesia,  and  to  cause  the  carbon  to  separate  out 
as  graphite.  Aluminum  is  now  generally  used  instead  of  magnesium  in  refining  nickel. 
Nickel  unites  readily  with  most  metals  forming  valuable  industrial  alloys.  Argentan 
or  German  silver  is  an  alloy  of  copper,  zinc,  and  nickel:  The  proportions  for  the  United 
States  Navy  are  64%  copper;  20%  zinc;  16%  nickel.  Benedict  nickel  is  84  to  86% 
copper;  16  to  14%  nickel. 

Cobalt. — Symbol,  Co.  Atomic  weight,  59.  Specific  gravity  varies,  but  averages 
8.50  =  530  pounds  per  cubic  foot  =  0.307  pound  per  cubic  inch.  Specific  heat,  0.103. 
Melting  point,  1490°  C.  (2714°  F.).  The  boiling  point  is  said  to  be  2200°  C.  (3992°  F.), 
It  is  a  hard,  tenacious  metal  of  silver- white  color,  occurring  in  nature,  almost  always 
in  company  with  nickel,  and,  like  nickel,  preferably  forms  compounds  which  are  analo- 
gous to  ferrous  compounds. 

Alloying  aluminum  with  9  to  12%  cobalt  improves  its  properties,  but  it  is  still 
deficient  in  mechanical  strength  owing  to  the  coarse  crystalline  structure.  This  defect 
can  be  overcome  by  addition  of  a  small  proportion  of  tungsten  or  molybdenum,  yielding 
alloys  having  a  tensile  strength  three  times  that  of  pure  aluminum.  The  best  results 
are  said  to  be  obtained  with:  0.8  to  1.2%  tungsten;  8.0  to  10.0%  cobalt;  or  0.6  to  1.0% 
molybdenum;  9.0  to  10.0%  cobalt.  The  forging  and  rolling  qualities  diminish  and  the 
tensile  strength  increases  with  increasing  content  of  tungsten  (or  molybdenum)  and 
cobalt.  The  alloys  containing  tungsten  are  somewhat  harder  than  those  containing 
molybdenum. 

Zinc  Group. — Zinc,  Zn.  Atomic  weight,  65.4.  Specific  gravity  is  not  constant, 
averages  about  7.15  =  446  pounds  per  cubic  foot  =  0.258  pound  per  cubic  inch.  Specific 
heat,  0.094.  Melting  point,  419.4°  C.  (786.9°  F.).  Its  boiling  point  is  variously  placed 
at  906  to  1040°  C.  (1663  to  1904°  F.).  It  has  a  highly  crystalline  structure  and  at 
ordinary  temperatures  is  quite  brittle.  The  chief  impurities  are  iron,  lead,  and  arsenic. 

Experiments  made  in  Belgium  to  ascertain  the  effects  of  foreign  metals  on  the 
rolling  of  zinc  showed  cadmium  to  be  harmful  if  above  0.25%,  while  with  0.5%  rolling 
is  impossible.  Arsenic  present  in  0.02%  markedly  increases  the  hardness,  and  with 
0.03%  the  metal  is  too  brittle  for  practical  purposes.  Antimony  is  less  objectionable 
than  arsenic,  as  0.07%  does  not  increase  the  hardness;  but  0.02%  is  enough  to  pro- 
duce a  striated  surface  on  the  rolled  sheet,  which  makes  it  unsalable.  Tin  is  objec- 
tionable when  over  0.01%  and  prohibitive  at  0.03%.  Copper  does  not  harden  until  it 
reaches  0.08%  and  with  0.19%  the  zinc  is  unworkable.  A  permissible  maximum  of1 
iron  is  0.12%,  but  this  is  easily  reduced  in  refining.  Though  1%  to  1.25%  of  lead  does 
not  interfere  with  the  rolling,  a  slight  increase  not  only  seriously  affects  the  malleability, 
but  the  excess  of  lead  remains  unalloyed  and  forms  patches  on  the  sheet.  The  presence 
of  two  or  more  impurities  Ltogether  results  in  a  combination  of  injurious  effects  of 
each. 

Cadmium. — Symbol,  Cd.  Atomic  weight,  112.4.  Specific  gravity,  8.60  =  537 
pounds  per  cubic  foot  =  0.311  pound  per  cubic  inch.  Specific  heat,  0.056.  Melting 
point,  320.9°  C.  (609.6°  F.).  It  is  more  volatile  than  zinc;  its  boiling  point  is  766°  C. 
(1411°  F.).  In  color  it  is  tin-white;  structure,  fibrous;  it  is  harder  than  tin.  As  cadmium 
occurs  in  zinc  ores  it  is  frequently  found  in  commercial  spelter,  to  which  it  imparts  a 
fine  grain;  it  is  not  at  all  injurious,  however;  according  to  some  authorities  it  im- 

[507] 


ALKALINE-EARTHY   METALS 

proves  brass.  The  metal  is  chiefly  used  for  making  fusible  alloys,  and  is  a  constituent 
of  some  aluminum  solders. 

Magnesium. — Symbol,  Mg.  Atomic  weight,  24.3.  Specific  gravity,  1.74  =  107 
pounds  per  cubic  foot  =  0.062  pound  per  cubic  inch.  Specific  heat,  0  250  Melting 
point,  651°  C.  (1204°  F.).  It  is  said  to  boil  at  1120°  C.  (2048°  F.).  When  heated  above 
its  melting  point  in  oxygen  or  in  the  air,  it  takes  fire  and  burns  with  a  bright  flame. 
The  metal  is  of  a  brilliant  white  color,  but  tarnishes  when  exposed  to  moist  air.  At  a 
temperature  of  450°  C.  (842°  F.)  it  can  be  rolled  and  worked  into  a  variety  of  forms. 
It  is  sometimes  used  as  an  alloy  with  aluminum. 

Magnesium,  even  in  small  percentages,  improves  the  mechanical  properties  of 
aluminum.  The  following  table  indicates  to  what  extent: 


STRENGTH  OF  ALUMINUM — MAGNESIUM  ALLOYS 
L.  Mach 


Magnesium 
in  Alloy, 
Description 

2  PER  CENT 

4  PER  CENT 

6  PER  CENT 

10  "PER  CENT 

Tensile 
Strength, 
Pounds 
per  Sq.  In. 

Elon- 
gation 

% 

Tensile 
Strength, 
Pounds 
per  Sq.  In. 

Elon- 
gation 

% 

Tensile 
Strength, 
Pounds 
per  Sq.  In. 

Elon- 
gation 

% 

Tensile 
Strength, 
Pounds 
per  Sq.  In. 

Elon- 
gation 

% 

Cast  in  sand  

17,900 
28,600 

40,000 
25,600 
41,300 

3.0 
2.0 

1.0 
18.0 

2.7 

21,400 
33,600 

61,100 

2.4 
3.4 

4.2 

Cast  in  chills  

28,600 

28,700 
44,900 

2.0 

8.0 
2.1 

Castings,       water 
chilled 

57,600 

28,100 
44,100 

1.0 
17.0 
1.0 

Annealed  sheet  .  .  . 
Hard  sheet  

Aluminum. — Symbol,  Al.  Atomic  weight,  27.1.  Specific  gravity,  2.56  =  160 
pounds  per  cubic  foot  =  0.092  pound  per  cubic  inch.  Specific  heat,  0.218.  Melting 
point,  658.7°  C.  (1217.7°  F.).  Its  boiling  point  is  about  1800°  C.  (3272°  F.).  It  is  a 
white  metal,  soft,  malleable,  and  ductile,  it  flows  easily  under  pressure  and  can  be 
rolled,  hammered,  and  stamped.  The  ultimate  tensile  strength  of  unworked  castings 
is  about  15,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  with  an  elastic  limit  of  about  one-half  that 
amount. 

Aluminum  alloys  are  largely  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  automobiles  and 
aeroplanes.  Owing  to  its  low  tensile  strength  the  usefulness  of  aluminum  has  not 
widely  extended  into  the  heavier  class  of  engineering  work  except  as  an  alloy  in  the 
various  bronzes,  brasses,  and  white  metals. 

ALKALINE-EARTHY  METALS 

The  metals  calcium,  barium,  and  strontium  are  called  the  metals  of  the  alkaline 
earths.  Calcium,  Ca:  Calcium  is  found  in  nature  in  the  form  of  carbonates,  as  lime- 
stone, marble,  chalk.  It  also  occurs  in  the  form  of  sulphate  as  gypsum;  in  the  form 
of  phosphate,  of  which  bones  contain  a  large  proportion;  calcium  fluoride  occurs  as 
fluor-spar,  much  used  in  metallurgical  operations,  as  it  melts  readily  and  does  not  act 
upon  other  substances  easily,  serving  as  a  liquid  medium  in  which  reactions  take  place 
at  high  temperatures;  when  used  for  this  purpose  it  is  called  a  flux. 

Barium,  Ba.  Barium  sulphate  is  known  to  mineralogists  as  barite,  barytes,  and 
heavy  spar.  Barite  is  chiefly  used  for  paint  in  place  of  white  lead  and  zinc  white.  The 
metal  is  obtained  through  electrolysis  of  the  molten  chloride  of  barium;  its  only  use 
is  for  experimental  purposes  in  the  laboratory. 

Strontium,  Sr.  A  pale  yellow  metal  known  chiefly  through  its  salts.  It  occurs 
in  nature  in  the  form  of  sulphate,  as  celestite,  also  in  the  form  of  carbonate,  as  stron- 
tianite.  Strontium  metal  is  isolated  by  the  action  of  an  electric  current  on  the  molten 

[508] 


NON-METALS 

chloride.  It  is  oxidized  by  contact  with  the  air;  it  decomposes  water  rapidly  with 
evolution  of  hydrogen.  Strontium  nitrate,  Sr  (NO3)2,  is  made  for  the  purpose  of  pre- 
paring a  mixture  known  as  Bengal-fire,  which  burns  with  a  brilliant  red  light. 

ALKALI  METALS 

These  include  lithium,  sodium,  potassium,  rubidium,  caesium,  ammonium. 

Sodium,  Na.  Atomic  weight,  23.  Specific  gravity,  0.97.  Specific  heat,  0.290. 
Melting  point,  97.5°  C.  (207.5°  F.).  It  volatilizes,  forming  a  dark  blue  vapor.  Sodium 
is  used  for  the  preparation  of  aluminum,  magnesium,  boron,  and  silicon.  It  is  also 
used,  in  combination  with  mercury,  as  sodium  amalgam. 

Potassium. — Symbol,  K.  Atomic  weight,  39.1.  Specific  gravity,  0.86.  Specific 
heat,  0.170.  Melting  point,  62.3°  C.  (144°  F.).  It  decomposes  water  with  evolution  of 
hydrogen  which  burns  in  the  air;  in  consequence  of  this  action  upon  water  it  can  not 
be  kept  in  the  air,  but  under  some  oil,  as  petroleum,  upon  which  it  does  not  act.  Potas- 
sium cyanide  is  used  as  a  flux  because  of  the  readiness  with  which  it  reduces  many 
metallic  compounds  when  mixed  with  carbonate  of  soda. 

NON-METALS 

The  non-metals  commonly  met  with  in  the  manufacture  of  non-ferrous  alloys  are: 

Boron,  B. — This  non-metal  belongs  to  the  same  family  as  aluminum,  but  it  differs 
from  it  in  that  its  oxide  is  acidic,  while  that  of  aluminum  is  basic.  It  is  used  as  a  de- 
oxider  for  copper,  with  which  it  does  not  combine.  When  heated  boron  loses  all  its 
hydrogen  in  the  form  of  water,  and  boric  oxide  or  boron  trioxide,  is  left.  By  melting 
aluminum  and  boron  trioxide  together  at  a  high  temperature,  the  latter  is  reduced, 
and  the  boron  thus  formed  is  dissolved  in  the  molten  aluminum,  from  which,  on  cooling, 
it  is  deposited  in  crystals. 

Carbon,  C. — A  non-metallic  element  distinguished  by  the  large  number  of  the 
compounds  into  which  it  enters.  Uncombined,  it  occurs  in  nature  as  diamond  and  as 
graphite.  In  the  latter  form  it  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  crucibles,  because  of  its 
infusibility  and  its  non-tendency  to  form  fusibl  •  slags  with  acid  or  basic  substances. 
It  will  combine  with  oxygen  at  high  temperatures  and  form  carbon  dioxid.e,  or  carbon 
monoxide,  but  it  will  not  melt,  nor  will  it  vaporize.  The  abstraction  of  oxygen  from 
compounds  by  means  of  carbon  may  be  illustrated  in  the  case  of  powdered  copper 
oxide  when  mixed  with  powdered  charcoal,  and  the  mixture  heated  in  a  tube,  carbon 
dioxide  is  given  off  and  the  copper  is  left  behind.  Charcoal  and  coke  are  nearly  pure 
carbon  with  a  little  earthy  matter,  which  is  left  as  ash  after  burning. 

Hydrogen,  H. — This  is  the  lightest  substance  known;  in  relation  to  other  gases  its 
specific  gravity  is  1.000.  It  differs  from  other  non-metals  in  not  generally  uniting 
with  metals  to  form  compounds.  A  number  of  metals  have  the  power  to  absorb  a 
large  quantity  of  hydrogen  when  they  are  heated  to  red  heat  in  the  gas;  thus  palladium, 
which  under  the  most  favorable  conditions  takes  up  something  more  than  935  times 
its  own  volume  of  hydrogen.  Aluminum  has  a  marked  capacity  for  occluding 
hydrogen  gas. 

Lime,  Calcium  oxide,  CaO. — Lime  is  made  from  calcium  carbonate  or  limestone  by 
burning  in  a  kiln,  expelling  its  contained  moisture  and  carbon  dioxide,  leaving  as  a 
product  lime  an  infusible  compound  strongly  basic  in  character  but  capable  of  forming 
a  fusible  compound  with  silica  and  other  acid  bodies.  When  limestone  is  properly 
burned  it  becomes  the  quicklime  of  commerce.  Hydrated  lime  is  prepared  by  slacking 
the  quicklime  in  water,  thoroughly  incorporating  the  lime  and  water  into  a  paste,  which 
may  be  dried  and  powdered  for  the  market.  As  a  flux,  lime  combines  with  silica  and 
the  silicates,  and  is  useful  in  counteracting  the  effects  of  sulphur  and  phosphorus. 

Nitrogen,  N. — Nitrogen  does  not  combine  with  any  element  except  at  a  very  high 
temperature.  It  does  not  support  combustion.  In  the  air  it  serves  the  useful  purpose 
of  diluting  the  oxygen;  the  two  gases  are  not  chemically  combined,  simply  mixed. 
Nitrogen  is  found  in  combination  in  a  large  number  of  substances  in  nature,  among 
which  are  potassium  nitrate,  K  NOs,  commonly  known  as  niter  or  saltpeter,  largely 

[509] 


NON-FERROUS  ALLOYS 

used  as  an  oxidizing  agent;  potassium  cyanide,  KCN,  used  as  a  ftux  on  account  of  the 
facility  with  which  it  fuses,  and  the  readiness  with  which  it  reduces  many  metallic 
compounds  when  mixed  with  carbonate  of  soda.  The  limit  of  reduction  of  nitrogen 
compounds  is  ammonia,  NH3,  and  of  oxidation,  nitric  acid,  HNO3. 

Oxygen,  O. — Under  suitable  conditions  as  to  temperature  oxygen  will  combine 
with  all  known  elements  except  fluorine.  When  its  action  is  rapid  and  accompanied 
by  an  evolution  of  heat  and  light  the  process  is  called  combustion;  when  the  combina- 
tion.takes  place  slowly  without  evolution  of  light  the  process  is  called  oxidation.  The 
compounds  of  oxygen  with  other  elements  are  called  oxides,  the  name  of  the  element 
with  which  the  oxygen  is  combined  being  prefixed,  as  iron  oxide,  zinc  oxide,  etc.  An 
oxide  which  forms  an  acid  when  dissolved  in  water  is  called  an  acidic  oxide,  such  as 
carbonic  acid,  silica;  an  oxide  of  a  base-forming  element  when  dissolved  in  water  will 
form  a  basic  oxide,  such  as  calcium  oxide,  potassium  oxide,  etc.  Acidic  oxides  are 
chiefly  oxides  of  the  non-metals;  basic  oxides  are  chiefly  oxides  of  the  metals.  Water 
is  the  connecting  link  between  the  oxygen  acids  and  bases. 

Phosphorus,  P. — A  soft  yellowish-white  non-metallic  element  having  a  powerful 
affinity  for  oxygen.  It  is  obtained  from  the  animal  kingdom,  as  from  bones,  and  from 
the  mineral  kingdom,  as  from  calcium  phosphate.  It  combines  with  oxygen  in  two 
proportions,  forming  oxides  of  phosphorus;  one  of  these  oxides  unites  with  bases  forming 
phosphates.  When  it  occurs  in  a  metal  it  is  usually  as  a  phosphide,  but  the  occurrence 
in  the  slag  from  any  metal  is  as  a  phosphate.  Phosphorus  unites  both  with  copper 
and  tin,  forming  the  alloys  known  as  phosphor-copper  and  phosphor-tin.  As  a  deoxidizer 
the  action  of  phosphorus  in  copper  is  to  reduce  any  oxide  present,  forming  an  oxide  of 
phosphorus,  which,  by  reason  of  its  acid  character,  combines  with  any  basic  metallic 
oxides  also  present,  forming  phosphates,  and  these  pass  into  the  slag,  the  immediate 
effect  of  which  is  to  give  the  molten  metal  greater  fluidity;  it  is  thus  conducive  to  sound 
castings. 

Plaster  of  Paris.  Calcium  Sulphate,  CaSO4. — The  principal  natural  variety  of 
this  mineral  is  gypsum,  which,  when  heated  to  100°  C.  (212°  F.),  or  a  little  above  it, 
loses  nearly  all  its  water  and  forms  a  powder  known  as  plaster  of  Paris.  It  has  been 
used  with  success  as  a  flux  when  melting  washings,  grindings,  etc.,  in  brass  foundry 
practice;  its  action  upon  this  almost  refuse  material  is  to  dissolve  the  foreign  matter 
in  the  crucible,  passing  it  into  the  slag,  and  leaving  a  comparatively  clean  molten  metal 
at  the  bottom  of  the  crucible. 

Silicon,  Si. — This  mineral  occurs  chiefly  in  the  form  of  silica  SiO2,  as  quartz  or  as 
common  sand;  it  also  occurs  in  combination  with  oxygen  and  several  of  the  common 
metallic  elements,  such  as  sodium,  potassium,  aluminum,  and  calcium  as  silicates. 
Silica  is  a  slag  forming  substance,  and  is  therefore  much  used  as  a  flux.  The  action  of 
silicon  on  copper  is  that  of  a  deoxidizer  and  as  a  flux  in  the  removal  of  metallic  oxides 
during  the  process  of  melting.  Some  of  the  silicon  enters  into  combination  with  the 
copper-forming  cupro-silicon;  the  quantity  is  not  large,  but  it  has  the  effect  to  increase 
the  tensile  strength  of  copper-tin  alloys;  such  alloys  are  known  as  silicon-bronzes. 

Sulphur,  S. — A  pale  yellow  non-metallic  crystalline  element  which  combines  readily 
with  most  metals  forming  compounds  called  sulphides  which  are  analogous  to  the 
oxides.  WTien  heated  together  with  copper,  or  lead,  a  combination  takes  place  with 
evolution  of  heat  and  light.  Sulphur  will  combine  with  copper,  forming  cuprous  sulphide, 
Cu2S;  it  will  also  combine  as  cupric  sulphide,  CuS;  when  heated,  cupric  sulphide  loses 
half  its  sulphur,  and  is  converted  into  cuprous  sulphide.  The  principal  form  (galena) 
in  which  lead  occurs  in  nature  is  sulphide,  Pbs.  The  litharge  of  commerce  is  lead 
oxide  PbO;  when  this  is  heated  with  sulphides,  sulphurous  acid  is  volatilized  and  an 
alloy  of  the  metal  with  lead  is  formed.  Sulphur,  present  as  an  impurity  in  metals  to  be 
made  into  alloys,  has  a  reducing  effect  and  assists  the  reducer  in  the  flux. 

NON-FERROUS  ALLOYS 

The  properties  of  alloys  in  general,  as  given  below,  are  an  abstract  from  the  Report 
of  the  United  States  Board  to  test  iron,  steel,  and  other  metals,  of  which  R.  H.  Thurston 
was  chairman. 

[510] 


NON-FERROUS  ALLOYS 

Physical  Properties  of  an  Alloy. — It  is  impossible  to  predict  from  the  character  of 
two  metals  what  will  be  the  character  of  an  alloy  formed  from  given  proportions  of 
each.  In  most  cases,  however,  it  will  be  found  that  the  hardness,  tenacity,  and  fusi- 
bility will  be  greater  than  the  mean  of  the  same  properties  in  the  constituents,  and 
sometimes  greater  than  in  either,  the  ductility  is  usually  less,  and  the  specific  gravity 
is  sometimes  greater  and  sometimes  less. 

It  is  not  a  matter  of  indifference  in  what  order  the  metals  are  melted  in  making  an 
alloy.  Thus,  if  we  combine  90  parts  of  tin  and  10  of  copper,  and  to  this  alloy  add 
10  of  antimony;  and  if  we  combine  10  parts  of  antimony  with  10  of  copper,  and  add  to 
that  alloy  90  parts  of  tin,  we  shall  have  two  alloys  chemically  the  same,  but  in  other 
respects — fusibility,  tenacity,  etc. — they  totally  differ. 

Chemical  Nature  of  Alloys. — Metals  in  forming  alloys  are  governed  by  the  greater 
affinities  which  some  of  them  manifest  for  each  other;  this  in  some  measure  proves  that 
alloys  are  not  mechanical  mixtures,  but  definite  chemical  compounds. 

Matthiessen  experimented  on  upwards  of  250  alloys,  all  made  of  purified  metals. 
The  results  of  his  investigations  may  be  summed  up  in  the  following  classification  of  the 
solid  alloys,  composed  of  two  metals,  according  to  their  chemical  nature: 

1.  Solidified   Solutions    of  One  Metal    in  Another. — The  lead-tin,  cadmium-tin, 
zinc-tin,  lead-cadmium,  and  zinc-cadmium  alloys. 

2.  Solidified  Solutions  of  One  Metal  in  the  Allotropic  Modification  of  Another.— 
The  lead-bismuth,    tin-bismuth,    tin-copper,    zinc-copper,   lead-silver,   and   tin-silver 
alloys. 

3.  Solidified  Solutions  of  Allotropic  Modifications  of  the  Metals  in  Each  Other.— 
The  bismuth-gold,  bismuth-silver,  palladium-silver,  platinum-silver,  gold-copper,  and 
gold-silver  alloys. 

4.  Chemical    Combinations. — The   alloys   whose    composition   is   represented   by 
SnsAu,  Sn2Au,  and  Au2Sn. 

5.  Solidified  Solutions  of  Chemical  Combinations  in  One  Another. — The  alloys  whose 
composition  lies  between  SnsAu  and  Sn2Au,  and  Sn3Au  and  Au-2Sn. 

6.  Mechanical  Mixtures  of  Solidified  Solutions  of  One  Metal  in  Another.— The 
alloys  of  lead  and  zinc,  when  mixture  contains  more  than  1.2%  lead  or  1.6%  zinc. 

7.  Mechanical  Mixtures  of  Solidified  Solutions  of  One  Metal  in  the  Allotropic 
Modification  of  the  Other. — The  alloys  of  zinc  and  bismuth,  when  the  mixture  con- 
tains more  than  14%  zinc,  or  2.4%  bismuth. 

8.  Mechanical  Mixtures  of  Solidified  Solutions  of  the  Allotropic  Modifications  of 
the  Two  Metals  in  One  Another. — Most  of  the  silver-copper  alloys. 

Specific  Gravity. — The  specific  gravity  of  an  alloy  is  rarely  the  mean  between  the 
densities  of  each  of  its  constituents.  It  is  sometimes  greater  and  sometimes  less,  indi- 
cating, in  the  former  case  an  approximation,  and  in  the  latter  case  a  separation  of  the 
particles  from  each  other  in  the  process  of  alloying.  The  specific  gravity  of  an  alloy 
should  not  be  calculated  from  the  weights,  but  should  always  be  calculated  from  the 
volume.  The  correct  rule  for  this  purpose  is  that  given  in  lire's  Dictionary  of  Arts, 
Manufactures,  and  Mines,  which  is:  Multiply  the  sum  of  the  weights  into  the  products 
of  the  two  specified  gravity  numbers  for  a  numerator,  and  multiply  each  specific  gravity 
number  into  the  weight  of  the  other  body  and  add  the  products  for  a  denominator.  The 
quotient  obtained  by  dividing  the  said  numerator  by  the  denominator  is  the  truly 
computed  mean  specific  gravity  of  the  alloy. 

(W  -  w)  Pp 
Pw-pW 

where  M  is  the  mean  specific  gravity  of  the  alloy,  W  and  w  the  weights,  and  P  and  p 
the  specific  gravities  of  the  constituent  metals. 

The  following  list  of  alloys  whose  density  is  greater  or  less  than  the  mean  of  their 
constituents,  is  given  by  several  writers:  Alloys,  the  density  of  which  is  greater  than 
the  mean  of  their  constituents:  Copper  and  zinc;  copper  and  tin;  copper  and  bismuth ; 
lead  and  antimony;  platinum  and  molybdenum.  Alloys,  the  density  of  which  is  less 
than  the  mean  of  their  constituents:  Iron  and  bismuth;  iron  and  antimony;  iron 
and  lead;  tin  and  lead;  nickel  and  arsenic;  zinc  and  antimony, 

[511] 


NON-FERROUS  ALLOYS 

Fusibility. — In  nearly  all  cases  the  fusing  point  of  an  alloy  is  lower  than  the  mean 
of  its  constituent  metals,  and  in  some  instances,  as  in  the  so-called  fusible  alloys,  it  is 
lower  than  that  of  either.  The  cause  of  this  fact  has  not  been  definitely  ascertained. 
Matthiessen  says  that  the  low  fusing  points  admit  of  explanation  by  assuming  that 
chemical  attraction  between  the  two  metals  comes  into  play  as  soon  as  the  temperature 
rises,  and  the  moment  the  smallest  portions  melt,  then  the  actual  chemical  compound 
is  formed  which  fuses  at  the  lowest  temperature,  and  then  acts  as  a  solvent  for  the 
particles  next  to  it,  and  so  promotes  the  combination  of  the  metals  where  this  can  take 
place. 

Liquation. — Many  of  the  alloys  exhibit  the  phenomena  of  liquation,  or  separation 
of  the  mass  of  melted  metal  in  the  act  of  solidification  into  two  or  more  alloys  of  dif- 
ferent composition.  The  resulting  alloy  or  mixtures  of  alloys  are  consequently  deficient 
in  homogeneity.  The  causes  of  this  separation  are  as  yet  but  imperfectly  understood. 
Bronze  alloys,  such  as  gun-metal,  are  said  to  have  liquation  diminished  by  rapid  cooling. 
When  the  mass  is  cooled  slowly,  bronze  castings  often  show  in  the  interior  what  are 
called  spots  of  tin,  but  what  are  really  spots  of  a  white  alloy  of  copper  and  tin,  con- 
taining a  larger  percentage  of  tin  than  the  average  of  the  whole  casting. 

Specific  Heat. — M.  Regnault  determined  the  specific  heat  of  two  classes  of  alloys: 
First,  those  which  at  100°  C.  (212°  F.)  are  considerably  removed  from  their  fusing  points; 
and,  secondly,  those  which  fuse  at  or  near  100°  C.  (212°  F.).  The  specific  heats  of  the 
first  series  were  remarkably  near  to  that  calculated  from  the  specific  heats  of  the  com- 
ponent metals,  so  that  he  announced  the  following  law: 

The  specific  heat  of  the  alloys  at  temperatures,  considerably  removed  from  their 
fusing  point,  is  exactly  the  mean  of  the  specific  heats  of  the  metals  which  compose  them. 
The  mean  specific  heat  of  the  component  metals  is  that  obtained  by  multiplying  the 
specific  heat  of  each  metal  by  the  percentage  amount  of  the  metal  contained  in  the 
alloy  and  dividing  the  sum  of  the  products  for  each  alloy  by  100. 

Eutectic  Alloys. — When  a  molten  alloy  of  two  or  more  metals  cools  to  solidification 
it  does  not  do  so  as  a  whole,  at  a  definite  temperature,  but  one  of  the  metals  will  solidify 
first,  separating  itself  from  the  more  fusible  alloy  or  metal,  which  afterward  solidifies 
at  a  lower  temperature.  This  separation  effects  a  change  in  the  composition  of  the 
remaining  alloy,  if  the  original  alloy  consisted  of  three  metals;  or  the  liquid  metal 
remaining,  if  it  consisted  originally  of  two  metals;  the  separation  in  either  case  con- 
tinues only  on  a  falling  temperature.  The  ratios  in  which  the  constituent  metals  unite 
to  form  the  alloy  possessing  the  lowest  melting-point  are  never  atomic  ratios,  and  when 
metals  do  unite  in  atomic  ratios  the  alloy  produced  is  never  eutectic,  that  is,  it  does 
not  have  a  minimum  solidifying  point. 

The  term  eutectic  has  been  specifically  applied  to  a  mixture  of  metals  in  such  pro- 
portions that  the  fusing  point  is  lower  than  that  of  either  of  the  constituents  themselves. 
Alloys  are  always  regarded  as  eutectic  compounds. 

The  mechanical  properties  of  eutectic  alloys  are  dependent  on  the  manner  in  which 
the  component  crystals  are  interlocked.  In  some  eutectics  neither  constituent  exhibits 
definite  crystal  outlines,  while  in  others  the  crystalline  arrangement  is  due  to  one  of  the 
constituents.  This  is  the  case  in  alloys  of  copper  and  antimjedy  in  which  the  antimony 
determines  the  crystalline  arrangement,  and  it  would  seem  to  be  associated  with  the 
power  possessed  by  some  substances  of  forming  crystal  skeletons  rather  than  small 
crystals.  C.  H.  Desch  found  that  free  antimony  is  able  to  form  fern-like  growths,  and 
in  the  presence  of  excess  of  antimony.  The  eutectic  structure  has  a  definite  orienta- 
tion to  these  crystals.  In  the  copper-silver  alloys,  and  hi  copper  containing  oxygen 
the  small  red-like  crystallites  are  rounded.  This  is  considered  to  be  due  to  the  action 
of  surface  tension  at  the  time  of  solidification. 

Occlusion. — The  gas-absorbing  power  of  molten  copper  increases,  in  general,  with 
the  temperature  up  to  a  certain  point,  also  with  increasing  purity  of  the  metal;  the 
presence  of  platinum  or  nickel  has  a  favorable  influence  on  the  absorption.  The 
disintegration  of  copper,  which  takes  place  during  solidification,  has  been  traced  to 
occluded  sulphur  dioxide  SO2,  which  is  formed  by  oxidation  of  the  sulphur  present,  and 
given  up  during  solidification.  Up  to  1500°  C.  (2732°  F.)  the  absorption  increases  with 
the  temperature.  The  fact  that  the  gas  causes  the  metal  to  "  spit  "  and  become  spongy 

[512] 


THE  POROSITY  OF  BRASS  CASTINGS 

during  solidification,  and  that  a  considerable  quantity  of  gas  is  still  retained  in  the 
cold  metal,  shows  that  absorption  and  not  adsorption  effects  are  concerned.  Sulphur 
dioxide  does  not  diffuse  through  solid  copper  below  1000°  C.  (1832°  F.).  Estimations 
of  the  lowering  of  freezing  point  produced  by  the  oxide  and  sulphide  show  that  the  com- 
pounds occur  as  copper  sulphide  and  cuprous  oxide,  and  that  their  solubilities  are  more 
than  sufficient  to  account  for  the  absorption  of  sulphur  dioxide  by  decomposition  and 
chemical  reaction. 

Oxygen. — When  oxygen  is  in  solution  in  copper,  the  dissociation  pressure  is  lowered, 
BO  that,  at  1600°  C.  (2912°  F.),  no  thermal  decomposition  of  the  dissolved  oxide  occurs, 
and  the  absorption  of  O2  at  this  temperature  is  not  a  physical  solution  but  a  chemical 
combination. 

Evidence  of  the  solubility  of  hydrogen  in  copper  is  given  by  surface  disintegration 
and  blister-like  structure  assumed  by  the  metal  during  solidification  after  exposure  to 
this  gas.  An  absorption  of  H2  in,  and  diffusion  through,  copper  has  been  detected  at 
650°  C.  (1202°  F.).  Up  to  1500°  C.  (2732°  F.)  the  absorption  increases  almost  linearly 
with  the  temperature;  when  the  melting  point  is  reached  a  sudden  increase  occurs. 
The  conductivity  of  copper  is  not  affected  by  the  dissolved  hydrogen.  On  heating 
copper  containing  oxide  in  a  hydrogen  atmosphere,  the  gas  penetrates  the  metal  and 
reduces  the  oxide  with  formation  of  water,  which  escapes  by  disintegrating  the  metal 
and  rendering  it  unsuitable  for  further  mechanical  working. 

A  slight  solubility  of  carbon  monoxide  in  copper  has  been  shown  by  changes  hi  the 
density  produced  in  the  metal  by  its  presence,  by  the  blister-like  structure  it  imparts 
to  the  metal,  by  spectrum  analysis,  and  by  direct  measurement.  A  small  quantity 
of  gas  appears  to  have  a  marked  influence  on  the  physical  properties  of  the  refined 
metal. 

Deoxidizing  Copper. — Silicon  in  the  form  of  silicon-copper  is  a  good  deoxidizer  of 
copper,  whether  the  copper  charge  is  all  new  metal,  or  all  scrap,  or  any  proportion  of 
either.  The  silicon-copper  should  be  added  when  the  copper  is  sufficiently  hot  to  pour, 
and  the  metal  should  be  removed  from  the  furnace  10  minutes  after  the  silicon  has 
been  added.  Use  charcoal  as  a  cover  on  the  copper,  melt  quickly,  and  do  not  keep 
it  in  the  furnace  longer  than  necessary.  There  is  no  gain  in  using  more  than  2.0%  of 
silicon-copper  and,  if  the  copper  is  well  melted,  1.0%  will  be  sufficient  to  make  solid 
castings. 

The  effect  of  silicon  on  yellow  brass  is  similar  to  that  of  aluminum,  that  is,  it  adds 
fluidity  and  gives  the  metal  the  same  appearance.  However,  while  aluminum  can  be 
used  in  a  leaded  alloy,  silicon  cannot,  as  it  causes  excessive  dressing.  The  effect  of 
silicon  on  a  bronze  mixture  85%  copper,  11%  tin,  and  4%  lead,  would  be  to  produce  so 
much  dross  that  the  metal  could  not  be  used  for  sand  castings.  Although  the  con- 
ductivity of  the  metal  is  not  as  high  as  when  magnesium  is  used,  the  silicon  will  produce 
a  more  reliable  casting. — Foundry. 

THE  POROSITY  OF  BRASS  CASTINGS 

Some  metals  absorb  gases  so  easily  when  heated  that  they  cannot  be  cast  without 
the  addition  of  some  deoxidizing  agent.  This  is  the  case  with  copper,  no  matter  how 
solid  the  copper  may  be  before  it  is  melted ;  if  poured  into  the  molds  without  treatment, 
they  only  remain  full  a  short  time  before  the  copper  rises  in  the  sprues  and  overflows 
on  to  the  floor.  In  every  case  the  castings  will  be  found  honeycombed  whenever  this 
occurs.  It  is  necessary  therefore  to  alloy  some  other  metal  or  element  having  a  greater 
affinity  than  copper  for  oxygen,  to  form  an  oxide  that  either  rises  to  the  surface  as  a 
slag,  or  escapes  into  the  atmosphere  as  a  vapor.  The  latter  occurs  when  zinc  is  added 
to  molten  copper;  phosphorus  forms  a  slag  of  ever-changing  form  and  position  on  the 
surface  of  the  metal. 

When  copper  is  melted  under  charcoal,  the  quantity  of  gas  absorbed  is  not  large, 
the  metal,  when  cooled,  possesses  a  metallic  appearance,  even  though  not  solid;  but 
if  heating  were  continued  sufficiently  long,  the  copper  would  lose  its  metallic  char- 
acteristics, passing  into  an  oxide;  this  explains  why  it  is  necessary  to  protect  copper 
from  the  atmosphere  while  in  the  furnace. 

[513] 


MELTING  NON-FERROUS  METALS 

However  carefully  copper  may  be  melted,  sufficient  gas  is  absorbed  to  prevent  its 
being  cast  pure;  the  copper  must  therefore  be  deoxidized;  the  substances  often  used  in 
making  brass  or  bronze  are  zinc  and  phosphorus.  Tin  is  not  an  active  deoxidizer,  so 
while  alloys  of  copper  and  tin  can  be  made  without  the  addition  of  any  other  element, 
they  are  so  liable  to  porosity  that  it  is  always  desirable  to  add  either  zinc  or  phosphorus. 
A  familiar  example  of  the  use  of  zinc  to  prevent  porosity  is  the  well-known  alloy — copper 
88%,  tin  10%,  zinc  2%,  and  even  in  this  alloy  there  is  a  tendency  to  porosity,  because 
of  the  small  percentage  of  zinc.  Phosphorus  is  a  much  more  active  deoxidizing  agent 
than  zinc,  and  if  the  2%  zinc  in  the  above  were  replaced  by  2%  of  15%  phosphor- 
copper,  it  would  make  an  excellent  phosphor-bronze.  As  a  preventive  of  porosity, 
phosphorus  is  not  a  specific,  and  phosphor-bronze  may  produce  spongy  castings  when 
carelessly  melted.  It  is,  however,  the  best  agent  for  deoxidizing  the  metal;  defective 
castings  should  be  remelted  and  run  into  ingots  with  the  addition  of  5%.of  15%  phosphor- 
copper.  These  ingots  can  be  melted  with  new  metal  without  producing  porosity.  The 
oxidation  of  copper  is  largely  prevented  by  the  use  of  fluxes,  and  one  of  the  best  of 
these  is  common  salt.  It  should  be  added  at  the  beginning  of  the  heat,  after  the  metal 
has  begun  to  melt;  the  cold  additions,  which  may  protrude  above  the  charcoal,  should 
be  pushed  into  the  liquid  metal  as  they  become  hot. — C.  Vickers. 

FLUXES  USED  IN  MELTING  NON-FERROUS  METALS 

A  flux  is  a  substance  used  for  cleansing  a  mass  of  molten  metal,  by  the  removal  of 
such  foreign  ingredients  as  can  readily  be  fused  into  a  slag.  A  flux  must  therefore  melt 
at  a  temperature  below  that  of  the  molten  metal  and  it  must  not  act  injuriously  upon 
the  metal  to  be  cleansed;  its  proper  function  is  that  of  a  liquid  medium  in  which  reactions 
take  place  at  high  temperatures.  The  selection  of  a  flux  will  vary  with  the  metal  to  be 
cleansed  and  the  properties  of  the  substances  to  be  removed.  If  the  impurities  are 
of  an  acid  nature,  a  basic  or  neutral  flux  will  be  required.  So  also,  an  acid  flux  will  be 
required  if  the  impurities  are  basic  in  their  character. 

The  fluxes  employed  in  brass  foundry  practice  formed  the  subject  matter  of  a  paper 
prepared  by  Erwin  S.  Sperry  for  the  American  Brass  Founders'  Association,  1910, 
from  which  the  following  notes  are  taken: 

In  the  early  days  of  brass  founding  two  things  were  guarded  jealously:  the  mixture 
and  the  fluxes.  Chemists  made  serious  inroads  into  the  mixtures,  and  their  secrecy 
faded  away.  The  mystery  of  the  fluxes  was  more  difficult  to  eliminate,  as,  unlike  the 
castings  themselves,  they  did  not  go  beyond  the  foundry.  In  course  of  time  the  secret 
fluxes  went  the  way  of  the  brass  mixtures  and  they  became  general  technical  knowledge. 

As  to  the  advantage  of  a  flux  and  whether  one  is  actually  necessary,  Mr.  Sperry 
believes  the  flux  question  to  be  greatly  overdone  and  imperfectly  understood.  It  is 
not  advisable  to  go  into  a  detailed  enumeration  of  all  the  fluxes  that  can  be  used  in  brass 
melting;  it  would  be  of  little  value.  The  following  fluxes  are  those  which  have  proved 
valuable,  and  the  manner  in  which  they  should  be  used. 

Copper. — Probably  more  fluxes  have  been  proposed  or  used  for  copper  than  for  any 
other  one  metal  or  its  alloys  because  copper  cannot  be  melted  alone  and  yield  sound 
castings.  In  the  selection  of  a  flux  for  copper  it  should  be  known  whether  pure  copper 
castings  are  to  be  made  or  whether  it  is  to  be  alloyed  to  make  brass  or  bronze.  To  make 
sound  copper  castings  with  a  flux  alone,  and  without  the  use  of  "  physic  "  like  silicon- 
copper,  magnesium  or  similar  materials  (which,  strictly  speaking,  are  not  fluxes),  is  a 
difficult  matter.  For  this  purpose  yellow  prussiate  of  potash  (potassium  ferrocyanide) 
is  excellent.  With  it  sound  copper  castings  can  be  made,  but  better  results  may  be 
obtained  by  the  usual  deoxidizing  agents,  such  as  silicon-copper,  magnesium,  and 
phosphorus. 

In  melting  copper  for  producing  brass  or  bronze  there  is  nothing  better  than  common 
salt.  Its  value  lies  in  that  it  possesses  the  property  of  reducing  any  oxide  of  copper 
which  may  form  during  the  melting;  about  a  handful  of  salt  in  a  150-pound  crucible 
is  used  and  is  preferably  put  in  after  the  copper  has  begun  to  melt.  If  the  salt  is  intro- 
duced with  the  copper  it  melts  before  the  copper,  volatilizes,  and  goes  to  waste.  Too 
much  salt  produces  a  liquid  that  is  apt  to  penetrate  the  crucible  like  fluor-spar,  although 

[514] 


MELTING  NON-FERROUS  METALS 

not  as  violently  or  as  rapidly.  The  theory  of  the  action  of  common  salt  seems  to  be 
that,  at  the  temperature  of  the  molten  copper,  it  breaks  up  or  dissociates  into  metallic 
sodium  and  chlorine  gas.  The  latter  escapes  and  the  sodium  performs  its  work  in 
deoxidizing. 

Brass. — The  flux  almost  universally  employed  in  brass  melting  is  common  salt; 
its  action  is  to  reduce  the  oxide  of  copper  formed  in  melting  the  copper  previous  to  the 
addition  of  the  spelter.  The  quantity  used  is,  as  already  stated,  about  a  handful  to  a 
150  pound  crucible,  added  after  the  copper  begins  to  melt.  When  the  right  conditions 
have  been  produced  there  will  be  a  little  slag  on  the  top  of  the  brass  when  it  is  skimmed. 
It  is  of  note  that,  although  every  brass  rolling  mill  uses  salt  in  brass  melting,  few  brass 
founders  who  make  sand  castings  employ  it.  Mr.  Sperry  advocates  its  use  under  all 
conditions,  as  it  is  theoretically  correct  and  has  been  found  by  actual  practice  to  im- 
prove the  quality  of  brass  and  is  so  cheap  that  the  cost  of  the  brass  is  not  appreciably 
increased.  Every  brass  founder  should  use  it,  whether  he  makes  new  metal  or  melts 
scrap,  as  the  character  of  the  castings  will  be  improved. 

Bronze  and  Composition. — What  has  been  said  about  the  use  of  common  salt  in 
melting  yellow  brass  applies  equally  well  to  composition  or  bronze,  and  it  is  used  in 
identically  the  same  manner  and  in  the  same  quantities.  It  makes  no  difference  whether 
phosphorus  or  other  deoxiding  agents  are  employed,  the  salt  is  used  just  the  same. 

German  Silver. — This  is  such  a  refractory  material  in  the  rolling  mill  that  much 
time  and  thought  have  been  given  the  subject  of  a  suitable  flux  for  it.  The  bulk  of 
German  silver  manufactured  in  the  United  States  is  made  by  two  concerns.  One  uses 
a  flux  in  making  it,  while  the  other  uses  none.  The  concern  which  uses  no  flux  at  all 
has  a  little  better  reputation,  and  they  have  the  more  particular  trade;  examples, 
which  indicate  that  fluxes  do  not  constitute  the  "secret"  of  making  German  silver.  Mr. 
Sperry  demonstrated  in  practice  that  a  mixture  of  nitrate  of  soda  or  the  nitrate  of 
potash  (nitre),  mixed  with  black  oxide  of  manganese  and  used  as  a  flux  on  copper, 
will  introduce  metallic  manganese  into  the  copper,  showing  a  reducing  action.  The 
probable  reason  for  the  action  of  the  flux  is  that  a  slight  amount  of  manganese  is  thus 
introduced.  Metallic  manganese  has  come  into  use  as  a  deoxidizing  agent  for  German 
silver  and  similar  nickel  alloys,  which  is  preferable  to  introducing  manganese  through 
the  agency  of  a  flux;  the  results  are  positive,  certain,  and  predetermined  amounts  of 
manganese  always  can  be  added.  While  its  use  has  been  attended  with  excellent  re- 
sults, it  also  seems  to  be  the  natural  deoxidizing  agent  for  nickel  and  nickel  alloys.  In 
making  German  silver  common  salt  is  used  in  the  same  manner,  and  with  the  same 
results  as  those  obtained  in  brass  and  bronze. 

Nickel. — The  flux  used  by  makers  of  nickel  anodes  has  proved  a  good  one.  It  is 
composed  of  lime,  3  parts;  fluor-spar,  1  part.  Slake  the  lime  as  though  mortar  were 
to  be  made;  then  stir  in  the  fluor-spar  and  allow  it  to  become  solid.  It  is  then  broken 
up  into  small  pieces  for  use.  This  flux  has  been  found  particularly  serviceable  in 
melting  old  anodes,  as  it  dissolves  any  earthy  matter  that  may  be  on  them.  It  is 
used  for  both  new  and  old  material,  and  may  be  called  the  standard  flux  for  nickel. 
The  proportions  used  are  about  a  pint  or  a  good  handful  for  new  nickel,  and  twice  this 
quantity  for  old  material. 

Fluor-spar  alone  is  a  good  flux  but  it  becomes  very  fluid  when  melted  and  rapidly 
attacks  a  crucible.  It  seems  to  soak  in  and  dissolve  out  the  clay  from  the  crucible 
mixture  and  leave  nothing  but  the  graphite.  The  use  of  lime  with  the  fluor-spar  is 
to  increase  the  melting  point  so  that  it  will  not  so  readily  attack  the  crucible.  Although 
the  fluor-spar  is  toned  down  with  lime,  the  flux  will  still  act  on  the  crucible,  which  will 
last  only  five  or  six  heats,  but  all  fluxes  act  on  the  crucible  to  a  greater  or  less  extent, 
otherwise  they  would  not  be  of  value  as  a  flux. 

Washings,  Grindings,  Etc.— For  use  in  melting  brass,  bronze,  or  composition  wash- 
ings, grindings,  skimmings,  and  similar  material,  nothing  is  better  than  plaster  of  Paris. 
Its  value  as  a  flux  is  that  it  possesses  the  property  of  dissolving  any  foreign  matter 
present  in  the  shape  of  sand,  slag,  or  oxide,  while  it  has  practically  no  action  on  the 
crucible;  therefore,  any  desired  quantity  can  be  used.  It  melts  readily  and  forms  a 
thin  slag.  Mix  about  5  pounds  of  plaster  of  Paris  with  the  washings  when  they  are 
placed  in  the  crucible;  then  melt  in  the  usual  manner.  If  the  slag  at  the  conclusion 

[515] 


ALUMINUM  ALLOYS 


of  the  melt  is  not  sufficiently  fluid,  more  should  be  added.  When  the  metal  is  com- 
pletely melted  pour  the  entire  contents  of  the  crucible  into  ingot  molds.  Do  not 
attempt  to  skim  it.  The  slag  will  run  into  the  molds  with  the  metal  and  rise  to  the  top. 
Allow  the  mass  to  cool  and  then  dump  the  ingot  molds. 

Plaster  of  Paris  is  calcium  sulphate;  when  used  as  a  flux,  the  cotton  seems  to  be 
one  of  simple  solution:  The  molten  plaster  dissolves  the  foreign  matter  as  sugar  is 
dissolved  by  water.  When  coal  is  present  in  washings,  as  it  usually  is,  there  is  a  slight 
reduction  of  the  sulphate  to  sulphide  and  there  will  be  an  odor  of  sulphur  during  the 
melting.  This  does  no  harm,  in  fact,  it  appears  to  act  as  if  any  iron  be  present,  it  is 
changed  to  sulphide  and  enters  the  slag. 

Aluminum. — For  years  those  who  melted  aluminum  used  no  fluxes  at  all,  not  even 
charcoal,  as  it  was  found  that  this  material  did  more  harm  than  good.  On  account  of 
the  lightness  of  aluminum,  charcoal  does  not  readily  free  itself  and  is  apt  to  become 
entangled  in  the  metal  and  produce  small,  black  spots  in  the  casting.  Within  the 
past  few  years  fluxes  have  come  into  use;  the  one  most  extensively  used,  and  which 
has  proved  to  be  valuable  is  chloride  of  zinc.  It  seems  to  react  with  the  aluminum, 
forming  chloride  of  aluminum  and  metallic  zinc,  which  alloys  with  the  aluminum. 
When  this  takes  place  the  dross  is  changed  to  a  fine,  granular  condition  and  is  readily 
skimmed  off.  When  aluminum  is  melted  the  surface  is' covered  with  a  rather  thick  mass; 
but  the  chloride  of  aluminum  will  change  it  to  a  perfectly  clear  one  closely  resembling 
in  appearance  molten  tin  or  lead.  The  method  of  using  chloride  of  zinc  as  a  flux  in 
melting  aluminum  is  simple.  Small  pieces  are  thrown  on  the  surface  after  the  melting 
has  been  completed.  Enough  has  been  added  when  the  surface  is  clear.  A  very  small 
amount  usually  suffices,  and  for  50  pounds  of  aluminum  a  piece  the  size  of  a  walnut 
is  generally  enough.  The  metal  is  stirred  immediately  after  the  addition  and  then 
skimmed. 

ALUMINUM  ALLOYS 

The  following  notes  are  from  a  paper  prepared  by  Dr.  J.  W.  Richards,  for  the  Am. 
Soc.  for  Testing  Materials,  1903. 

Pure  aluminum  is  a  comparatively  soft  and  weak  metal;  it  hardens  quickly  while 
being  worked,  becomes  harder,  denser,  more  elastic  and  stronger,  but  goes  to  pieces 
if  worked  too  far.  To  produce  a  thin  sheet  or  fine  wire  it  is  necessary  to  anneal  fre- 
quently, to  remove  the  strains  caused  by  the  work.  Castings  of  aluminum,  unworked, 
are  soft  and  weak. 

The  following  table  gives  the  usual  limits  of  physical  properties  of  No.  1  com- 
mercial aluminum,  which  averages  99  to  99.5%  pure: 


Elastic  Limit 
(Pounds  per 
Square  Inch) 

Ultimate  Tensile 
Strength.     (Pounds 
per  Square  Inch) 

Percentage 
Reduction 
of  Area 

Castings    . 

8500 

14  000  to  18  000 

15 

Sheet  

12,500  to  25,000 

24,000  to  40,000 

20  to  30 

Wire  

16  000  to  33  000 

25  000  to  55  000 

40  to  60 

Bars 

14  000  to  23  000 

28  000  to  40  000 

30  to  40 

For  all  purposes  where  it  is  sufficiently  hard  and  strong,  it  is  advisable  to  use  the 
pure  metal,  since  it  resists  alteration  by  the  atmosphere  and  other  corroding  agencies 
better  than  almost  any  of  its  alloys.  For  cast  articles,  wire,  rods,  or  sheets,  not  suffi- 
ciently strong  or  hard  when  made  of  the  pure  metal,  aluminum  can  be  alloyed  with 
small  quantities  of  other  metals,  without  materially  increasing  its  specific  gravity. 
The  principal  metals  used  for  alloys  are  zinc,  copper,  nickel,  magnesium,  titanium, 
tungsten,  chromium  and  manganese. 

Alloying. — The  aluminum  used  should  be  of  No.  1  quality,  which  averages  99.5% 
aluminum.  The  commercial  qualities  of  other  metals  are  frequently  so  impure  that 
they  give  alloys  of  quite  different  properties  from  the  pure  metals.  This  is  particularly 

[516] 


ALUMINUM  ALLOYS 

true  of  zinc  which  often  contains  1%  or  more  of  lead  and  considerable  iron.  As  a 
general  rule,  it  is  advisable  to  melt  the  aluminum  first,  and  then  to  stir  or  dissolve  the 
other  metal  into  it.  Most  metals,  particularly  copper,  unite  with  aluminum  with 
considerable  energy,  and  dissolve  quickly  in  it,  even  though  the  melting  point  be  con- 
siderably higher.  To  facilitate  the  solution  of  a  metal  of  very  high  melting  point,  such 
as  nickel,  it  is  advisable  to  prepare  first  an  alloy  of  the  metal  with  aluminum  in  some- 
what like  equal  proportions.  This  alloy,  cast  into  bars,  is  then  added  to  the  melted 
aluminum,  and  dissolves  much  faster  and  more  uniformly  than  the  pure  metal. 

Aluminum  alloys,  like  aluminum,  have  large  specific  heats,  and  it  takes  a  large 
amount  of  heat,  though  not  a  high  temperature,  to  melt  them.  The  characteristic  of 
the  furnace  operation  is  therefore  to  have  only  a  moderately  hot  fire,  and  it  is  of  the 
greatest  importance  that  the  alloy  be  never  over  a  cherry-red  heat.  The  stirring  rod 
may  be  a  wrought-iron  bar,  if  the  temperature  is  kept  low.  If  the  temperature  is  high 
the  iron  bar  will  be  corroded  and  the  alloy  injured;  it  is  better  to  use  a  carbon  rod 
for  a  stirrer,  fastened  into  the  end  of  an  iron  pipe  for  a  handle. 

Melting  Point. — The  addition  of  a  few  per  cent  of  any  metal  to  aluminum  lowers 
the  melting  point.  Adding  copper,  the  melting  point  decreases  until  33%  of  copper 
is  present,  above  which  it  rises.  Antimony  is  the  most  striking  exception,  small  quan- 
tities increase  the  melting  point  very  considerably. 

Specific  Gravity. — The  alloys  with  magnesium,  2  to  12%,  are  the  only  ones  which 
are  lighter  than  aluminum  itself;  but  they  are  lighter  than  their  composition  and  the 
specific  gravity  of  magnesium  (1.72)  would  lead  us  to  expect.  Thus,  10%  of  magnesium 
would  theoretically  make  a  physical  mixture  with  a  specific  gravity  0.16  less  than 
aluminum,  whereas  it  really  gives  an  alloy  0.24  lighter.  This  points  to  expansion 
taking  place  during  alloying.  In  the  case  of  the  other  metals  heavier  than  aluminum, 
their  specific  gravity  is  usually  higher  than  would  be  calculated  from  the  composition, 
pointing  to  a  condensation  or  contraction  taking  place  in  alloying. 

Working  and  Annealing. — All  alloys  are  hardened  by  working  and  must  be  fre- 
quently annealed  to  avoid  cracks.  Working  raises  the  tensile  strength  but  decreases 
ductility  and  frequent  annealing  is  necessary. 

The  annealing  is  done  in  a  muffle,  if  possible,  as  it  is  advisable  not  to  subject  these 
alloys,  especially  magnalium,  to  the  direct  action  of  the  flame,  since  absorption  of  gas  and 
internal  oxidation,  or  burning,  takes  place  at  redness  without  melting.  Slabs  and 
bars  are  heated  to  full  dark  red.  Sheets  must  not  be  heated  so  high;  a  thin  sheet  is 
merely  warmed  to  about  400°  C.  (752°  F.)  and  then  cooled  in  water.  Very  thin  sheets 
can  be  put  into  hot  oil  and  thus  allowed  to  cool  slowly. 

Chromium. — Chromium  hardens  aluminum  strongly,  the  alloys  having  somewhat 
of  the  qualities  of  self-hardening  steel,  i.e.,  retaining  their  hardness  on  heating  or  after 
annealing  much  better  than  any  other  of  the  aluminum  alloys.  Two  to  3%  of  chromium 
is  recommended  as  making  the  metal  much  harder  but  decreasing  malleability  con- 
siderably. Eleven  per  cent  makes  the  alloy  brittle,  crystalline  and  unworkable. 

Titanium. — Alloys  up  to  7%  of  titanium  have  been  made,  but  the  best  is  that  with 
2%.  This  has  elasticity  comparable  to  spring  brass,  and  a  tensile  strength  of  30,000 
to  35,000  pounds  when  rolled  hard  with  3%  elongation,  and  21,000  pounds  when  an- 
nealed with  16.5%  elongation.  These  alloys  are  difficult  to  make,  as  pure  titanium  is 
rare,  and  the  only  practicable  method  of  manufacture  is  to  dissolve  titanic  oxide  in 
melted  cryolite  and  add  aluminum,  which  latter  reduces  the  oxide  and  forms  an  alloy 
with  the  metal. 

Manganese. — The  addition  of  manganese  to  commercial  aluminum  up  to  5% 
produces  hard  and  rigid  alloys.  They  can  be  made  either  by  making  a  rich  alloy  of 
manganese  and  aluminum  in  the  electric  furnace,  or  diluting  this  down  with  pure 
aluminum.  The  addition  of  rich  ferro-manganese  to  aluminum  also  serves  to  produce 
the  alloys,  but  it  has  the  disadvantage  of  introducing  some  iron  and  carbon  into  the 
alloy  at  the  same  time.  Used  with  copper  and  nickel  manganese  makes  the  hardest 
light  alloy  of  aluminum  yet  produced. 

Tin.— The  alloy  of  aluminum  with  10%  of  tin  is  whiter  than  aluminum,  its  density 
is  2.85,  its  coefficient  of  expansion  by  heat  is  less  than  that  of  aluminum  and  it  can 
be  more  easily  soldered  than  pure  aluminum.  The  tensile  strength  of  a  casting  of 

[517] 


AMALGAMS 

this  alloy  showed  only  14,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  with  4%  elongation,  so  that  it 
is  no  stronger  than  pure  aluminum  and  not  as  Ductile. 

Nickel. — Alloys  of  aluminum  with  nickel  alone  have  not  been  found  advantageous. 
An  alloy  with  4.5%  nickel,  had  a  coarsely  crystalline  fracture,  rolled  and  worked  well, 
but  had  poor  mechanical  properties.  The  commercial  alloys  which  go  under  the  name 
of  nickel  aluminum  alloy  are  in  reality  ternary  alloys  of  aluminum  with  nickel  and 
copper.  What  are  called  nickel-aluminum  casting  alloys  contain  7  to  10%  of  nickel 
and  copper  together,  have  an  elastic  limit  of  8,500  to  12,000  pounds,  ultimate  strength 
of  15,000  to  20,000  pounds,  with  reduction  of  area  of  6  to  8%. 

Tungsten. — The  precise  effects  of  tungsten  alone  have  not  been  very  satisfactorily 
determined,  since  it  is  used  in  small  amounts  in  conjunction  with  other  hardeners  of 
aluminum,  such  as  with  copper  and  iron,  or  copper  and  manganese,  etc. 

Copper. — Copper  is  one  of  the  most  frequently  used  hardening  agents  for  aluminum, 
being  often  used  alone  and  often  associated  with  zinc,  nickel  and  other  metals.  In 
casting,  these  copper  alloys  are  only  slightly  stronger  than  pure  aluminum,  because 
of  the  segregation  of  the  alloy,  which  takes  place  during  slow  cooling.  It  is  only  in 
chill  castings  that  satisfactory  results  can  be  obtained.  Slabs  and  bars  for  rolling  or 
drawing  should  be  cast  in  chill  molds. 

Zinc. — Zinc  is  the  cheapest  and  at  the  same  time  one  of  the  most  efficient  of  the 
metals  which  improve  the  mechanical  properties  of  aluminum.  Proportions  up  to 
33%  are  used;  the  alloys  are  malleable  up  to  15%  and  above  that  are  still  useful  for 
making  castings.  Only  the  purest  aluminum  should  be  used,  to  get  the  best  alloys. 
Casting  in  chills  gives  much  better  results  than  casting  in  sand;  in  the  latter  case  the 
slow  cooling  seems  to  cause  a  separation. 

The  alloy  with  15%  zinc  can  be  rolled  and  drawn.  In  chill  castings  it  has  an  elastic 
limit  of  16,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  a  tensile  strength  of  22,330  pounds,  an  elonga- 
tion of  6%  in  2  inches  and  reduction  of  area  of  10.50  per  cent. 

The  alloy  with  25%  zinc  has  a  tensile  strength  of  22,000  pounds,  extension  1% 
and  reduction  of  area  3%,  when  cast  in  sand.  When  cast  in  chill  molds  its  tensile 
strength  is  35,000  to  45,000  pounds,  extension  1%,  with  a  close  fracture  like  high  carbon 
steel.  Its  specific  gravity  is  3.4,  which  shows  a  contraction  of  14%  in  the  bulk  of  the 
constituents  while  alloying,  and  since  one  part  of  zinc  has  only  one-eighth  the  volume 
of  three  parts  of  aluminum,  the  remarkable  conclusion  follows  that  the  aluminum 
takes  up  one-third  of  its  weight  of  zinc  and  actually  decreases  in  volume  some  2%  in 
doing  it.  This  probably  accounts  for  the  close  grain  and  good  working  qualities  of 
this  alloy.  It  is  non-magnetic,  has  a  fine  color,  takes  a  high  polish,  and  bids  fair  to 
be  the  most  generally  useful  of  all  the  light  aluminum  alloys. 

Zinc  alloys  are  the  cheapest  to  make,  and  are  equal  in  mechanical  properties  to  very 
nearly  the  best  alloys  made  with  more  expensive  metals,  and  therefore  promise  to 
have,  of  all  the  light  aluminum  alloys,  the  largest  sphere  of  usefulness. 

AMALGAMS 

This  term  is  applied  to  that  class  of  alloys  in  which  one  of  the  combining  metals 
is  mercury.  On  adding  successive  small  quantities  of  silver  to  mercury,  a  great  variety 
of  fluid  amalgams  are  apparently  produced;  in  reality,  the  chief,  if  not  the  sole,  com- 
pound is  a  solid  amalgam,  which  is  merely  diffused  throughout  the  fluid  mass.  The 
fluidity  of  any  amalgam  would  thus  seem  to  depend  on  there  being  an  excess  of  mercury 
above  that  necessary  to  form  a  definite  compound.  Some  amalgams  are  solid,  others 
liquid.  They  are,  generally  speaking,  weak  compounds,  many  of  them  being  decom- 
posed by  pressure,  and  all  are  decomposed  at  a  white  heat.  The  principal  amalgams 
are  those  of  lead,  zinc,  tin,  bismuth,  cadmium,  copper,  silver,  gold,  sodium. 

Lead- Amalgam. — This  alloy  may  be  formed  by  pouring  molten  lead  into  mercury; 
it  has  a  higher  specific  gravity  than  either  mercury  or  lead,  as  it  undergoes  contraction 
in  combining.  The  color  is  a  brilliant  white.  It  remains  liquid  with  as  much  as 
33.0%  lead,  but  when  made  of  equal  parts  it  crystallizes  into  a  brittle  solid. 

Zinc- Amalgam. — Mercury  combines  readily  with  molten  zinc;  an  amalgam  of  8 
parts  of  zinc  to  1  part  of  mercury  is  very  brittle.  Singer  recommends  an  amalgam 

[518] 


INGOT  COPPER 

for  rubbers  of  electric  machines:  2  parts  zinc,  1  part  tin,  and  4  to  6  parts  mercury. 
Zinc  plates,  used  in  galvanic  batteries,  are  generally  coated  with  mercury  by  first 
cleaning  the  zinc  plate  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  and  then  rubbing  in  the  mercury  with 
a  brush  or  rag. 

Tin-Amalgam. — This  is  made  by  adding  mercury  to  molten  tin.  If  of  10  parts 
mercury  and  1  part  tin  the  amalgam  is  liquid,  but  equal  parts  of  these  metals  make 
a  brittle  solid  of  tin-white  color.  By  adding  more  mercury  the  amalgam  becomes 
plastic;  it  may  then  be  molded  or  pressed  into  shape,  which  will  harden  in  a  few  days. 
A  preparation  of  tin-amalgam  has  been  used  in  dental  work  for  filling  teeth;  it  hardens 
with  little  or  no  expansion. 

Bismuth- Amalgam. — Mercury  will  dissolve  bismuth  without  losing  its  liquid  form; 
an  amalgam  of  4  parts  mercury  and  1  part  bismuth  has  been  used  as  an  occasional  sub- 
stitute for  tin  in  tinning.  With  the  addition  of  lead  and  tin  it  is  occasionally  used  for 
silvering  glass. 

Cadmium-Amalgam. — Mercury  combines  readily  with  molten  cadmium.  The 
mercury  is  completely  saturated  in  the  proportions  of  78.26%  mercury;  21.74%  cad- 
mium. This  is  a  tin-white  brittle  amalgam  which  softens  when  moderately  heated; 
it  has  been  used  in  dental  work. 

Copper-Amalgam. — Copper  does  not  readily  combine  with  mercury,  but  the  amal- 
gam may  be  formed  by  rubbing  copper,  which  has  been  precipitated  from  its  solution 
by  zinc,  first  with  a  mercuric  nitrate  solution,  then  with  mercury  in  a  mortar.  This 
amalgam  is  plastic  when  newly  made,  but  becomes  hard  in  a  day  or  two;  it  may  be 
softened  by  immersing  it  in  boiling  water  or  by  simply  pounding  it.  It  hardens  with- 
out expanding  or  contracting. 

Gold-Amalgam. — Mercury  has  been  extensively  used  in  separating  gold  from 
crushed  quartz  rock  in  which  the  particles  of  gold  are  embedded.  The  mercury  at- 
taches the  gold  particles  to  itself  forming  a  semi-fluid  mass  which  needs  only  to  be 
placed  in  a  retort,  applying  heat  and  driving  off  the  mercury,  the  gold  remaining  in 
the  retort.  The  saturation  point  of  gold  and  mercury  is  2  parts  gold  for  1  part  mer- 
cury, forming  an  amalgam  of  waxy  consistence.  Gold-amalgam  dissolved  in  mercury 
becomes  fluid,  and  when  this  solution  is  strained  through  chamois  leather,  mercury 
passes  through,  together  with  a  small  quantity  of  gold,  and  there  remains  a  white  amalgam 
of  pasty  consistence. 

Silver-Amalgam. — Silver  and  mercury  form  a  definite  chemical  compound,  cor- 
responding to  the  formula  Ag2Hg2.  By  squeezing  the  excess  of  mercury  through 
chamois  leather  an  amalgam  containing  43.7  parts  of  silver  to  100  parts  of  mercury  is 
obtained.  Silver-amalgam  can  be  prepared  by  adding  mercury  to  a  solution  of  silver 
nitrate;  the  amalgam  is  precipitated  in  a  crystalline  form  called  a  silver  tree,  or  arbor 
Diance. 

Sodium-Amalgam. — Sodium  combines  rapidly  with  mercury  at  ordinary  tempera- 
tures, the  combination  being  attended  with  vivid  combustion.  This  amalgam  is  used 
in  the  preparation  of  other  amalgams.  Metallic  chlorides,  such  as  those  of  silver  and 
gold,  for  example,  are  decomposed  by  sodium-amalgam,  and  the  reduced  metal  then 
unites  with  the  mercury. 

INGOT  COPPER 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  Quality. — Ingot  copper  to  be  refined  new  copper  suitable  for  casting  purposes: 
Grade  1,  to  show  on  analysis  99.88  per  cent  of  pure  copper. 

Grade  2,  to  show  on  analysis  99.25  per  cent  of  pure  copper. 

2.  Form  and  Marking. — To  be  furnished  in  standard  commercial  shaped  ingots, 
between  9  inches  and  12  inches  in  length,  with  brand  name  stamped  or  cast  in. 

3.  Purposes  for  Which  Used. — Grade  2  may  be  used  in  compositions  of  commercial 
brass  (B-c),  cast  naval  brass  (N-c),  screw  pipe  fittings  (S-E),  and  commercial  rolled  brass 
(B-r). 

Grade  1  should  be  used  for  other  compositions  of  non-ferrous  materials. 

[519] 


NON-FERROUS  METAL 


COPPER  SHEETS,  PLATES,  RODS,  BARS,  AND  SHAPES,  OR 
NON-FERROUS  METAL  Cu-r 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General   Instructions. — General   Instructions   or   specifications    issued  by  the 
bureau  concerned  shall  form  part  of  these  specifications. 

2.  Scrap. — Scrap  will  not  be  used  in  the  manufacture,  except  such  as  may  accumulate 
in  the  manufacturers'  plants  from  material  of  the  same  composition  of  their  own  make. 

3.  Chemical  and  Physical  Properties. — The  chemical  and  physical  requirements 
shall  be  as  follows: 


Ultimate 

Yield 

Letter 

Name 

Copper 

Tin 

Zinc 

Lead 
Maxi- 

Iron 
Maxi- 

Tensile 
Strength, 
Pounds 

Point, 
Pounds 
per 

Elonga- 
tion in 
2  Inches 

per  Square 

Square 

per  Cent 

Inch 

Inch 

Cu-r 

Copper  (roll- 

99 5 

30,000 

25 

ed  or  drawn) 

(min.) 

4.  Test  Pieces. — Test  pieces  will  be  as  nearly  as  possible  of  the  same  diameter  as 
the  rounds,  or  else  they  are  not  to  be  less  than  \  inch  diameter  and  taken  at  a  distance 
from  the  circumference  equal  to  one-half  the  radius  of  the  rounds. 

5.  Additional  Tests. — All  bars  to  be  clean  and  straight,  of  uniform  color,  quality, 
and  size.     Bars  must  stand: 

(a)  Being  hammered  hot  to  a  fine  point. 

(b)  Being  bent  cold  through  an  angle  of  120°  and  to  a  radius  equal  to  the  diameter 
or  thickness  of  the  test  bar. 

(c)  The  bending  test  bar  may  be  the  full-size  bar,  or  the  standard  bar  of  1  inch 
width  and  \  inch  thickness.     In  the  case  of  bending  test  pieces  of  rectangular  section, 
the  edges  may  be  rounded  off  to  a  radius  equal  to  one-fourth  of  the  thickness. 

6.  Surface  Inspection. — Material  must  be  free  from  all  injurious  defects,  clean, 
smooth,  must  lie  flat,  and  be  within  the  gauge  and  weight  tolerances. 

7.  Trimming. — Plates  and  sheets  will  be  cut  to  the  required  dimensions  and  will  be 
ordered  in  as  narrow  widths  as  can  be  used. 

(a)  The  following  will  be  considered  stock  lengths  for  copper  sheets  when  ordered 
in  10-foot  lengths: 

40  per  cent  in  weight  may  be  in  8  to  10-foot  lengths. 
30  per  cent  in  weight  may  be  in  6-  to  8-foot  lengths. 
20  per  cent  in  weight  may  be  in  4-  to  6-foot  lengths. 
10  per  cent  in  weight  may  be  in  2-  to  4-foot  lengths. 

No  lengths  less  than  2  feet  will  be  accepted  and  the  total  weight  of  all  pieces  on 
lengths  less  than  10  feet  must  not  exceed  40  per  cent  in  any  one  shipment. 

(b)  Rods  and  bars,  when  ordered  to  any  length,  will  be  received  in  stock  lengths, 
unless  it  is  specifically  stated  that  the  lengths  are  to  be  exact.     Stock  lengths  will  be  as 
follows: 

When  ordered  in  12-foot  lengths,  no  lengths  less  than  8  feet. 

When  ordered  in  10-foot  lengths,  no  lengths  less  than  6  feet. 

When  ordered  in  8-foot  lengths,  no  lengths  less  than  6  feet. 

When  ordered  in  6-foot  lengths,  no  lengths  less  than  4  feet. 

When  ordered  to  the  lengths  given  above,  the  weight  of  lengths  less  than  length 
ordered  shall  not  exceed  40  per  cent  of  any  one  shipment. 

This  applies  to  all  rods  from  \  to  1  inch  diameter  or  thickness,  whether  round, 
rectangular,  square,  or  hexagonal.  Above  1  inch  to  and  including  2  inches  the  lengths 

[520] 


SHEATHING  BOTTOMS  OF  WOODEN  CRAFT 

will  be  random  lengths  from  4  to  10  feet.    Above  2  inches  the  lengths  are  special,  but  no 
length  will  be  less  than  4  feet. 

8.  Tolerances. — No  excess  weight  will  be  paid  for,  and  no  single  piece  that  weighs 
more  than  5  per  cent  above  the  calculated  weight  will  be  accepted. 

UNDER  WEIGHT  AND  GRADE  TOLERANCES 


WIDTH  OF 

SHEETS  OK  PLATES 

Up  to  48  Inches, 
Inclusive 

48  to  60  Inches, 
Inclusive 

Over  60  Inches 

Tolerance 

5  per  cent. 

7  per  cent. 

8  per  cent. 

Material  shall  not  vary  throughout  its  length  or  width  more  than  the  given  tolerance. 

9.  Fracture. — The  color  of  the  fracture  section  of  test  pieces  and  the  grain  of  the 
material  must  be  uniform  throughout. 

10.  Purposes  for  Which  Used. — The  material  is  suitable  for  the  following  purposes: 
Copper  pipe  and  tubing. 


SHEET  COPPER  FOR  SHEATHING  BOTTOMS  OF  WOODEN  CRAFT 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  To  be  hard  or  soft  rolled,  as  specified  in  the  order;  to  be  best  commercial  quality, 
in  sheets  48  by  14  inches,  smooth  on  both  sides,  free  from  all  defects,  blisters,  bad  edges 
and  corners,  and  to  contain  at  least  99  per  cent  pure  copper.    Sheets  to  be  commercially 
flat  and  reasonably  free  from  waves  and  buckles. 

2.  A  variation  of  7  per  cent  under  gauge  at  edge  of  sheet,  and  a  variation  in  weight 
of  5  per  cent  over  or  under  will  be  allowed. 

3.  In  ordering  copper  the  thickness  in  decimals  of  an  inch  should  be  given,  as  shown 
in  the  first  column  of  table  below: 


Thickness 

Ounces,  per 
Square 
Foot 

Weight  of 
Sheet,  14  by 
48  Inches 

Maximum 
Weight 

Minimum 
Weight 

Minimum 
Gauge 

Inches 

Lbs.     Oz. 

Lbs.    Oz. 

Lbs.    Oz. 

0.0189 

14 

4        1 

4         4 

3        14 

0.0176 

.0203 

15 

4        6 

4        10 

4         2 

.0189 

.0216 

16 

4      10£ 

4        14 

4         7 

.0201 

.0230 

17 

4      15£ 

5          4 

4        11 

.0214 

.0243 

18 

5        4 

5         8 

5         0 

.0226 

.0257 

19 

5        8£ 

5        13 

5         4 

.0239 

.0270 
.0297 

20 
22 

5      13* 
6       6£ 

6         2 
6        12 

5         9 
6          1 

.0251 
.0277 

.0323 

24 

7       0 

7         6 

6        10 

.0301 

.0352 

26 

7       9 

7        15 

7         3 

.0328 

.0379 
.0406 

28 
30 

8        2$ 
8      12 

8         9 
9         3 

7        12 
8         5 

.0353 
.0378 

.0433 

32 

9        5 

9        13 

8        13 

.0404 

4.  Each  sheet  to  have  thickness  in  decimals  of  an  inch,  or  weight  in  ounces  per  square 
foot,  stamped  or  stenciled  clearly  and  permanently  in  large  letters  on  one  corner — for 
example,  28  ounces.  The  weight  stamped  or  stenciled  on  the  sheet  will  be  the  same  as 

[521] 


COPPER  USED  IN  MAKING  CARTRIDGE  CASES 

the  order  calls  for,  although,  on  account  of  the  weight  tolerance,  the  sheet  may  be  actually 
nearer  the  next  gauge.     Net  weight  only  will  be  paid  for. 

REFINED  COPPER  FOR  USE  IN  MAKING  CARTRIDGE  CASES 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  Material. — High-grade  lake  copper,  to  be  refined  from  ore  of  the  best  quality. 

2.  Analysis. — Chemical  analysis  shall  show  99.90  per  cent  pure  copper,  with  not 
more  than  0.0025  per  cent  of  sulphur  or  arsenic,  and  only  traces  of  other  impurities. 

3.  Size  of  Ingots. — To  be  furnished  in  ingots  between  9  and  12  inches  long. 

4.  Branding. — The  brand  of  copper  shall  be  cast  in  the  ingot. 

5.  General. — Electrolytic  copper  will  not  be  accepted  under  these  specifications. 
Bidders  are  required  to  specify  brand  of  copper  offered. 


SILICON  COPPER  OR  COMPOSITION  Cu-si 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General   Instructions. — General   instructions   or  specifications   issued   by   the 
bureau  concerned  shall  form  part  of  these  specifications. 

2.  Scrap. — Scrap  will  not  be  used,  except  such  as  may  result  from  the  process  of 
manufacture  of  articles  of  similar  composition. 

3.  Chemical  Properties. — The  chemical  requirements  shall  be  as  follows: 


Copper 

Tin 

Zinc 

Iron 

Lead 

Silicon, 
Minimum 

Per  Cent 
Remainder 

Per  Cent 
10 

Material  to  be  99.5  per  cent  pure.     Analysis  is  to  be  made  from  every  lot  of  300 
pounds  or  less. 

4.  Workmanship. — Material  must  be  in  accordance  with  detail  specifications  and 
free  from  all  injurious  defects. 

5.  Fracture. — The  color  of  the  fracture  section  of  test  pieces  and  the  grain  of  the 
metal  must  be  uniform  throughout. 

6.  Marking. — Each  ingot  will  be  plainly  stamped  with  the  percentage  of  silicon 
and  copper,  as  determined  by  analysis. 

PHOSJPfcOR  COPPER  OR  COMPOSITION  Cu-p 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General   Instructions. — General   instructions   or   specifications   issued   by    the 
bureau  concerned  shall  form  part  of  these  specifications. 

2.  Scrap. — Scrap  will  not  be  used,  except  such  as  may  result  from  the  process  of 
manufacture  of  articles  of  similar  composition. 

3.  Chemical  Properties. — Chemical  requirements  shall  be  as  follows: 


Copper 

Tin 

Zinc 

Iron 

Lead 

Phosphorus, 
Minimum 

Per  Cent 
Remainder 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 
10 

[522] 


TIN 

Material  to  be  99.5  per  cent  pure.     Analysis  to  be  made  from  every  lot  of  300 
pounds  or  less. 

4.  Workmanship. — Material  must  be  in  accordance  with  detail  specifications  and 
free  from  all  injurious  defects. 

5.  Fracture. — The  color  of  the  fracture  section  of  test  pieces  and  the  grain  of  the 
metal  must  be  uniform  throughout. 

6.  Marking. — Each  ingot  will  be  plainly  stamped  with  the  percentage  of  phosphorus 
and  copper,  as  determined  by  analysis. 

INGOT  TIN 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General    Instructions. — General    instructions    or   specifications    issued    by    the 
bureau  concerned  shall  form  a  part  of  these  specifications. 

2.  Delivery. — To  be  delivered  f.o.b.  cars  at  navy  yard  indicated. 

3.  Quality. — To  be  prime  quality  tin,  and  to  contain  not  less  than  99.75  per  cent 
pure  tin,  nor  more  than  0.1  per  cent  of  either  of  the  following  metals:  Lead,  antimony, 
arsenic,  copper;  nor  more  than  0.01  per  cent  of  sulphur;  the  total  amount  of  impurities 
allowed  being  0.25  per  cent.     To  be  new  metal,  free  from  scrap  or  remelted  metal,  and 
in  commercial  and  branded  ingots. 

4.  Size  of  Order  and  Ingots. — Unless  smaller  quantities  are  actually  necessary, 
requisitions  shall  call  for  quantities  amounting  to  1 1,200  pounds  (5  gross  tons)  or  mul- 
tiples thereof.     No  particular  size  of  ingot  to  be  specified. 

5.  Place  of  Inspection. — Inspection  to  be  made  at  steamer's  dock  or  in  warehouse, 
if  practicable  to  the  bureau  concerned;  each  bidder  to  state  in  his  proposal  the  name 
and  location  of  the  dock  or  warehouse  where  inspection  is  to  be  made. 

6.  Brand. — The  inspector  shall  note  that  the  tin  is  branded  before  samples  are  taken 
and  shipment  authorized  to  the  yard  concerned. 

7.  Lots  to  be  Analyzed. — For  each  lot  of  1 1,200  pounds  a  sample  of  equal  amount 
will  be  taken  from  each  of  four  ingots,  the  four  samples  so  taken  to  be  blended  and 
analysis  made  from  a  sample  of  this  blend. 

8.  Rejection. — If,  upon  delivery,  the  tin  is  found  not  to  be  the  tin  submitted  for 
inspection,  or  if  it  does  not  contain  the  percentage  of  pure  tin  specified,  or  if  it  contains 
an  excess  of  lead  or  other  impurities,  the  delivery  will  be  rejected. 

PHOSPHOR  TIN 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  Phosphor  tin  to  be  furnished  in  the  form  of  ingots  of  uniform  quality  and  fracture 
throughout;  to  be  made  of  new  material  of  the  best  grade;  of  domestic  manufacture;  to 
be  at  least  99.5  per  cent  pure,  to  be  of  the  following  composition: 

Phosphorus,  not  less  than  5  per  cent. 
Tin,  the  remainder. 

2.  Each  ingot  to  be  plainly  stamped  with  the  percentage  of  phosphorus  and  tin, 
as  determined  by  analysis.     Analysis  to  be  made  from  every  lot  of  300  pounds  or  less. 

SLAB  ZINC 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General   Instructions. — General  instructions  and  specifications  issued  by  the 
bureau  concerned  shall  form  a  part  of  these  specifications. 

2.  Quality. — Under  these  specifications  virgin  spelter — that  is,  spelter  made  from 
ore  or  similar  raw  material  by  a  process  of  reduction  and  distillation  and  not  produced 
from  reworked  metal — is  required. 

3.  Marks. — A  brand  shall  be  cast  in  each  slab  by  which  the  maker  and  grade  can 
be  identified. 

[523] 


ROLLED  ZINC  PLATES 


4.  Lots. — The  maker  shall  use  care  to  have  each  lot  as  uniform  quality  as  possible. 

5.  Chemical  Requirements. 


Grade 

Zinc 

Lead 
Maximum 

Iron 
Maximum 

Sulphur 

Arsenic 

Antimony 

A 

Remainder 

Per  Ct. 
0  50 

Per  Ct. 
0  04 

Per  Ct. 

o 

Per  Ct. 

o 

Per  Ct. 

o 

B 

Do 

1  5 

08 

(i) 

(i) 

(i) 

i  Practically  free. 

Grade  A  shall  be  free  from  aluminum. 

6.  Physical  Requirements. — The  slab  shall  be  reasonably  free  from  surface  corrosion 
or  adhering  foreign  matter. 

7.  Purpose. — Grade  A  shall  be  required  for  special  foundry  work  for  composition 
material  where  lead  allowance  is  low.     Grade  B  shall  be  required  for  galvanizing  and 
general  foundry  work  which  permits  a  large  amount  of  lead  in  the  slab  zinc  used. 

Note  for  General  Storekeepers. — Grade  A  should  only  be  called  for  when  Grade  B 
will  not  be  satisfactory. 

ROLLED  ZINC  PLATES  OR  COMPOSITION  Zn-r 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General   Instructions. — General    instructions    or   specifications   issued  by   the 
bureau  concerned  shall  form  part  of  these  specifications. 

2.  Size  and  Weight. — Plates  will  be  of  thicknesses  and  dimensions  as  specified  and 
net  weight  only  will  be  paid  for.     The  standard  sizes  of  sheets  for  various  thicknesses, 
also  the  external  sizes  possible  for  the  various  thicknesses,  are  given  below: 

.HULL  ZINCS 

Standard  size  12  inches  by  6  inches  by  \  inch. 

Other  sizes  of  zincs  for  circular  openings,  etc.,  are  given  in  the  table  below: 


Thickness 

Standard 
Size 

Extreme 
Size 

Thickness 

Standard 
Size 

Extreme 
Size 

Inch 
H0.125J 
H  -250) 
I  (  -375) 
*  (  .500) 

Inches 
36  by  84 
36  by  84 
24  by  48 
24  by  48 

Inches 
60  by  96 
36  by  84 
24  by  72 
24  by  72 

Inch 
f(   .625) 
f  (  -750) 
!(   -875) 
1    (1.000) 

Inches 
24  by  48 
24  by  36 
24  by  36 
24  by  36 

Inches 
24  by  48 
24  by  48 
24  by  36 
24  by  36 

ZINCS  FOR  BOILERS,   SALT-WATER  PIPING,  ETC. 

Standard  size,  12  inches  by  6  inches  by  \  inch,  with  one  central  hole  f  inch  in  diameter. 

3.  Tolerance. — A  tolerance  of  10  per  cent  over  or  under  weight  will  be  permitted, 
the  weight  of  1  cubic  inch  of  rolled  sheet  zinc  being  0.2605  pound.     The  tolerance  for 
under  gauge  at  edge  of  sheet  is  15  per  cent  on  a  sheet  3  feet  wide;  other  widths  proportional. 

4.  Material. — The  plates  must  be  made  of  zinc,  containing  not  less  than  98.5  per 
cent  pure  zinc,  nor  more  than  0.08  per  cent  of  iron,  and  must  be  thoroughly  compressed 
by  rolling  to  make  a  solid  homogeneous  slab,  with  a  surface  smooth  and  free  from  all 
defects. 

5.  Test. — The  plates  must  be  able  to  stand  bending  through  an  angle  of  45°  over  a 
round  surface  whose  diameter  is  1  inch  without  break  or  cracks,  at  a  temperature  not 
exceeding  100°  F. 

[524] 


GUN  METAL 

6.  Packing. — To  be  delivered  in  boxes  of  about  250  pounds  each;  boxes  to  be  well 
made  of  1-inch  pine  or  spruce,  securely  strapped  with  iron. 

7.  Marking. — Net  weight  and  number  of  plates  to  be  marked  on  each  box. 

PIG  LEAD 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  Grade. — Pig  lead  will  be  required  for  either  as  No.  1  or  No.  2.     No.  1  grade  is 
for  foundry  use  for  alloys  and  compositions,  and  No.  2  is  for  weights,  ballast,  etc. 

2.  No.  1  Pig  Lead;  Analysis  99.9  per  Cent. — No.  1  pig  lead  to  be  good  lead  of  any 
well-known  brand,  and  must  show  on  analysis  not  less  than  99.9  per  cent  of  metallic 
lead  (Pb.);  to  be  product  of  new  ore. 

3.  No.  2  Pig  Lead. — No.  2  pig  lead  to  be  either  old  or  new  lead. 

4.  Weight  of  Pigs. — Pig  lead  will  be  delivered  in  pigs  weighing  about  80  to  90  pounds, 
unless  otherwise  specified. 

5.  Test.— From  each  2  tons  in  a  delivery  of  No.  1  pig  lead  one  pig  will  be  selected, 
and  an  equal  amount  of  clean  fine  drillings  will  be  taken  from  each  sample  pig  and 
thoroughly  mixed.     The  sample  for  analysis  will  be  taken  from  this  mixture. 

INGOT  ALUMINUM 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  Aluminum  ingots  shall  contain  not  less  than  99  per  cent  of  aluminum. 

2.  A  chemical  analysis  shall  be  made  upon  each  lot  of  2,000  pounds  or  each  fraction 
thereof,  except  as  otherwise  noted.     For  shipments  in  carload  lots  of  30,000  pounds  or 
more,  not  more  than  five  (5)  analyses  shall  be  required  for  each  carload  shipment. 

3.  The  tensile  strength  of  the  aluminum  shall  not  be  less  than  12,000  pounds  per 
square  inch  when  cast  in  a  test  bar  of  dimensions  outlined  below.     The  test  bar  shall 
be  cast  in  a  thoroughly  workmanlike  manner.     The  quality  shall  be  judged  from  the 
average  result  obtained  from  at  least  six  (6)  bars. 

DIMENSIONS  OF  BAB 

Inches 

Diameter  of  body 0.5 

Length  of  body 2.0 

Length  of  fillets 125 

Diameter  of  grips 6 

Length  of  grips 4 . 25 

4.  Elongation  between  2-inch  lengths  on  a  bar  of  the  dimensions  given  in  paragraph 
3  shall  not  be  less  than  20  per  cent.     The  bar  may  be  the  same  one  used  for  tensile 
strength  determination. 

5.  In  case  the  chemical  analysis  shows  an  aluminum  content  less  than  99  per  cent, 
the  shipment  shall  be  resampled  and  reanalyzed.     If  the  second  analysis,  or  analyses, 
as  the  case  may  be,  also  show  an  aluminum  content  below  99  per  cent,  the  entire  lot 
represented  by  the  analyses  will  be  rejected. 

6.  In  case  the  tensile  strength  and  elongation  fall  below  the  requirements  as  described 
in  paragraphs  3  and  4,  the  lot  or  shipment  shall  be  resampled  and  retested.     In  case 
the  second  test  fails  to  meet  the  requirements,  the  lot  or  shipment  will  be  rejected. 

GUN  METAL,  CAST,  OR  COMPOSITION  G 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General    Instructions. — General   instructions  or    specifications    issued  by  the 
bureau  concerned  shall  form  part  of  these  specifications. 

2.  Scrap. — Scrap  will  not  be  used,  except  such  as  may  result  from  the  process  of 
manufacture  of  articles  of  similar  composition. 

[525] 


GUN  METAL 

3.  Chemical  and  Physical  Properties. — The  physical  and  chemical  requirements 
shall  be  as  follows: 


Minimum 
Tensile  Strength, 
Pounds  per 
Square  Inch 

Minimum 
Yield  Point, 
Pounds  per 
Square  Inch 

Minimum  of 
Elongation  in 
2  Inches 

Copper 

Tin 

Zinc 

Iron, 
Maxi- 
mum 

Lead, 
Maxi- 
mum 

Per  Ct. 

Per  Ct. 

Per  Ct.  I  Per  CL 

PerCt. 

PerCt. 

30,000 

15,000 

15 

87-89 

9-11 

1-3          0.06 

0.2 

4.  Waiving  of  Physical  Tests. — Physical  tests  may  be  waived  by  the  bureau  con- 
cerned or  by  the  inspector  through  whom  request  for  inspection  is  made  on  small  castings 
of  which  the  factor  of  safety  is  large  by  reason  of  necessities  of  design. 

5.  Workmanship. — The  castings  must  be  made  in  accordance  with  the  drawings 
and  specifications — sound,  clean,  free  from  blow-holes,  porous  places,  cracks,  or  any 
other  defects  which  will  materially  affect  their  strength  or  appearance  or  which  indicate 
an  inferior  quality  of  metal. 

6.  Test  Lots. — Castings  weighing  less  than  250  pounds,  finished,  may  be  tested  by 
lots  or  heat,  a  lot  not  to  exceed  250  pounds,  and  a  heat  not  to  exceed  500  pounds  of 
finished  castings.     Each  lot  or  heat  will  be  represented  by  one  test  specimen  when 
attached  to  a  casting  or  when  a  casting  is  sacrificed  to  obtain  a  test  specimen. 

7.  Test  Coupons. — If  the  castings  are  too  small  for  the  attachment  of  coupons, 
the  test  pieces  may  be  cast  separately,  from  the  same  metal,  under  as  nearly  as  possible 
the  same  conditions  as  the  castings.     Where  test  pieces  are  cast  separately  from  the 
castings,  two  pieces  will  be  required,  one  to  be  poured  before  and  one  after  the  castings. 
Coupons  shall  not  be  detached  from  castings  until  they  are  stamped  by  the  inspector. 
If  the  test  pieces  are  cast  separately  from  the  casting,  they  must  be  cast  in  the  same  flask 
with  the  casting  and  must  be  removed  from  it  in  the  presence  of  the  inspector  and 
stamped  by  him  at  the  time  they  are  taken  out  of  the  molds. 

8.  Fracture. — The  color  of  the  fracture  section  of  test  pieces  and  the  grain  of  the 
metal  must  be  uniform  throughout. 

9.  Purposes  for  Which  Used. — The  material  is  suitable  for  the  following  purposes: 
All  composition  valves  4  inches  in  diameter  and  above;  expansion  joints,  flanged  pipe 

fittings,  gear  wheels,  bolts  and  nuts,  miscellaneous  brass  castings,  all  parts  where  strength 
is  required  of  brass  castings  or  where  subjected  to  salt  water,  and  for  all  purposes  where 
no  other  alloy  is  specified. 

COMPOSITION  VALVES. — Safety  and  relief,  feed  check  and  stop,  surface  blow,  drain, 
air,  and  water  cocks,  main  stop,  throttle,  reducing,  sea,  safety,  sluice,  and  manifolds 
at  pumps. 

Heads,  shapes,  and  water  chests  for  condensers,  distillers,  feed-water  heaters,  and 
oil  coolers. 

PUMPS. — Air-pump  casing,  valve  seats,  buckets,  main  circulating,  water  cylinders, 
valve  boxes,  water  pistons,  stuffing  boxes,  followers,  glands — in  general,  the  water  end 
of  pumps  complete  except  as  specified. 

STUFFING  BOXES. — Glands,  bushings  for  iron  or  steel  boxes. 

BLOWERS. — Bearing  boxes. 

JOURNAL  BOXES. — Distance  pieces. 

MISCELLANEOUS. — Grease  extractors;  steam  strainers,  separators,  casting  for  stern 
tube  and  propeller  shafts,  propeller  hub  caps. 

BEARINGS. — Main,  stern  tube,  strut,  and  spring. 

SPRING  BEARINGS. — Glands  and  baffles. 


[526] 


JOURNAL  BRONZE 


VALVE  BRONZE  OR  COMPOSITION  M 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General    Instructions. — General   instructions   or   specifications   issued   by   the 
bureau  concerned  shall  form  part  of  these  specifications. 

2.  Scrap. — Scrap  will  not  be  used,  except  such  as  may  result  from  the  process  of 
manufacture  of  articles  of  similar  composition. 

3.  Chemical  Properties. — The  chemical  requirements  shall  be  as  follows: 


Copper, 
Minimum 

Tin, 
Minimum 

Zinc 

Iron, 
Maximum 

Lead, 
Maximum 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

87 

7 

Remainder 

0.06 

1.0 

4.  Workmanship. — The  castings  must  be  made  in  accordance  with  the  drawings 
and  specifications — sound,  clean,  free  from  blow-holes,  porous  places,  cracks,  or  any 
other  defects  which  will  materially  affect  their  strength  or  appearance  or  which  indicate 
an  inferior  quality  of  metal. 

5.  Fracture. — The  color  of  the  fracture  section  of  test  pieces  and  the  grain  of  the 
metal  must  be  uniform  throughout. 

6.  Supersedes. — This   specification   supersedes   Composition   M   in   Specifications 
Part  II,  Steam  Engineering  (Revised  July  1,  1910). 

7.  Purposes  for  Which  Used.— The  material  is  suitable  for  the  following  purposes: 
Valves  below  4  inches  for  steam  and  general  purposes  for  which  the  material  is  not 
otherwise  specified,  manifolds  and  cocks,  relief  valves,  composition  lug  sockets,  and  pad 
eyes  not  requiring  special  strength,  hose  couplings,  and  fittings. 

JOURNAL  BRONZE  OR  COMPOSITION  H 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General    Instructions. — General   instructions   or   specifications   issued   by   the 
bureau  concerned  shall  form  part  of  these  specifications. 

2.  Scrap. — Scrap  will  not  be  used,  except  such  as  may  result  from  the  process  of 
manufacture  of  articles  of  similar  composition. 

3.  Chemical  Properties. — The  chemical  requirements  shall  be  as  follows: 


Copper 

Tin 

Zinc 

Iron, 
Maximum 

Lead, 
Maximum 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

82-84 

12.5-14.5 

2.5-4.5 

0.06 

1.0 

Normal  83-13f-3? 

4.  Workmanship. — Material  must  be  in  accordance  with  detail  specifications  and 
free  from  all  injurious  defects. 

5.  Fracture. — The  color  of  the  fracture  section  of  test  pieces  and  the  grain  of  the 
metal  must  be  uniform  throughout. 

6.  Supersedes. — This   specification   supersedes   Composition   H   in   Specifications 
Part  II,  Steam  Engineering  (Revised  July  1,  1910). 

7.  Purposes  for  Which  Used. — The  material  is  suitable  for  the  following  purposes: 
Bearings,  journal  boxes,  bushings,  and  sleeves,  slides,  slippers,  guide  gibs,  wedges  on 
water-tight  doors,  and  all  parts  subject  to  considerable  wear,  for  reciprocating  engines 
in  valve  stem  cross-head  bottom  brass,  link  block  gibs,  amd  suspension  link  brasses. 

[527] 


TORPEDO  BRONZE 


TORPEDO  BRONZE 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General. — To  be  drawn  or  rolled  bright  and  to  be  uniform  in  quality  and  color, 
to  be  free  from  cracks,  flaws,  blow-holes,  seams,  or  other  injurious  imperfections;  to  have 
a  workmanlike  finish  and  be  true  to  the  sizes  ordered. 

2.  Physical    Properties. — Ultimate    tensile    strength,    minimum,    60,000   pounds; 
yield  point,  minimum,  35,000  pounds;  elongation  in  2  inches,  minimum,  30  per  cent; 
contraction,  45  per  cent. 

3.  Chemical  Properties. — Copper,  59  to  62  per  cent;  tin,  0.5  to  1.5  per  cent;  lead, 
maximum,  0.3  per  cent;  iron,  maximum,  0.1  per  cent;  and  the  remainder  zinc.    To 
contain  no  aluminum. 

4.  Tests. — Must  stand  hammering  hot  to  a  fine  point  and  bending  cold  through 
120°  with  inner  radius  equal  to  diameter  or  thickness  of  bar. 

5.  Machining  Qualities. — To  be  adapted  to  free  and  easy  cutting  in  screw  machines; 
to  give  maximum  results  in  drilling  and  turning;  to  take  a  perfect  thread  in  die,  threading 
machine,  or  lathe.     Any  not  found  up  to  the  standard  as  regards  free  working  qualities 
to  be  replaced  at  the  expense  of  the  contractor.     To  determine  this  factor,  bidder  may 
submit  samples,  prior  to  opening  bids;  the  suitability  of  these  samples,  if  submitted, 
will  be  determined  prior  to  awarding  contract.     A  portion  of  the  contractor's  samples 
will  be  retained  until  the  material  has  been  used  up,  to  be  used  as  a  comparison  piece 
in  determining  the  relative  machining  qualities. 

MANGANESE  BRONZE,  CAST,  OR  COMPOSITION  Mn-c 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General   Instructions. — General   instructions   or   specifications   issued   by    the 
bureau  concerned  shall  form  part  of  these  specifications. 

2.  Scrap. — Scrap  will  not  be  used,  except  such  as  may  result  from  the  process  of 
manufacture  of  articles  of  similar  composition. 

3.  Chemical  and  Physical  Properties. — The  physical  and  chemical  requirements 
shall  be  as  follows: 


Minimum 
Tensile 
Strength, 
Pounds  per 
Square  Inch 

Minimum 
Yield  Point, 
Pounds  per 
Square  Inch 

Minimum 
of 
Elongation 
in  2  Inches 

Copper 

Tin, 
Maxi- 
mum 

Zinc 

Iron, 
Maxi- 
mum 

Lead, 
Maxi- 
mum 

Aluminum, 
Maximum 

Manganese, 
Maximum 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Cent 

Cent 

Cent 

Cent 

Cent 

Cent 

Cent 

Cent 

65,000 

30,000 

20 

56-58 

1 

40-42 

1 

0.2 

0.5 

0.3 

4.  Test. — The  castings  will  be  required  to  stand  a  practical  foundry  test  under  the 
supervision  of  a  foreman  experienced  in  making  manganese-bronze  castings. 

5.  Waiving  of  Physical  Tests. — Physical  tests  may  be  waived  by  the  bureau  con- 
cerned or  by  the  inspector  through  whom  request  for  inspection  is  made  on  small  castings 
of  which  the  factor  of  safety  is  large  by  reason  of  necessities  of  design. 

6.  Workmanship. — The  castings  must  be  made  in  accordance  with  the  drawings 
and  specifications — sound,  clean,  free  from  blow-holes,  porous  places,  cracks,  or  any 
other  defects  which  will  materially  affect  their  strength  or  appearance  or  which  indicate 
an  inferior  quality  of  metal. 

7.  Test  Lots. — Castings  weighing  less  than  250  pounds,  finished,  may  be  tested  by 
lots  or  heat,  a  lot  not  to  exceed  250  pounds,  and  a  heat  not  to  exceed  500  pounds  of 
finished  castings.     Each  lot  or  heat  will  be  represented  by  one  test  specimen  when 
attached  to  a  casting  or  when  a  casting  is  sacrificed  to  obtain  a  test  specimen. 

[528] 


PHOSPHOR  BRONZE 

8.  Test  Coupons  on  Castings. — Coupons  shall  not  be  detached  from  castings  until 
they  are  stamped  by  the  inspector.     If  the  test  pieces  are  cast  separately  from  the  cast- 
ing, they  must  be  cast  in  the  same  flask  with  the  casting  and  must  be  removed  from  it 
in  the  presence  of  the  inspector  and  stamped  by  him  at  the  time  they  are  taken  out  of 
the  moulds.     If  the  castings  are  too  small  for  the  attachment  of  coupons,  the  test  pieces 
may  be  cast  separately  from  the  same  metal,  under  as  nearly  as  possible  the  same  con- 
ditions as  the  casting.     Where  test  pieces  are  cast  separately  from  the  castings,  two 
pieces  will  be  required,  one  to  be  poured  before  and  one  after  the  castings. 

Tests  on  Ingots. — Where  individual  tests  are  made,  test  pieces  may  be  taken  from 
any  portion  of  an  ingot.  Two  specimens,  taken  from  the  same  portion  of  the  same 
ingot,  both  falling  below  specification  requirements,  or  any  single  specimen  falling  more 
than  5  per  cent  below  specification  requirements,  shall  cause  the  rejection  of  that  heat. 

9.  Forging  Test. — A  piece  forged  into  a  bar  must  stand  hammering  hot  to  a  fine  point. 

10.  Bending  Test. — A  similar  piece  must  stand  bending  through  an  angle  of  120° 
and  to  a  radius  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  bar. 

11.  Fracture. — The  color  of  the  fracture  section  of  test  pieces  and  the  grain  of  the 
metal  must  be  uniform  throughout. 

12.  Purposes  for  Which  Used. — The  material  is  suitable  for  the  following  purposes: 
Propeller  hubs,  propeller  blades,  engine  framing,  castings  requiring  great  strength, 
such  as  main  gearing  in  steering  engine;  worm-wheels  in  windlass  or  turning  gear  for 
turrets. 

13.  This   specification   supersedes   Composition   Mn-c  in  Specifications  Part   II, 
Steam  Engineering  (Revised  July  1,  1910). 

NOTE. — Proprietary  Bronzes. — Proprietary  bronzes  differing  from  the  above  will 
be  accepted,  provided  such  differences  are  clearly  noted  and  described  by  the  bidder, 
and  provided  further  that  the  bronze  offered  under  these  conditions  is  found  to  meet 
fully  the  physical  tests  and  fulfil  equally  well  the  specific  requirements  of  the 
Government.  No  metal  containing  above  1  per  cent  of  lead  will  be  accepted. 


PHOSPHOR  BRONZE,  CAST,  OR  COMPOSITION  P-c 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General    Instructions. — General  instructions   or   specifications   issued   by   the 
bureau  concerned  shall  form  part  of  these  specifications. 

2.  Scrap. — Scrap  will  not  be  used,  except  such  as  may  result  from  the  process  of 
manufacture  of  articles  of  similar  composition. 

3.  Physical  and  Chemical  Properties. — The  physical  and  chemical  requirements 
shall  be  as  follows: 


Grade 

Minimum 
Tensile 
Strength, 
Pounds  per 
Square  Inch 

Minimum 
Yield  Point, 
Pounds  per 
Square  Inch 

Minimum 
of  Elon- 
gation in 
2  Inches 

Copper 

Tin 

Zinc 

Iron, 
Maxi- 
mum 

Lead, 
Maxi- 
mim 

Phos- 
phorus, 
Maxi- 
mum 

Per  Cent 

P.    Ct. 

P.   Ct. 

Per    Cent 

P~  Ct. 

P.  Ct. 

Per    Ct. 

1 

50,000 

25,000 

25 

85-90 

6-11 

1  Re~  1 

0.06 

0.2 

0.3 

2 

35,000 

20,000 

18 

78-81 

9-13 

j  mam-  } 
{    der 



8-11 

0.7-1 

4.  Waiving  of  Physical  Tests. — Physical  tests  may  be  waived  by  the  bureau  con- 
cerned or  by  the  inspector  through  whom  request  for  inspection  is  made  on  small  castings 
of  which  the  factor  of  safety  is  large  by  reason  of  necessities  of  design. 

5.  Workmanship. — The  castings  must  be  made  in  accordance  with  the  drawings 
and  specifications — sound,  clean,  free  from  blow-holes,  porous  places,  cracks,  or  any  other 
defects  which  will  materially  affect  their  strength  or  appearance  or  which  indicate  an 
inferior  quality  of  metal. 

6.  Test  Lots. — Castings  weighing  less  than  250  pounds,  finished,  may  be  tested 

[529] 


PHOSPHOR  BRONZE 

by  lots  or  heat,  a  lot  not  to  exceed  250  pounds,  and  a  heat  not  to  exceed  500  pounds  of 
finished  castings.  Each  lot  or  heat  will  be  represented  by  one  test  specimen  when 
attached  to  a  casting  or  when  a  casting  is  sacrificed  to  obtain  a  test  specimen. 

7.  Test  Coupons. — If  the  castings  are  too  small  for  the  attachment  of  coupons,  the 
test  pieces  may  be  cast  separately  from  the  same  metal  under  as  nearly  as  possible  the 
same  conditions  as  the  castings.     Where  test  pieces  are  cast  separately  from  the  cast- 
ings, two  pieces  will  be  required,  one  to  be  poured  before  and  one  after  the  castings. 
Coupons  shall  not  be  detached  from  castings  until  they  are  stamped  by  the  inspector. 
If  the  test  pieces  are  cast  separately  from  the  casting,  they  must  be  cast  in   the   same 
flask  with  the  casting  and  must  be  removed  from  it  in  the  presence  of  the  inspector  and 
stamped  by  him  at  the  time  they  are  taken  out  of  the  moulds. 

8.  Fracture. — The  color  of  the  fracture  section  of  test  pieces  and  the  grain  of  the 
metal  must  be  uniform  throughout. 

9.  Purposes  for  Which  Used. — The  material  is  suitable  for  the  following  purposes: 
GRADE    1. — Valve  stems  and  fittings,  etc.,  exposed  to  the  action  of  salt  water; 

sheathing,  gears,  and  driving  or  main  nuts  for  steering  gears;  castings  where  strength 
and  incorrodibility  are  required. 

GRADE  2. — Gun  fittings  (ordnance). 


PHOSPHOR  BRONZE,  ROLLED,  OR  DRAWN, 
OR  COMPOSITION  P-r 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General   Instructions. — General   instructions   or   specifications   issued   by   the 
bureau  concerned  shall  form  part  of  these  specifications. 

2.  Scrap. — Scrap  will  not  be  used  in  the  manufacture,  except  such  as  may  accumulate 
in  the  manufacturers'  plants  from  material  of  the  same  composition  of  their  own  make. 

3.  Chemical  and  Physical  Requirements. — The  chemical  and  physical  requirements 
shall  be  as  follows: 


Grade 

Minimum 
Tensile 
Strength, 
Pounds  per 
Square  Inch 

Minimum 
Yield  Point, 
Pounds  per 
Square  Inch 

Minimum  of 
Elongation 
in  2  Inches 

Copper 

Tin 

Zinc, 
Maxi- 
mum 

Iron, 
Maxi- 
mum 

Lead, 
Maxi- 
mum 

Phos- 
phorus, 
Maxi- 
mum 

1 

120,000 
80000 

(a)  90,000 
(b)  60  000 

Per  Cent 
25 

P.  Ct. 
94-96 

P.    Ct. 
5-4 

P.    Ct. 
(d) 

P.    Ct. 

(d) 

P.  Ct. 

(d) 

P.  Ct. 
0.10 

60,000 

(c)  45,000 

2 

50,000 

25,000 

25 

85-95 

10-5 

4 

0.06 

0.2 

.15 

(a)  For  diameters  less  than  ^  inch. 

(b)  For  diameters  K  inch  to  ^  inch,  inclusive. 

(c)  For  diameters  over  J^  inch. 

(d)  For  total  of  these  three  impurities  not  to  exceed  0.10  per  cent. 

4.  Additional  Tests. — All  bars  to  be  clean  and  straight,  of  uniform  color,  quality, 
and  size.     Bars  must  stand: 

(a)  Being  hammered  hot  to  a  fine  point. 

(b)  Being  bent  cold  through  an  angle  of  120°  and  to  a  radius  equal  to  the  diameter  or 
thickness  of  the  test  bar. 

The  bending  test  bar  may  be  the  full-size  bar,  or  the  standard  bar  of  1  inch  width 
and  |  inch  thickness.  In  case  of  bending  test  pieces  of  rectangular  section,  the  edges 
may  be  rounded  off  to  a  radius  equal  to  one-fourth  of  the  thickness. 

5.  Surface  Inspection. — Material  must  be  free  from  all  injurious  defects,  clean, 
smooth,  and  must  lie  flat. 

[530] 


VANADIUM  BRONZE  CASTINGS 

6.  Trimming. — Plates  and  sheets  will  be  cut  to  the  required  dimensions  and  will  be 
ordered  in  as  narrow  widths  as  can  be  used. 

(a)  The  following  will  be  considered  stock  lengths  for  sheets  when  ordered  in  10-foot 
lengths: 

40  per  cent  in  weight  may  be  in  8-  to  10-foot  lengths.         f 
30  per  cent  in  weight  may  be  in  6-  to  8-foot  lengths. 
20  per  cent  in  weight  may  be  in  4-  to  6-foot  lengths. 
10  per  cent  in  weight  may  be  in  2-  to  4-foot  lengths. 

No  lengths  less  than  2  feet  will  be  accepted,  and  the  total  weight  of  all  pieces  on 
lengths  less  than  10  feet  must  not  exceed  40  per  cent  in  any  one  shipment. 

(b)  Rods  and  bars,  when  ordered  to  any  length,  will  be  received  in  stock  lengths, 
unless  it  is  specifically  stated  that  the  lengths  are  to  be  exact.     Stock  lengths  will  be  as 
follows: 

When  ordered  in  12-foot  lengths,  no  lengths  less  than  8  feet. 

When  ordered  in  10-foot  lengths,  no  lengths  less  than  6  feet. 

When  ordered  in  8-foot  lengths,  no  lengths  less  than  6  feet. 

When  ordered  in  6-foot  lengths,  no  lengths  less  than  4  feet. 

When  ordered  to  the  lengths  given  above,  the  weight  of  lengths  less  than  length 
jrdered  shall  not  exceed  40  per  cent  of  any  one  shipment. 

This  applies  to  all  rods  from  |  to  1  inch  diameter  or  thickness,  whether  round, 
rectangular,  square,  or  hexagonal.  Above  1  inch  to  and  including  2  inches  the  lengths 
will  be  random  lengths  from  4  feet  to  10  feet.  Above  2  inches  the  lengths  are  special, 
but  no  length  will  be  less  than  4  feet. 

7.  Fracture. — The  color  of  the  fracture  section  of  test  pieces  and  the  grain  of  the 
material  must  be  uniform  throughout. 

8.  Purposes  for  Which  Used. — The  material  is  suitable  for  the  following  purposes: 
GRADE  1. — For  rods,  pins,  spring  wire,  etc. 

GRADE  2. — Pump  rods,  valve  stems,  objects  exposed  to  salt  water. 

VANADIUM  BRONZE  CASTINGS  OR  COMPOSITION  Vn-c 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General  Instructions. — General  instructions  or  specifications  issued  by  the  bureau 
concerned  shall  form  part  of  these  specifications. 

2.  Physical  Properties. — The  physical  requirements  shall  be  as  follows: 
Minimum  tensile  strength,  55,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 
Minimum  yield  point,  22,500  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Minimum  elongation,  25  per  cent  in  2  inches. 

3.  Chemical  Requirements. — The  chemical  requirements  shall  be  as  follows: 
Minimum  copper,  61  per  cent. 

Maximum  zinc,  38  per  cent. 

Remainder  not  to  exceed  1  per  cent  tin,  with  lead,  bismuth,  aluminum,  vanadium, 
and  nickel. 

4.  Test  Specimens. — Standard  turned  test  specimens,  2  inches  gauge  length,  type 
No.  1,  shall  be  used  in  determining  physical  properties,  as  specified  above. 

5.  Number  and  Location  of  Test  Specimens. — The  test  specimens  shall  be  taken 
from  the  casting  in  sufficient  number  and  so  located  as  thoroughly  to  exhibit  the  character 
of  the  casting. 

6.  Rejection  After  Delivery. — The  acceptance  of  any  casting  by  the  inspector  will 
not  release  the  makers  thereof  from  the  necessity  of  replacing  the  casting  should  it  fail 
in  proof  test  or  trial,  or  in  working,  or  exhibit  any  defect  after  delivery. 


[531] 


ROLLED  MEDIUM  BRONZE  PLATES 

ROLLED    MEDIUM  BRONZE    PLATES  UP  TO  %-INCH  THICK, 
SHAPES,  RIVET  ROUNDS,  AND  BARS 

(For  Structural  and  Forging  Purposes) 
NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

Medium  bronze  plates  up  to  f  inch  in  thickness,  shapes,  rivet  rounds,  and  bars  for 
structural  purposes  to  be  made  from  best  quality  materials  of  purest  commercial  quality. 
The  copper  must  be  lake  copper  or  its  equivalent.  The  material  must  be  free  from 
surface  defects,  and  must  be  cleaned  and  straightened. 

Tensile  tests  made  in  accordance  with  instructions  below  must  show  for  rivet  rounds, 
and  for  hexagonal  and  octagonal  bars  for  machinery  or  forging  purposes,  an  ultimate 
tensile  strength  of  not  less  than  60,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  an  elastic  limit  of  not 
less  than  one-half  the  ultimate  tensile  strength,  and  an  elongation  in  2  inches  of  not 
less  than  25  per  cent. 

Tensile  tests  must  show  for  irregular  shapes  (material  such  as  channels,  angles, 
I  beams,  and  other  similar  shapes)  an  ultimate  tensile  strength  of  not  less  than  56,000 
pounds  per  square  inch,  an  elastic  limit  of  not  less  than  40  per  cent  of  the  ultimate 
tensile  strength,  and  an  elongation  in  8  inches  of  not  less  than  25  per  cent. 

Tensile  tests  must  show  for  plates  up  to  and  including  30  inches  in  width  an  ultimate 
tensile  strength  of  not  less  than  56,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  for  plates  having  a 
width  greater  than  30  inches  an  ultimate  tensile  strength  of  not  less  than  54,000  pounds 
per  square  inch.  Tensile  tests  of  all  plates  must  show  an  elastic  limit  of  not  less  than  one- 
half  the  ultimate  tensile  strength  and  an  elongation  of  not  less  than  25  per  cent  in  8 
inches.  Test  specimens  to  be  cut  lengthwise  from  plates  and  shall  be  machined  only  on 
cut  edges. 

A  tolerance  of  5  per  cent  over  or  below  the  calculated  weight  will  be  allowed,  and 
any  excess  weight  up  to  5  per  cent  will  be  paid  for.  Larger  excess  weight,  if  accepted, 
will  not  be  paid  for.  Various  composition  materials  otherwise  conforming  to  the  speci- 
fications but  manufactured  under  proprietary  processes  or  having  proprietary  names 
will  be  accepted  as  coming  under  this  head. 

Requisitions  should  specify  the  thickness  of  plates  in  common  fractions  or  decimals 
of  inches.  Shapes  should  be  specified  by  width  and  thickness  of  flanges  in  inches,  bars 
by  shape  and  dimensions  in  inches,  and  rivet  rounds  by  diameter  in  inches. 

All  handling  of  material  necessary  for  purposes  of  inspection  shall  be  done  at  the 
expense  of  the  contractor,  and  all  test  specimens  necessary  for  the  determination  of  the 
qualities  of  material  used  shall  be  prepared  and  tested  at  the  expense  of  the  contractor. 

Test  specimens  cut  from  plates  must  stand  being  hammered  hot  to  a  sharp  edge, 
and  being  bent  cold  through  an  angle  of  120°  to  a  radius  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the 
plate. 

Bars  must  stand  being  hammered  hot  to  a  point  when  heated  to  a  cherry  red  and 
being  bent  cold  through  an  angle  of  120°  and  to  a  radius  equal  to  the  diameter  or  thick- 
ness of  the  bar.  Shapes  must  stand  being  forged  hot  and  a  strip  cut  lengthwise  must 
stand  bending  cold  through  an  angle  of  120°  to  a  radius  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the 
strip.  Rivet  rounds  or  bars  intended  for  bolts  will  be  tested  by  heading  in  a  bolt  machine 
and  upsetting  the  end  by  hammering  under  conditions  simulating  actual  riveting.  The 
material  must  show  satisfactory  working  qualities.  If  the  bars  are  intended  for  rivets, 
bolts,  or  other  important  parts  subject  to  stress,  one  test  piece  for  every  lot  of  400 
pounds  or  less  shall  be  taken;  in  the  case  of  large  lots  of  bars  and  for  plates  and  shapes 
the  number  of  test  pieces  to  be  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  inspector. 

TENSILE  TESTS  AND  TEST  PIECES 

The  tensile  strength  herein  specified  means  the  ultimate  tensile  strength  per  square 
inch  of  original  cross-section.  The  elastic  limit  may  be  measured  by  the  drop  of  the 
beam  or  the  halt  of  the  gauge  of  the  testing  machine.  The  elongation  is  that  obtained 
after  fracture.  In  the  case  of  test  pieces  of  rectangular  section  the  reduction  of  area  is 

[532] 


MONEL  METAL 


to  be  measured  by  the  product  of  the  average  width  and  thickness  of  the  reduced  area 
and  not  the  minimum  width  and  thickness. 

Each  tensile-test  piece  shall  be  subjected  to  a  direct  tensile  stress  until  it  breaks, 
in  a  machine  of  standard  manufacture,  running  at  a  pulling  speed  of  not  less  than  1 
inch  and  not  more  than  5  inches  per  minute  for  8-inch  test  pieces. 

Tensile-test  pieces  shall  be  uniform  in  cross-section  between  measuring  points, 
and  are  to  have  a  length  of  8  inches  or  2  inches,  as  required,  between  measuring  points. 

Full-size  bars  and  rods  within  the  capacity  of  the  testing  machine  may  be  used  as 
tensile-test  pieces,  and  in  this  case  the  bending  tests  also  may  be  taken  from  the  full- 
size  bars  and  rods. 

The  standard  width  of  tensile-test  pieces  from  plates  will  be  1^  niches,  the  thickness 
the  same  as  the  plate,  and  the  length  between  measuring  points  8  niches. 

In  the  case  of  bending-test  pieces  of  rectangular  section  the  edges  may  be  rounded 
off  to  a  radius  equal  to  one-fourth  of  the  thickness. 

For  plates  the  width  of  the  bending-test  pieces  shall  be  not  less  than  1|  inches  and 
the  thickness  that  of  the  plate.  The  bending  may  be  done  by  either  pressure  or  by 
blows. 

MONEL  METAL,  CAST,  OR  COMPOSITION  Mo-c 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General  Instructions. — General  instructions  or  specifications  issued  by  the  bureau 
concerned  shall  form  part  of  these  specifications. 

2.  Scrap. — Scrap  will  not  be  used,  except  such  as  may  result  from  the  process  of 
manufacture  of  articles  of  similar  composition. 

3.  Chemical   and  Physical   Properties. — The  physical  and  chemical  requirements 
shall  be  as  follows: 


Minimum 
Tensile 
Strength, 
Pounds  per 
Sq.  Inch 

Minimum 
Yield  Point, 
Pounds  per 
Square  Inch 

Minimum 
of 
Elongation 
in  2  Inches 

Copper 

Tin 

Zinc 

Iron, 
Maxi- 
mum 

Lead, 
Maxi- 
mum 

Alumi- 
num 

Nickel, 
Mini- 
mum 

65,000 

32,500 

P.CL 
25 

P.Ct. 
Remainder 

P.Ct. 

P.Ct. 

P.Ct. 

6  5 

P.Ct. 

o 

P.Ct. 
0  5 

P.Ct. 
60 

4.  Waiving  of  Physical  Tests. — Physical  tests  may  be  waived  by  the  bureau  con- 
cerned or  by  the  inspector  through  whom  request  for  inspection  is  made  on  small  castings 
of  which  the  factor  of  safety  is  large  by  reason  of  necessities  of  design. 

5.  Workmanship. — The  castings  must  be  made  in  accordance  with  the  drawings 
and  specifications — sound,  clean,  free  from  blow-holes,  porous  places,  cracks,  or  any 
other  defects  which  will  materially  affect  their  strength  or  appearance  or  which  indicate 
an  inferior  quality  of  metal. 

6.  Test  Lots. — Castings  weighing  less  than  250  pounds  finished  may  be  tested  by 
lots  or  heat,  a  lot  not  to  exceed  250  pounds,  and  a  heat  not  to  exceed  500  pounds  of  finished 
castings.    Each  lot  or  heat  will  be  represented  by  one  test  specimen  when  attached 
to  a  casting  or  when  a  casting  is  sacrificed  to  obtain  a  test  specimen. 

7.  Test  Coupons. — If  the  castings  are  too  small  for  the  attachment  of  coupons, 
the  test  pieces  may  be  cast  separately,  from  the  same  metal,  under  as  nearly  as  possible 
the  same  conditions  as  the  casting.    Where  test  pieces  are  cast  separately  from  the 
castings,  two  pieces  will  be  required,  one  to  be  poured  before  and  one  after  the  castings. 
Coupons  shall  not  be  detached  from  castings  until  they  are  stamped  by  the  inspector. 
If  the  test  pieces  are  cast  separately  from  the  casting,  they  must  be  cast  in  the  same 
flask  with  the  casting  and  must  be  removed  from  it  in  the  presence  of  the  inspector  and 
stamped  by  him  at  the  time  they  are  taken  out  of  the  molds. 

[533] 


ROLLED  MONEL  METAL 


8.  Fracture. — The  color  of  the  fracture  section  of  test  pieces  and  the  grain  of  the 
metal  must  be  uniform  throughout. 

9.  Supersedes. — This  specification  supersedes  Composition  Mo-c  in  Specifications 
Part  II,  Steam  Engineering  (Revised  July  1,  1910). 

10.  Purposes  for  Which  Used. — The  material  is  suitable  for  the  following  purposes: 
Valve  fittings,  plumbing  fittings,  boat  fittings,  propellers,  propeller  hubs,  blades,  engine 
framing,  pump  liners,  valve  seats,  shaft  nuts  and  caps,  and  composition  castings  requiring 
great  strength. 

ROLLED  MONEL  METAL,  SHEETS,  PLATES,  RODS,  BARS,  ETC., 
OR  COMPOSITION  Mo-r 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General   Instructions. — General   instructions   or   specifications   issued   by   the 
bureau  concerned  shall  form  part  of  these  specifications. 

2.  Scrap. — Scrap  will  not  be  used  in  the  manufacture,  except  such  as  may  accumulate 
in  the  manufacturers'  plants  from  material  of  the  same  composition  of  their  own  make. 

3.  Chemical  and  Physical  Properties. — The  chemical  and  physical  requirements 
shall  be  as  follows: 


Per  Cent 

Copper Rem. 

Tin 

Zinc 

Lead  (maximum) 0.0 


Per  Cent 

Iron  (maximum) 3.5 

Nickel  (minimum) 60. 0 

Aluminum  (maximum) .5 


Thickness 

Ultimate  Tensile 
Strength  per 
Square  Inch 

Yield  Point 
per  Square 
Inch 

Elongation 
in  2  Inches 

1  inch  and  below  

Pounds 
84,000 

Pounds 
47,000 

Per  Cent 
25 

Above  1  inch  to  2|  inches  .... 
Above  2  \  inches.  .  . 

80,000 
75,000 

45,000 
40000 

28 
32 

No  material  less  than  |  inch  in  thickness  or  diameter  need  be  tested  physically. 

4.  Additional  Tests. — All  bars  to  be  clean  and  straight,  of  uniform  color,  quality, 
and  size.     Bars  must  stand: 

(a)  Being  hammered  hot  to  a  fine  point. 

(b)  Being  bent  cold  through  an  angle  of  120°  and  to  a  radius  equal  to  the  diameter 
or  thickness  of  the  test  bar. 

The  bending  test  bar  may  be  the  full-size  bar,  or  the  standard  bar  of  1  inch  width 
and  ?  inch  thickness.  In  the  case  of  bending  test  pieces  of  rectangular  section,  the 
edges  may  be  rounded  off  to  a  radius  equal  to  one-fourth  of  the  thickness. 

5.  Surface  Inspection. — Material  must  be  free  from  all  injurious  defects,  clean, 
smooth,  must  lie  flat,  and  be  within  the  gauge  and  weight  tolerances. 

6.  Trimming. — Plates  and  sheets  will  be  cut  to  the  required  dimensions  and  will 
be  ordered  in  as  narrow  widths  as  can  be  used. 

(a)  The  following  will  be  considered  stock  lengths  for  Monel  metal  sheets  when 
ordered  in  10-foot  lengths: 

40  per  cent  in  weight  may  be  in  8-  to  10-foot  lengths. 
30  per  cent  in  weight  may  be  in  6-  to  8-foot  lengths. 
20  per  cent  in  weight  may  be  in  4-  to  6-foot  lengths. 
10  per  cent  in  weight  may  be  in  2-  to  4-foot  lengths. 

No  lengths  less  than  2  feet  will  be  accepted,  and  the  total  weight  of  all  pieces  on 
lengths  less  than  10  feet  must  not  exceed  40  per  cent  in  any  one  shipment. 

(b)  Rods  and  bars,  when  ordered  to  any  length,  will  be  received  in  stock  lengths, 

[534] 


BENEDICT  NICKEL 

unless  it  is  specifically  stated  that  the  lengths  are  to  be  exact.  Stock  lengths  will  be 
as  follows: 

When  ordered  in  12-foot  lengths,  no  lengths  less  than  8  feet. 

When  ordered  in  10-foot  lengths,  no  lengths  less  than  6  feet. 

When  ordered  in  8-foot  lengths,  no  lengths  less  than  6  feet. 

When  ordered  in  6-foot  lengths,  no  lengths  less  than  4  feet. 

When  ordered  to  the  lengths  given  above,  the  weight  of  lengths  less  than  length 
ordered  shall  not  exceed  40  per  cent  of  any  one  shipment. 

This  applies  to  all  rods  from  j  to  1  inch  diameter  or  thickness,  whether  round, 
rectangular,  square,  or  hexagonal.  Above  1  inch  to  and  including  2  inches  the  lengths 
will  be  random  lengths  from  4  feet  to  10  feet.  Above  2  inches  the  lengths  are  special, 
but  no  length  will  be  less  than  4  feet. 

7.  Tolerances. — No  excess  weight  will  be  paid  for,  and  no  single  piece  that  weighs 
more  than  5  per  cent  above  the  calculated  weight  will  be  accepted. 

UNDERWEIGHT  AND  GAUGE  TOLERANCES 


Tolerance 


Width  of  sheets  or  plates 
Up  to  48  inches .... 

48  to  60  inches 

Over  60  inches .  . 


Per  Ct. 
5 

7 
8 


Material  shall  not  vary  throughout  its  length  or  width  more  than  the  given  tolerance. 

8.  Fracture. — The  color  of  the  fracture  section  of  test  pieces  and  the  grain  of  the 
material  must  be  uniform  throughout. 

9.  Purposes  for  Which  Used. — The  material  is  suitable  for  the  following  purposes: 
Rolled  rounds,   used  principally  for  propeller-blade  bolts,   air-pump  and  condenser 
bolts,  and  parts  requiring  strength  and  incorrodibility,  and  pump  rods. 

BENEDICT  NICKEL,  ROLLED,  OR  COMPOSITION  Be-r 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General  Instructions. — General  instructions  or  specifications  issued  by  the  bureau 
concerned  shall  form  part  of  these  specifications. 

2.  Scrap. — Scrap  will  not  be  used,  except  such  as  may  result  from  the  process  of 
manufacture  of  articles  of  similar  composition. 

3.  Chemical  Properties. — The  chemical  requirements  shall  be  as  follows: 


per  Cent 

Tin, 
per  Cent 

Iron, 
per  Cent 

Iron, 
per  Cent 
Maximum 

Lead, 
per  Cent, 
Maximum 

Nickel 

84-86 

Remainder 

4.  Supersedes. — This  specification  supersedes  composition  Be-r  in  Specification 
Part  II,  Steam  Engineering  (Revised  July  1,  1910). 

5.  Purposes  for  Which  Used. — The  material  is  suitable  for  the  following  purposes: 
Tubes  for  condenser  distillers  and  feed-water  heaters. 


[535] 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  THE  INSPECTION  OF  COPPER 

GERMAN  SILVER,  OR  COMPOSITION  G-Ag 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General  Instructions. — General  instructions  or  specifications  issued  by  the  bureau 
concerned  shall  form  part  of  these  specifications. 

2.  Scrap. — Scrap  will  not  be  used,  except  such  as  may  result  from  the  process  of 
manufacture  of  articles  of  similar  composition. 

3.  Chemical  Properties. — The  chemical  requirements  shall  be  as  follows: 


Copper 

Tin 

Zinc 

Nickel 

Iron 

Lead 

Sulphur 

Per  Cent 
64 

Per  Cent 
20 

Per  Cent 
16 

Trace  only 

Trace  only 

Trace  only 

4.  Workmanship. — Material  must  be  in  accordance  with  detail  specifications  and  free 
from  all  injurious  defects. 

5.  Fracture. — The  color  of  the  fracture  section  of  test  pieces  and  the  grain  of  the 
metal  must  be  uniform  throughout. 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  THE  INSPECTION  OF  COPPER,  BRASS, 

AND  BRONZE 

Under  the  Cognizance  of  the  Bureau  of  Construction  and  Repair 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 
DESIGNATION  OF  CONTRACTOR,  MANUFACTURER,  AND  SUBCONTRACTOR 

1.  Contractor. — Generally  speaking,  contractor,   as  used  in  these  specifications, 
refers  to  ship-yard,  navy-yard,  or  any  builder  of  Government  machinery,  appliances, 
or  structures  placing  orders  for  material  with  some  manufacturer. 

2.  Manufacturer. — Refers  to  person  or  firm  manufacturing  material  for  incorporation 
in  Government  work  being  done  by  ship-yard,  navy-yard,  or  any  other  builder  of  Gov- 
ernment machinery,  appliances,  or  structures,  and  who  are  designated  as  contractors. 

3.  Subcontractor. — Refers  to  person  or  firm  to  whom  the  contractor  may  sublet 
part  of  his  contract,  but  not  for  raw  material;  the  subcontractor  in  turn  places  orders 
with  manufacturers  for  raw  material. 

OFFICE  AND  INSPECTORS 

4.  Access  to  Work  and  Information. — The  Department  shall  have  the  right  to 
keep  inspectors  at  the  works  who  shall  have  free  access  at  all  times  to  all  parts  thereof 
and  be  permitted  to  examine  the  raw  material  and  to  witness  the  process  of  manufacture. 

Contractors  and  manufacturers  shall  furnish  all  the  information  and  facilities  the 
inspector  may  require  for  proper  inspection  under  these  specifications. 

5.  Inspector's  Office  and  Furniture. — Each  firm  manufacturing  material  shall,  if 
required,  furnish  the  inspectors,  free  of  expense,  with  suitable  office  and  laboratory 
room  and  such  plain  office  furniture  as  may  be  necessary  for  the  proper  transaction  of 
their  business  as  agents  of  the  Government. 

EXPENSE 

6.  Handling  Material. — All  handling  of  material  necessary  for  purposes  of  inspection 
shall  be  done  at  the  expense  of  the  contractor. 

7.  Making  Tests. — All  test  specimens  necessary  for  the  determination  of  the  qualities 
of  material  used  shall  be  prepared  and  tested  at  the  expense  of  the  contractor. 

[536] 


REJECTION  AFTER  LEAVING  MANUFACTURER 

REJECTION  AFTER  LEAVING  MANUFACTURER 

8.  Rejection  at  Builder's. — Material  may  be  rejected  at  the  building  or  navy-yards 
for  surface  or  other  defects,  either  existing  on  arrival  or  developed  in  working,  although 
it  bears  the  above-mentioned  stamps. 

ORDERS,  LISTS,  AND  INVOICES 

9.  Contractors  shall  furnish  the  superintending  constructor  with  copies  in  duplicate 
of  their  orders  to  manufacturers  for  material  requiring  inspection,  and  such  orders  shall 
be  given  separately  for   each  vessel  under  contract  and  shall  include  the  estimated 
weight  of  each  object  or  group  of  similar  objects  on  the  schedule.     Such  orders  shall 
state  clearly  the  grade  or  kind  of  material  and  for  what  purpose  each  item  called  for  is 
intended.     Manufacturers  shall  exhibit  to  the  inspectors  the  schedules  of  material 
that  they  receive  from  the  contractors,  and  give  the  inspectors  all  the  information  that 
the  latter  may  require  for  the  proper  inspection  of  the  material  on  said  schedules  under 
these  specifications.     They  shall  also  furnish  every  facility  to  the  inspectors,  so  that 
they  will  not  be  delayed  in  their  work  of  inspection. 

10.  Shipping  Report. — The  inspector  will  forward  a  copy  of  each  shipping  report 
to  the  Superintending  Constructor  at  place  to  which  material  is  shipped.     If  material 
is  intended  for  a  navy-yard  or  naval  station,  the  inspector  will  forward  a  copy  of  each 
shipping  report  to  the  Bureau  of  Construction  and  Repair,  and  also  a  copy  to  the  com- 
mandant of  the  navy-yard  or  naval  station,  this  copy  to  be  forwarded  with  a  letter. 
Shipping  reports  forwarded  by  the  inspector  of  material  must  show  explicitly  on  each 
copy  of  same  the  stamp  or  stamps  which  appear  on  the  material  inspected,  or  on  the 
casing  containing  the  material,  or  on  tags  on  car  in  which  the  material  is  shipped,  and 
must  state  on  what  part  of  material,  box,  or  car  the  stamp  is  placed. 

STAMPS 

11.  Each  object  made  from  accepted  material  shall  be  clearly  and  indelibly  marked 
with  four  separate  stamps:  First,  the  private  stamp  of  the  inspector;  secondly,  the  stamp 
of  the  manufacturer;  thirdly,  identification  number,  and  fourthly,  the  regulation  Govern- 
ment stamp.     The  last  shall  not  be  stamped  on  any  of  the  above  material  until  it  has 
been  inspected,  weighed,  and  passed  ready  for  shipment.     In  case  of  small  articles 
passed  and  packed  in  bulk,  the  above-mentioned  stamps  shall  be  applied  to  the  boxing 
or  packing  material  of  the  object. 

12.  No  material  will  be  received  at  the  building  or  navy-yards  for  incorporation 
into  vessels  unless  it  bears,  either  upon  its  surface  or  that  of  its  packing,  all  these  stamps 
as  evidence  that  it  has  passed  the  required  Government  inspection. 

13.  Carload  Lots — Tags. — If  the  material  is  shipped  in  box  cars  containing  no  other 
freight,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  seal  the  car  and  put  the  stamp  on  the  seal  as  well  as  on 
a  tag  on  the  inside  of  the  car  near  the  door. 

GENERAL  QUALITY 

14.  General  Character  of  Material. — All  material  shall  be  of  domestic  manufacture 
and  of  uniform  quality  throughout  the  mass  of  each  object,  and  free  from  all  defects. 

15.  Special  Material  or  Special  Treatment. — With  the  approval  of  the  Bureau  of 
Construction  and  Repair,  special  material  or  special  treatment,  or  both,  may  be  used 
to  obtain  the  qualities  specified. 

GENERAL  TEST  REQUIREMENTS 

16.  Tests  and  Acceptance. — All  material  for  which  tests  are  prescribed  shall  be 
inspected  and  tested  by  Government  inspectors  and  passed  by  them,  subject  to  restric- 
tions mentioned  herein,  before  acceptance  by  the  Navy  Department. 

17.  Treatment  of  Test  Pieces. — Test  pieces,  after  being  cut  from  the  plate  or  object 
to  be  tested,  shall  not  be  subjected  to  any  treatment  or  process  except  machining  to 

[537] 


CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS 

size;  and  such  pieces  shall  not  be  cut  off  until  the  plate  or  object  shall  have  received 
final  treatment,  except  in  those  special  cases  mentioned  in  the  following  specifications. 

18.  Flaws  in  Test  Pieces. — Test  pieces  which  show  defective  machining  or  which 
after  breaking  show  flaws,  or  which  break  outside  of  the  measuring  points,  may  be 
discarded,  and  the  inspector  will  select  others  in  their  stead. 

19.  Test  Pieces  for  Lots.— Test  pieces  which  represent  groups  or  lots  shall  be  taken, 
as  nearly  as  the  case  will  permit,  so  as  to  represent  the  worst  material  in  that  lot. 

20.  Location  of  Test  Pieces. — All  test  pieces  of  rolled  bars  which  are  too  large  to  be 
pulled  in  their  full  sizes  shall,  unless  otherwise  specified,  be  taken  at  a  distance  from 
the  longitudinal  axis  of  the  object  equal  to  one-quarter  of  the  greatest  transverse  dimen- 
sion of  the  body  of  the  object,  not  including  palms  and  flanges. 

The  test  pieces  should  be  taken  from  a  part  of  the  material  which,  with  the  exception 
of  palms  or  flanges,  has  not  been  reduced  by  forging  or  rolling  more  than  any  other  part 
of  that  piece  of  material. 

CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS 

21.  Contractor's  Analysis. — The  character  of  the  castings  will  generally  be  determined, 
knowing  the  ingredients  of  the  mix  and  the  local  foundry  practice,  by  an  examination 
of  the  fractures  where  gates  are  broken  off,  or  by  the  hammering,  bending,  etc.,  of 
coupons  cast  on,  and  from  contractor's  analysis,  a  copy  of  which  shall  be  furnished 
to  the  inspector. 

22.  Government's  Analysis. — Should  the  circumstances  make  it  necessary,  arrange- 
ment will  be  made  by  the  Bureau  for  further  analysis,  at  a  navy-yard  or  elsewhere. 

Drillings  for  analysis  must  be  fine,  clean,  dry,  and  free  from  scale.  The  inspector 
may  take  them  from  any  test  piece,  or  from  any  part  of  the  material,  provided  in  this 
last  case  that  by  so  doing  the  material  will  not  be  rendered  unfit  for  use.  Unless  other- 
wise requested,  the  chemist  will  make  determinations  of  those  elements  only  which  are 
limited  by  the  specifications. 

ADDITIONAL  TESTS 

23.  By  Bureau's  Orders. — Tests  may  be  prescribed  by  the  Bureau  of  Construction 
and  Repair  for  the  inspection  of  material  for  which  tests  are  not  specified  herein. 

24.  By  Inspector's  Decision. — The  inspector  may  make,  from  time  to  time,  such 
additional  tests  as  he  may  deem  necessary  to  determine  the  uniformity  of  the  material. 

TENSILE  TESTS  AND  TEST  PIECES 

25.  Interpretation. — The  tensile  strength  herein  specified  means  the  ultimate  tensile 
strength  per  square  inch  of  original  cross-section.     The  elastic  limit  may  be  measured 
by  the  drop  of  the  beam  or  the  halt  of  the  gauge  of  the  testing  machine.     The  elongation 
is  that  obtained  after  fracture.     In  the  case  of  test  pieces  of  rectangular  section  the 
reduction  of  area  is  to  be  measured  by  the  product  of  the  average  width  and  thickness 
of  the  reduced  area  and  not  the  minimum  width  and  thickness. 

26.  Pulling   Speed. — Each  tensile-test  piece  shall  be  subjected  to  a  direct  tensile 
stress  until  it  breaks,  in  a  machine  of  standard  manufacture,  running  at  a  pulling  speed 
of  not  less  than  1  inch  and  not  more  than  5  inches  per  minute  for  8-inch  test  pieces,  and 
not  less  than  £  inch  and  not  more  than  3  inches  per  minute  for  2-inch  pieces. 

27.  Uniformity  of  Section. — Tensile-test  pieces  shall  be  uniform  in  cross-section 
between  measuring  points. 

28.  Standard  Area  and  Length. — Test  pieces  from  castings  are  to  have  a  length  of 
2  inches  between  measuring  points  and  an  area  of  cross-section  of  1  square  inch.     Other 
tensile-test  pieces  are  to  have  a  length  of  8  inches  between  measuring  points,  but  no 
test  piece  shall  be  less  than  \  inch  diameter  nor  less  than  2  inches  between  measuring 
points. 

29.  Allowance  of  Variation  in  Area  of  Test  Pieces. — A  variation  of  5  per  cent  above 
or  below  in  area  is  allowed. 

30.  Full-Size  Bars. — Full-size  bars  and  rods  within  the  capacity  of  the  testing 

[538] 


STANDARD  REQUIREMENTS  FOR  ALLOYS 


machine  may  be  used  as  tensile-test  pieces,  and  in  this  case  the  bending  tests  may  also 
be  taken  from  the  full-size  bars  and  rods. 

31.  Plates,  Standard  Width  for  Test  Pieces. — The  standard  width  of  tensile-test 
pieces  from  plates  and  tubes  will  be  1^  inches,  the  thickness  the  same  as  the  plate  or 
tube,  and  the  length  between  measuring  points  8  inches. 

32.  Rounding  of  Edges  of  Test  Pieces. — In  the  case  of  bending  test  pieces  of  rec- 


«-8  INCHES-* 


tangular  section  the  edges  may  be  rounded  off  to  a  radius  equal  to  one-fourth  of  the 
thickness. 

33.  Standard. — Bending-test  pieces  shall  be  1  inch  wide  by  £  inch  thick.     For  plates 
the  width  shall  be  not  less  than  1£  inches  and  the  thickness  that  of  the  plate.    The 
bending  may  be  done  by  either  pressure  or  by  blows. 

34.  Test  Specimens. — Test  specimens,  in  general,  shall  be  taken  from  each  lot  of 
200  pounds  or  less,  except  in  the  case  of  large  castings,  in  which  case  one  specimen  shall 
be  taken  from  each  500  pounds. 

STANDARD   REQUIREMENTS   FOR   ALLOYS   OF   COPPER,   TIN, 

AND  ZINC 

35.  For  the  purpose  of  securing  uniformity  in  practice  in  castings  of  the  alloys  of 
copper,  tin,  and  zinc  for  incorporation  into  naval  vessels,  the  bureau  establishes  the 
standard  mixtures  listed  below. 

36.  Contractors  in  submitting  plans  or  schedules  involving  such  castings  must 
designate,  by  name  or  by  mark,  the  alloy  which  is  proposed  for  the  purpose,  being 
governed  by  the  instructions  below  as  to  the  uses  of  the  several  alloys,  and  the  con- 
sideration and  approval  of  the  plan  will  extend  to  and  cover  the  alloy  or  composition. 

37.  With  the  exception  of  yellow  or  scrap  brass,  all  cast  alloys  shall  be  made  from 
new  materials  of  purest  commercial  quality. 

COPPER  ALLOYS 

38.  The  various  copper  alloys  and  the  purposes  for  which  used  will  be  as  follows: 


Name 


Class 


Mixture,  per  Cent 


Purpose 


Composition: 
Gun  bronze. . 


G. 


(Normal  88-10-2.)  Cop- 
per, 87  to  89;  tin,  11  to 
9;  zinc,  remainder. 


Valves  4  inches  and  above,  gunport 
frames,  air-port  lens  frames,  man- 
hole fittings,  sea  chests  and 
strainers,  and  studs  and  nuts 
securing  strainers,  steering  stand, 
other  bronze  parts,  parts  of  steer- 
ing gears,  sluice  valves  and  bronze 
parts  of  magazine  flood  cocks  and 
operating  gear  for  both.  Com- 
position pipe  fittings,  stuffing 
boxes,  gear  wheels,  hardware  for 
joiner  work  and  furniture,  cleats 
and  boat  fittings,  water-closet 
troughs,  and  all  parts  where  great 
strength  is  required  of  composi- 
tion casting. 


[539] 


COPPER  ALLOYS 
STANDARD  REQUIREMENTS  FOR  ALLOYS — COPPER  ALLOYS — Cont. 


Name 


Class 


Mixture,  per  Cent 


Purpose 


Valve  bronze.. . 


Journal  bronze  . 


M.. 


H.. 


Brazing  metal. 


Yellow  or  scrap 
brass. 


S.. 


Naval        brass, 
cast. 


N-c. 


Naval      brass, 
rolled. 


N-r. 


(Normal  87-7-4.)  Cop- 
per, at  least  87;  tin,  at 
least  7;  lead,  not  more 
than  1 ;  zinc,  remainder. 

(Normal  83-13£-3i)Cop- 
per,  82  to  84;  tin,  12.5 
to  14.5;  zinc,  2.5  to  4.5. 


(Normal  85-0-15.)  Cop- 
per, 84  to  86;  zinc, 
remainder. 

Normal  67-0-33.  Cop- 
per, 64  to  68;  zinc,  32 
to  34;  lead,  not  over 
2?;  iron,  not  over  2. 


(Normal  62-1-37.)  Cop- 
per, 61  to  63;  tin,  1  to 
1.5;  zinc,  remainder. 


As  approved.  Analysis  of 
commercial  bars  shows: 
Copper,  64  to  67;  tin, 
0.7  to  0.8;  zinc,  32  to  35 


Valves  below  4  inches,  manifolds 
and  cocks,  relief  valves,  composi- 
tion lug  sockets,  and  pad  eyes  not 
requiring  special  strength. 

Bearings,  bushings,  and  sleeves, 
slides,  guide  gibs,  wedges  on 
water-tight  doors,  and  all  parts 
subject  to  considerable  wear. 

All  flanges  for  copper  pipe  and 
other  fittings  that  are  to  be 
brazed. 

Fixed  parts  of  air-port  frames,  deck 
drains  and  gratings,  hatch  and 
scuttle  covers,  deadlight  shutters, 
light  box  castings,  handwheels, 
deck  plates,  pipe  stuffing  tubes, 
caps  for  thermometer  tubes,  cast 
parts  of  scuppers  and  pipes,  truck 
light  pedestals,  pin  rails,  label 
plates,  caps  or  ornamental  finish- 
ing castings,  guards  for  heater 
and  other  pipes,  voice-pipe  fit- 
tings, chocks  and  fair  leads, 
sheaves,  toe  plates  and  head 
and  heel  fittings  for  ladders,  and 
miscellaneous  boat  fittings. 

Hatch  frames,  hatch-cover  frames, 
door  frames,  scuttle  frames,  fit- 
tings for  mess  tables  and  benches; 
skylight  and  chest  hinges  and  fit- 
tings; all  joiner  work  fittings 
(except  hardware);  rail  and  lad- 
der stanchions,  brackets,  clips, 
etc.,  for  stowage  purposes;  fit- 
tings for  canopy  frames;  all 
brass  valves  and  fittings  of  venti- 
lation system,  except  working 
parts,  belaying  pins,  tarpaulin 
hooks,  brass  hatch  and  door 
fittings,  brass  pipe  flanges. 

Bolts,  studs,  nuts,  and  turn-buckles, 
especially  if  subject  to  corrosion 
by  salt  water. 


[540] 


COPPER  ALLOYS 


STANDARD  REQUIREMENTS  FOR  ALLOYS — COPPER  ALLOYS — Cont. 


Name 

Class 

Mixture,  per  Cent 

Purpose 

Manganese 

Mn-c 

As  approved;  usual  com- 

Castings requiring  great  strength, 

bronze,  cast. 

position  is:  Copper,  56; 

such  as  main  gearing  in  steering 

zinc,  41.38;  iron,  1.25; 

engine;  wormwheels  in  windlass  or 

tin,    0.75;    aluminum, 

turning  gear  for  turrets. 

0.5;  manganese,  0.12. 

Manganese 

Mn-r. 

As  approved        .... 

Rolled     rounds     requiring     great 

bronze,  rolled. 

strength  or  subject  to  corrosion 

by  salt  water,  valve  stems. 

Tobin    bronze, 

T.... 

As    approved;     usually: 

Rolled     rounds     requiring     great 

rolled. 

Copper,  59;  tin,  2.16; 

strength  or  subject  to  corrosion 

zinc,  38.40;  lead,  0.31; 

by  salt  water. 

iron,  0.11. 

Phosphor- 

P.... 

Not  less  than  :  Copper,  85  ; 

Valve  stems  and  fittings,  etc.,  ex- 

bronze,   cast 

tin,  3;  phosphorus,  0.01  ; 

posed  to  the  action  of  salt  water; 

and  rolled. 

the  balance  made  up  of 

sheating,   gears,   and  driving  or 

components  suitable  to 

main  nuts  for  steering  gears. 

produce          maximum 

strength  and  to  be  in- 

corrodible in  salt  water. 

Antifriction 

W... 

Best  refined  copper,  3.7; 

All  white  metal,  lined  bearings,  and 

metal. 

Banca  tin,  88.8;  regulus 

bearing  surfaces- 

of  antimony,  7.5;  to  be 

well  fluxed  with  borax 

and  rosin  in  mixing. 

Muntz  metal.  .  . 

D.... 

Coppe^,  60;  zinc,  40  

Bolts,  nuts,  etc.,  subjected  to  salt 

water. 

Other  composi- 

As approved 

As  directed. 

tions. 

SPECIAL  BRONZES 

39.  Special  authority  may  be  obtained  to  use  manganese,  phosphor,  Tobin,  or 
other  proprietary  bronzes  in  place  of  gun  metal  or  naval  brass. 

40.  The  Superintending  Constructor  may  require  bronzes  of  special  characteristics 
to  be  employed  for  items  not  especially  named  above  or  wherever  special  qualities  for 
specified  items  are  important. 

41.  These  specifications  are  for  the  purpose  of  defining  uniformly  the  kind  of  metal 
acceptable  for  use;  they  are  not  intended  to  modify  specific  requirements  for  special 
bronzes  or  other  metals  now  or  hereafter  contained  in  hull  specifications. 

MANGANESE-BRONZE   CASTINGS 

42.  The  castings  must  be  sound,  clean,  free  from  blow-holes,  porous  places,  cracks, 
or  any  other  defects  which  will  materially  affect  their  strength  or  appearance  or  which 
indicate  an  inferior  quality  of  metal. 

43.  For  castings  weighing  over  200  pounds,  test  pieces  or  coupons  shall  be  taken  in 
such  number  and  from  such  parts  of  the  casting  as  will  thoroughly  exhibit  the  quality 
of  the  metal. 

[541] 


ROLLED  NAVAL  BRASS 

44.  Castings  weighing  less  than  200  pounds  may  be  tested  by  lots,  each  lot  to  be 
represented  by  two  test  pieces.     If  the  castings  are  too  small  for  the  attachment  of 
coupons,  the  test  pieces  may  be  cast  separately  from  the  same  metal  under  as  nearly  as 
possible  the  same  condition  as  the  casting. 

45.  Coupons  shall  not  be  detached  from  castings  until  they  are  stamped  by  the 
inspector.     If  the  test  pieces  are  cast  separately  from  the  casting,  they  must  be  cast 
in  the  presence  of  the  inspector  and  stamped  by  him  as  soon  as  they  are  taken  out  of 
the  molds. 

46.  The  test  pieces  shall  show  an  ultimate  tensile  strength  of  not  less  than  60,000 
pounds  per  square  inch,  an  elastic  limit  of  not  less  than  30,000  pounds  per  square  inch, 
and  an  elongation  of  not  less  than  20  per  cent  in  2  inches. 

47.  The  color  of  the  fractured  section  of  the  test  pieces  and  the  grain  of  the  metal 
must  be  uniform  throughout. 

PHOSPHOR  BRONZE 

48.  Rounds,  whether  cast,  rolled,  or  forged,  shall  have  an  ultimate  tensile  strength 
and  elongation  of  50,000  pounds  and  25  per  cent  respectively. 

NOTE. — The  test  pieces  are  to  be  as  nearly  as  possible  of  the  same  diameter  as  the 
rounds,  or  else  they  are  to  be  not  less  than  one-half  an  inch  in  diameter  and  taken  at  a 
distance  from  the  circumference  equal  to  one-half  the  radius  of  the  round. 

49.  Phosphor-bronze  spring  wire  shall  be  hard  and  elastic. 

50.  The  inspector  will  take  drillings  for  analyses,  and  these  shall  show  not  less 
than  85  per  cent  copper,  not  less  than  3  per  cent  tin,  and  not  less  than  0.01  per  cent 
phosphorus,  the  balance  to  be  made  up  of  whatever  components  the  manufacturers 
consider  best  suited  to  produce  a  composition  of  the  maximum  strength,  and  incorrodible 
in  sea  water. 

ROLLED  NAVAL  BRASS 

51.  All  bars  are  to  be  cleaned  and  straightened  and  must  stand: 

(a)  Being  hammered  hot  to  a  fine  point. 

(b)  Being  bent  cold  through  an  angle  of  120°  and  to  a  radius  equal  to  the  diameter 
or  thickness  of  the  bars. 

52.  If  the  metal  is  to  be  rolled  into  rods  for  bolts  or  other  important  parts  subject 
to  stress,  one  test  piece  for  every  lot  of  400  pounds  or  less  shall  show  the  following 
results: 


Ultimate  Tensile  Strength 
per  Square  Inch 

Elastic  Limit 

Elongation  per  Cent  in 
2  Inches 

Not  less  than  60,000  pounds 

At  least  one-half  ultimate 
tensile  strength. 

Not  less  than  25  per  cent. 

In  the  case  of  large  lots  the  number  of  test  pieces  to  be  left  to  the  judgment  of  the 
inspector. 

53.  Various  composition  materials,  otherwise  conforming  to  the  specifications  but 
manufactured  under  proprietary  processes  or  having  proprietary  names,  will  be  accepted 
as  coming  under  this  head. 

[Paragraphs  51,  52,  and  53  have  been  superseded  by  new  and  extended  specifications: 
see  "Rolled  medium  bronze  plates  up  to  f  inch  thick,  shapes,  rivet  rounds,  and  bars." 
48B1.] 

ANTI-FRICTION  OR  WHITE   METAL 

54.  When  practicable,  the  weighing  and  mixing  of  the  metals  will  be  witnessed  by  a 
Government  inspector.     Otherwise  as  many  chemical  analyses  will  be  taken  as,  in  the 
judgment  of  the  inspector,  will  show  that  the  material  is  of  the  proper  composition. 

55.  If  by  reason  of  scarcity  Banca  tin  cannot  be  procured,  another  standard  brand 
of  tin  may  be  proposed,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Bureau  of  Construction  and 
Repair. 

[542] 


COPPER  PIPES 

ROLLED  COPPER,  MUNTZ  METAL,  AND  BRASS  SHEETS,  PLATES,  AND  RODS 

56.  Material. — All  metals  used  either  alone  or  in  the  manufacture  of  alloys  must 
be  of  the  purest  commercial  quality.     The  copper  must  be  Lake  copper,  or  its  equivalent. 

57.  Analysis. — The  inspector  will  take  drillings  for  analyses.     An  analysis  of  the 
copper  sheets,  plates,  and  rounds  and  copper  for  water-closet  troughs  must  show  that 
they  contain  not  less  than  99.5  per  cent  pure  copper.     An  analysis  of  Muntz  metal  must 
show  not  less  than  59  per  cent  copper  and  the  remainder  zinc.     An  analysis  of  brass 
must  show  that  it  is  of  the  specified  composition,  no  component  varying  more  than 
1  per  cent  in  amount  above  or  below  that  specified.     Sheet  brass  for  ceiling,  trim,  and 
similar  purposes  may  be  of  commercial  composition  and  chemical  analysis  will  not  be 
required. 

58.  Surface  Inspection. — The  material  must  be  free  from  all  surface  defects;  in  no 
place  of  less  thickness  than  ordered,  nor  of  less  weight  than  the  calculated  weight, 
taking  the  weight  of  1  cubic  inch  of  hot-rolled  copper  to  be  0.320  pound,  1  cubic  inch  of 
cold-rolled  copper  0.323  pound,  1  cubic  inch  of  rolled  Muntz  metal  0.296  pound,  and 
1  cubic  inch  of  rolled  brass  0.297  pound  to  0.313  pound,  according  to  its  composition. 
The  sheets  and  plates  must  be  cut  to  the  dimensions  ordered. 

59.  Tolerance  for  Excess  of  Weights. — An  excess  of  weight  of  5  per  cent  will  be 
allowed. 

COPPER  PIPES 

60.  Material. — The  pipe  must  be  made  of  Lake  copper,  or  its  equivalent,  and  a 
chemical  analysis  must  show  that  the  metal  is  99.5  per  cent  pure  copper.     The  Govern- 
ment inspector  will  take  drillings  for  analyses. 

61.  Form  and  Surface. — The  pipe  must  be  free  from  identations,  cracks,  flaws,  or 
other  surface  defects,  inside  and  outside,  perfectly  round,  of  the  specified  diameter 
and  thickness  in  all  parts. 

62.  Hydraulic  Tests. — Each  pipe  must  withstand  an  internal  hydraulic  pressure 
which  will  subject  the  metal  to  a  stress  of  6,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  the  test  pressure 
being  calculated  by  the  following  formula  for  thin  hollow  cylinders,  but  in  no  case  will 
a  test  pressure  of  over  1,000  pounds  per  square  inch  per  gauge  be  required: 

2ts  in  which 

p=a; 

p  =  safe  internal  pressure; 
d  =  inside  diameter  in  inches; 

s  =  safe  tensile  strength  of  material  =  6,000  pounds  per  square  inch; 
t  =  thickness  of  pipe  in  inches. 

Every  pipe  must  be  perfectly  tight  under  pressure  and  show  no  signs  of  bulging, 
cracks,  flaws,  porous  places,  or  other  defects. 

63.  Bending  Tests. — A  strip  If  inches  wide  will  be  taken  from  each  lot  of  2,000  pounds 
or  less  of  pipe  and  must  stand  the  following  tests: 

(a)  If  less  than  f  inch  thick,  it  must  stand  bending  flat  back  cold  after  being  annealed. 

(b)  If  £  inch  or  over,  it  must  bend  back  after  being  annealed  until  the  ends  are 
parallel  and  the  inner  radius  of  the  bend  is  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  piece. 

(c)  In  every  case  the  ends  of  the  bending  test  pieces  shall  stand  hammering  down 
hot  and  cold  to  a  knife  edge  without  showing  signs  of  cracks.     The  pipes  must  be  able 
to  stand  flanging  without  defects. 

64.  Tensile  Tests. — Pipes  of  2  inches  inside  diameter  and  over,  for  high  pressures, 
are  to  be  subject  to  tensile  tests,  one  piece  of  pipe  from  each  lot  of  1,000  pounds  or 
less  being  selected  to  represent  the  lot.     If  the  pipes  are  from  2  inches  to  6  inches  inside 
diameter,  the  test  pieces  are  to  be  cut  longitudinally.     If  over  6  inches  inside  diameter, 
they  will  be  cut  circumferentially.     The  test  pieces  will  be  heated  to  a  cherry  red  and 
straightened  when  hot,  then  machined  to  the  shape  shown  in  the  sketch,  care  being 
taken  to  have  the  brazed  seam,  if  any,  between  the  measuring  points. 

65.  For  thickness  up  to  and  including  £  inch,  the  width  of  the  narrow  part  of  the 
test  piece  shall  be  about  1|  inches.     For  thicker  pieces  the  width  shall  be  such  as  to 

[543] 


SEAMLESS  BRASS  PIPE 

give  a  cross-section  of  about  %  square  inch,  but  the  breadth  shall  not  in  any  case  be 
less  than  the  thickness.  The  rolled  surfaces  are  not  to  be  machined,  but  to  be  left  in 
their  original  condition. 

66.  The  test  piece  must  show  an  ultimate  tensile  strength  after  being  annealed  of 
at  least  28,000  pounds  per  square  inch  for  all  pipe,  and  an  elongation  of  at  least  25  per 
cent  in  8  inches  in  the  case  of  seamless  pipe. 

67.  Threading.— One  piece  of  pipe  taken  at  random  from  the  completed  lot  (ready 
for  shipment)  must  stand  threading  in  a  satisfactory  manner  with  the  usual  thread  for 
the  size  of  the  pipe. 

68.  Weight.— The  weight  of  every  pipe  must  be  at  least  equal  to  the  calculated  weight 
on  a  basis  of  1  cubic  inch  of  copper  pipe  weighs  0.320  pound.    An  excess  of  weight 
equal  to  5  per  cent  of  the  calculated  weight  will  be  allowed. 

SEAMLESS  BRASS  PIPE 

IRON  PIPE  SIZES,  MADE  TO  CORRESPOND  WITH  IRON  PIPE  AND  TO  FIT 

IRON-PIPE  FITTINGS 

69.  Material. — Pipe  shall  be  made  of  material  of  purest  commercial  quality,  com- 
pounded from  60  per  cent  to  70  per  cent  of  pure  copper  and  from  40  per  cent  to  30  per 
cent  of  pure  zinc,  and  not  more  than  0.5  of  1  per  cent  of  lead,  the  manufacturer  being 
allowed  this  variation  of  composition  in  order    o  get  the  material  best  suited  for  the 
purpose  for  which  it  is  intended.     The  Government  inspector  will  take  drillings  for 
chemical  analyses. 

70.  Defects.— The  pipe  will  be  inspected  for  surface  defects  and  it  must  be  free  from 
cracks,  seams,  and  defects  generally. 

71.  Hydraulic  Tests. — Each  pipe  must  withstand  an  internal  hydraulic  pressure 
which  will  subject  the  metal  to  a  stress  of  7,000  pounds  per  square  inch  without  showing 
weakness  or  defects,  in  accordance  with  the  formula  for  thin  hollow  cylinders  under 
tension  where 

2ts 
P  =  -d" 

p  =  safe  internal  pressure; 

d  =  inside  diameter  of  pipe  in  niches; 

s  =  safe  tensile  strength  of  material  =  7,000  pounds  per  square  inch; 

t  =  thickness  of  pipe  in  inches; 

but  no  pipe  will  be  tested  beyond  1,000  pounds  per  square  inch  per  gauge,  unless  specially 
directed. 

72.  Annealing. — All  pipe,  unless  ordered  "hard,"  is  to  be  annealed  sufficiently  to 
prevent  fire  cracking  and  to  stand  the  physical  tests. 

73.  Physical  Tests. — When  the  pipe  is  finished  (ready  for  shipment),  the  inspector 
will  subject  1  per  cent  of  the  lot,  taken  at  random,  to  the  following  physical  tests: 

(a)  The  end  of  each  test  pipe  must  stand  being  flattened  by  hammering  until  the 
sides  are  brought  parallel,  with  a  curve  on  the  inside  at  the  ends  not  greater  in  diameter 
than  twice  the  thickness  of  the  metal  in  the  pipe,  without  showing  cracks  or  flaws. 

(b)  Each  test  pipe  shall  have  a  piece  3  inches  long  cut  from  it,  which  piece  when  split 
must  stand  opening  out  flat  without  showing  cracks  or  flaws. 

(c)  Each  test  pipe  must  stand  threading  in  a  satisfactory  manner  with  the  usual 
thread  for  the  size  of  the  pipe.     When  the  pipe  is  ordered  "hard"  the  (a)  and  (b)  tests 
shall  be  made  on  annealed  test  specimens.     These  (a),  (b),  (c)  tests  shall  be  made  on 
each  of  the  test  pipes,  and  the  test  specimens  shall  be  furnished  at  the  contractor's 
expense.     If  any  of  these  pipes  selected  for  tests  fail,  the  inspector  will  select  two  extra 
pipes  from  the  same  lot  and  put  them  through  the  same  test  as  the  pipe  that  failed, 
and  both  of  these  pipes  must  be  found  satisfactory  in  order  that  the  lot  may  be  passed. 
The  failure  to  pass  satisfactorily  any  one  of  the  tests  marked  (a),  (b),  (c)  will  reject  the 
lot. 

74.  Thickness,  Weight,  and  Marking. — All  pipe  shall  be  up  to  the  gauge  ordered. 

[544] 


ROLLED  NAVAL  BRASS 

Each  large  single  pipe,  or  bundle  of  small  pipes,  must  be  marked  with  the  name  of  the 
vessel  for  which  it  is  intended,  or  with  the  number  of  the  order.  The  standard  weight 
for  seamless-drawn  brass  pipe  will  be  0.307  pound  per  cubic  inch  of  material,  but  a 
tolerance  not  to  exceed  5  per  cent  overweight  will  be  allowed. 


NAVAL  BRASS,  CAST,  OR  COMPOSITION  N-c 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General  Instructions. — General    instructions    or    specifications   issued  by  the 
bureau  concerned  shall  form  part  of  these  specifications. 

2.  Scrap. — Scrap  will  not  be  used,  except  such  as  may  result  from  the  process  of 
manufacture  of  articles  of  similar  composition. 

3.  Chemical  Properties. — The  chemical  requirements  shall  be  as  follows: 


Copper 

Tin 

Zinc 

Iron, 
Maximum 

Lead, 
Maximum 

Per  Cent 
6O-63 

Per  Cent 
.05-1.5 

Per  Cent 
Remainder 

Per  Cent 
0.06 

Per  Cent 
0.3 

Normal  62-1-37 

4.  Workmanship. — Material  must  be  in  accordance  with  detail  specifications  and 
free  from  all  injurious  defects. 

5.  Fractures. — The  color  of  the  fracture  section  of  test  pieces  and  the  grain  of  the 
metal  must  be  uniform  throughout. 

6.  Supersedes. — This  specification  supersedes  composition  N-c  in  Specifications 
Part  II,  Steam  Engineering  (Revised  July  1,  1910). 

7.  Purposes  for  Which  Used. — The  material  is  suitable  for  the  following  purposes: 
(C.  and  R.)  Hatch  frames,  hatch-cover  frames,  door  frames,  scuttle  frames;  fittings  for 
mess  tables  and  benches;  skylight  and  chest  hinges  and  fittings;  all  joiner  work  fittings 
(except  hardware);  rail  and  ladder  stanchions;  brackets,  clips,  etc.,  for  stowage  pur- 
poses; fittings  for  canopy  frames;  all  brass  valves  and  fittings  of  ventilation  system 
(except  working  parts);  belaying  pins,  tarpaulin  hooks,  brass  hatch  and  door  fittings, 
brass  pipe  flanges. 

(S.  E.)  Valve  hand  wheels,  hand-rail  fittings,  ornamental  and  miscellaneous  castings, 
and  valves  in  water  chests  of  condensers. 


ROLLED  NAVAL  BRASS,  SHEETS,  PLATES,  RODS,  BARS,  AND 
SHAPES,  OR  COMPOSITION  N-r 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General  Instructions. — General  instructions  or  specifications  issued  by  the  bureau 
concerned  shall  form  part  of  these  specifications. 

2.  Scrap. — Scrap  will  not  be  used  in  the  manufacture,  except  such  as  may  accu- 
mulate in  the  manufacturers'  plants  from  material  of  the  same  composition  of  their 
own  make. 

3.  Chemical  Properties. — The  chemical  and  physical  requirements  shall  be  as  follows: 


Copper 

Tin 

Zinc 

Iron,  Maximum 

Lead,  Maximum 

Per  Cent 
59-63 

Per  Cent 
0.5-1.5 

Per  Cent 
Remainder 

Per  Cent 
0.06 

Per  Cent 
0.2 

[545] 


ROLLED  NAVAL  BRASS 


Physical  Properties: 


Thickness 

Tensile 
Strength 

Elastic 
Limit 

Elongation 
in  8  Inches 

Elongation 
in  2  Inches 

Bend 
120°  Cold 

Lbs.  per 

Lbs.  per 

Square  Inch 

Square  Inch 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Up  to  3  inch.  .  .  . 
|  to  1  inch  
Over  1  inch".  .... 

60,000 
58,000 
54,000 

27,000 
26,000 
25,000 

25 

28 

28 

35 
40 
40 

1  Radius  equals 
j    thickness. 

No  material  less  than  j  inch  in  thickness  or  diameter  need  be  tested  physically. 

4.  Test  Pieces. — Test  pieces  will  be  as  nearly  as  possible  of  the  same  diameter  as 
the  rounds,  or  else  they  are  not  to  be  less  than  \  inch  diameter  and  taken  at  a  dis- 
tance from  the  circumference  equal  to  one-half  the  radius  of  the  rounds. 

5.  Additional  Tests. — All  bars  to  be  clean  and  straight,  of  uniform  color,  quality, 
and  size.     Bars  must  stand: 

(a)  Being  hammered  hot  to  a  fine  point. 

(b)  Being  bent  cold  through  an  angle  of  120°  and  to  a  radius  equal  to  the  diameter 
or  thickness  of  the  test  bar. 

(c)  The  bending  test  bar  may  be  the  full-size  bar,  or  the  standard  bar  of  1  inch  width 
and  \  inch  thickness.     In  the  case  of  bending  test  pieces  of  rectangular  section,  the  edges 
may  be  rounded  off  to  a  radius  equal  to  one-fourth  of  the  thickness. 

6.  Surface  Inspection. — Material  must  be  free  from  all  injurious  defects,  clean, 
smooth,  must  lie  flat,  and  be  within  the  gauge  and  weight  tolerances. 

7.  Trimming. — Plates  and  sheets  will  be  cut  to  the  required  dimensions  and  will  be 
ordered  in  as  narrow  widths  as  can  be  used. 

(a)  The  following  will  be  considered  stock  lengths  for  brass  sheets  when  ordered 
in  10-foot  lengths: 

40  per  cent  in  weight  may  be  in  8-  to  10-foot  lengths. 
30  per  cent  in  weight  may  be  in  6-  to  8-foot  lengths. 
20  per  cent  in  weight  may  be  in  4-  to  6-foot  lengths. 
10  per  cent  in  weight  may  be  in  2-  to  4-foot  lengths. 

No  lengths  less  than  2  feet  will  be  accepted  and  the  total  weight  of  all  pieces  on 
lengths  less  than  10  feet  must  not  exceed  40  per  cent  in  any  one  shipment. 

(b)  Rods  and  bars,  when  ordered  to  any  length,  will  be  received  in  stock  lengths, 
unless  it  is  specifically  stated  that  the  lengths  are  to  be  exact.     Stock  lengths  will  be  as 
follows: 

When  ordered  in  12-foot  lengths  no  lengths  less  than  8  feet. 

When  ordered  in  10-foot  lengths  no  lengths  less  than  6  feet. 

When  ordered  in  8-foot  lengths  no  lengths  less  than  6  feet. 

When  ordered  in  6-foot  lengths  no  lengths  less  than  4  feet. 

When  ordered  to  the  lengths  given  above,  the  weight  of  lengths  less  than  length 
ordered  shall  not  exceed  40  per  cent  of  any  one  shipment. 

This  applies  to  all  rods  from  j  to  1  inch  diameter  or  thickness,  whether  round, 
rectangular,  square,  or  hexagonal.  Above  1  inch  to  and  including  2  inches  the  lengths 
will  be  random  lengths  from  4  feet  to  10  feet.  Above  2  inches  the  lengths  are  specials 
but  no  length  will  be  less  than  4  feet. 

8.  Proprietary  Materials. — Various  composition  materials,   otherwise  conforming 
to  the  specifications  but  manufactured  under  proprietary  processes  or  having  proprietary 
names,  may  be  submitted  in  bids  for  the  consideration  of  the  bureau  concerned. 

9.  Tolerances. — No  excess  weight  will  be  paid  for,  and  no  single  piece  that  weighs 
more  than  5  per  cent  above  the  calculated  weight  will  be  accepted. 


[546] 


MUNTZ  METAL  SHEETS 
UNDERWEIGHT  AND  GAUGE  TOLERANCES 


WIDTH  OF  SHEETS  OR  PLATES 


Under  48  Inches 

48  to  60  Inches 

Over  60  Inches 

Tolerance 

5  per  cent 

7  per  cent      .    .  . 

8  per  cent. 

Plates  and  sheets  shall  not  vary  throughout  their  length  or  width  more  than  the 
given  tolerance. 

10.  Fracture. — The  color  of  the  fracture  section  of  test  pieces  and  the  grain  of  the 
material  must  be  uniform  throughout. 

11.  Supersedes. — This  specification  supersedes  Composition  N-r  in  Specifications 
Part  II,  Steam  Engineering  (Revised  July  1,  1910). 

12.  Purposes  for  Which  Used. — The  material  is  suitable  for  the  following  purposes: 
Bolts,  studs,  nuts,  and  turnbuckles,  especially  if  subject  to  corrosion  or  salt  water, 
rolled  rounds,  used  principally  for  propeller  blade  bolts,  air  pump,  and  condenser  bolts 
and  parts  requiring  strength  and  incorrodibility,  and  pump  rods,  tube  sheets,  supporting 
plates,  and  shafts  for  valves  in  water  heads. 

MUNTZ  METAL,  CAST,  OR  COMPOSITION  D-c 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General     Instructions. — General   instructions   or   specifications   issued   by   the 
bureau  concerned  shall  form  part  of  these  specifications. 

2.  Scrap. — Scrap  will  not  be  used,  except  such  as  may  result  from  the  process  of 
manufacture  of  articles  of  similar  composition. 

3.  Chemical  Properties. — The  chemical  requirements  shall  be  as  follows: 


Copper 

Tin 

Zinc 

Iron, 
Maximum 

Lead, 
Maximum 

Per  Cent 
59-62 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 
38-41 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 
0.6 

4.  Workmanship. — The  castings  must  be  made  in  accordance  with  the  drawings 
and  specifications — sound,  clean,  free  from  blow-holes,  porous  places,  cracks,  or  any 
other  defects  which  will  materially  affect  their  strength  or  appearance  or  which  indicate 
an  inferior  quality  of  metal. 

5.  Supersedes. — This   specification   supersedes   composition   D-c   in   Specification 
Part  II,  Steam  Engineering  (Revised  July  1,  1910). 

6.  Fracture. — The  color  of  the  fracture  section  of  test  pieces  and  the  grain  of  the 
metal  must  be  uniform  throughout. 

MUNTZ  METAL  SHEETS,  PLATES,  RODS,  BARS,  AND  SHAPES 
OR  NON-FERROUS  METAL  D-r 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General    Instructions. — General  instructions   or  specifications  issued  by  the 
bureau  concerned  shall  form  part  of  these  specifications. 

2.  Scrap. — Scrap    will  not   be   used   in  the    manufacture,   except   such   as   may 
accumulate  in  the  manufacturers'  plants  from  material  of  the  same  composition  of  their 
own  make. 

3.  Chemical  and  Physical  Properties. — The  chemical  and  physical  requirements 
shall  be  as  follows: 

[547] 


MUNTZ  METAL 


Letter 

Name 

Copper 

Tin 

Zinc 

Lead 

Iron 

Ultimate 
Tensile 
Strength 

Yield 
Point 

Elonga- 
tion In 
2   Inches 

Maxi- 

Maxi- 

Lbs. per 

Lbs.  per 

Per. 

mum 

mum 

Sq.  Inch 

Sq.  Inch 

Cent 

D-r... 

Muntz  metal 

59-62 

.... 

38-41 

0.6 

40,000 

20,000 

25 

(rolled) 

4.  Test  Pieces. — Test  pieces  will  be  as  nearly  as  possible  of  the  same  diameter 
as  the  rounds,  or  else  they  are  not  to  be  less  than  £  inch  diameter  and  taken  at  a  dis- 
tance from  the  circumference  equal  to  one-half  the  radius  of  the  rounds. 

5.  Additional  Tests. — All  bars  to  be  clean  and  straight,  of  uniform  color,  quality, 
and  size.     Bars  must  stand: 

(a)  Being  hammered  hot  to  a  fine  point. 

(b)  Being  bent  cold  through  an  angle  of  120°  and  to  a  radius  equal  to  the  diameter 
or  thickness  of  the  test  bar. 

(c)  The  bending  test  bar  may  be  the  full-size  bar,  or  the  standard  bar  of  1  inch 
width  and  5  inch  thickness.     In  the  case  of  bending  test  pieces  of  rectangular  section, 
the  edges  may  be  rounded  off  to  a  radius  equal  to  one-fourth  of  the  thickness. 

6.  Surface  Inspection. — Material  must  be  free  from  all  injurious  defects,  clean, 
smooth,  must  lie  flat,  and  be  within  the  gauge  and  weight  tolerances. 

7.  Trimming. — Plates  and  sheets  will  be  cut  to  the  required  dimensions  and  will  be 
ordered  hi  as  narrow  widths  as  can  be  used. 

(a)  The  following  will  be  considered  stock  lengths  for  Muntz  metal  sheets  when 
ordered  in  10-foot  lengths: 

40  per  cent  in  weight  may  be  in  8-  to  10-foot  lengths. 
30  per  cent  in  weight  may  be  in  6-  to  8-foot  lengths. 
20  per  cent  in  weight  may  be  in  4-  to  6-foot  lengths. 
10  per  cent  in  weight  may  be  in  2-  to  4-foot  lengths. 

No  lengths  less  than  2  feet  will  be  accepted,  and  the  total  weight  of  all  pieces  on 
lengths  less  than  10  feet  must  not  exceed  40  per  cent  in  any  one  shipment. 

(b)  Rods,  and  bars,  when  ordered  to  any  length,  will  be  received  in  stock  lengths, 
unless  it  is  specifically  stated  that  the  lengths  are  to  be  exact.    Stock  lengths  will  be 
as  follows: 

When  ordered  in  12-foot  lengths,  no  lengths  less  than  8  feet. 

When  ordered  in  10-foot  lengths,  no  lengths  less  than  6  feet. 

When  ordered  in  8-foot  lengths,  no  lengths  less  than  6  feet. 

When  ordered  in  6-foot  lengths,  no  lengths  less  than  4  feet. 

When  ordered  to  the  lengths  given  above,  the  weight  of  lengths  less  than  length 
ordered  shall  not  exceed  40  per  cent  of  any  one  shipment. 

This  applies  to  all  rods  from  £  to  1  inch  diameter  or  thickness,  whether  round,  rec- 
tangular, square,  or  hexagonal.  Above  1  inch  to  and  including  2  inches  the  lengths 
will  be  random  lengths  from  4  feet  to  10  feet.  Above  2  inches  the  lengths  are  special, 
but  no  length  will  be  less  than  4  feet. 

8.  Tolerances. — No  excess  weight  will  be  paid  for,  and  no  single  piece  that  weighs 
more  than  5  per  cent  above  the  calculated  weight  will  be  accepted. 

UNDERWEIGHT  AND  GAUGE  TOLERANCES 


WIDTH  OF  SHEETS  OR  PLATES 


Up  to  48  Inches, 
Inclusive 

48  to  60  Inches, 
Inclusive 

Over  60  Inches 

Tolerance 

5  per  cent 

7  per  cent 

8  per  cent 

[548] 


COMMERCIAL  BRASS  CASTINGS 


Material  shall  not  vary  throughout  its  length  or  width  more  than  the  given  tolerance. 

9.  Fracture. — The  color  of  the  fracture  section  of  test  pieces  and  the  grain  of  the 
material  must  be  uniform  throughout. 

10.  Purposes  for  Which  Used. — The  material  is  suitable  for  the  following  purposes: 
Bolts  and  nuts  not  subject  to  action  of  salt  water. 

COMMERCIAL  BRASS  CASTINGS,  OR  COMPOSITION  B-c 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General   Instructions. — General   instructions   for   specifications   issued  by   the 
bureau  concerned  shall  form  part  of  these  specifications. 

2.  Designation. — Material  under  these  specifications  shall  be  designated  as  "Com- 
mercial Brass  Castings"  or  "Composition  B-c." 

3.  Chemical  Properties. — The  chemical  requirements  shall  be  as  follows : 


Copper 
per  Cent, 
Minimum 

Tin 
per  Cent 

Zinc 
per  Cent, 
Minimum 

Iron 
per  Cent, 
Maximum 

Lead 
per  Cent, 
Maximum 

Nickel 

62 

Remainder 

30 

2 

3 

Remainder 

4.  Workmanship. — The  castings  must  be  made  in  accordance  with  the  drawings 
and  specifications — sound,  clean,  free  from  blow-holes,  porous  places,  cracks,  or  any  other 
defects  which  will  materially  affect  their  strength  or  appearance,  or  which  indicate  an 
inferior  quality  of  metal. 

5.  Fracture. — The  color  of  the  fracture  section  of  test  pieces  and  the  grain  of  the 
metal  must  be  uniform  throughout. 

6.  Purposes  for  Which  Used. — The  material  is  suitable  for  the  following  purposes: 
Name  and  number  plates.       Cases  for  instruments.      Oil  cups.      Distribution  boxes. 

COMMERCIAL    BRASS    FOR    RODS,    BARS,    SHAPES,    SHEETS, 
PLATES,  AND  PIPING 

Or  Non-ferrous  Metal  B-r,  when  intended  for  Rods,  Bars,  and  Shapes;  Non-ferrout 
Metal  B-p,  when  intended  for  Sheets,  Plates,  and  Piping 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General    Instructions. — General   instructions   or   specifications   issued   by   the 
bureau  concerned  shall  form  part  of  these  specifications. 

2.  Scrap. — Scrap  will  not  be  used  in  the  manufacture,  except  such  as  may  accumulate 
in  the  manufacturers'  plants  from  material  of  the  same  composition  of  their  own  make. 

3.  Chemical  and  Physical  Properties. — The  chemical  and  physical  requirements 
shall  be  as  follows: 


Ultimate 

Yield 

Letter 

Name 

Copper 

Tin 

Zinc 

Lead, 
Maxi- 
mum 

Iron, 
Maxi- 
mum 

Tensile 
Strength, 
Lbs.  per 
Square 

Point, 
Lbs. 
per 
Square 

Elonga- 
tion in 
Two 
Inches 

Inch 

Inch 

Per 

Ct. 

B-r... 

Commercial     brass 

60-63 

0  5 

38-35£ 

3 

0.06 

(rods,     bars,     and 

max. 

shapes). 

B-p... 

Commercial     brass 

60-70 

40-30 

0.5 

.06 

(for  sheets,  plates, 

and  piping). 

[549] 


BRASS  CASTINGS  FOR  ELECTRICAL  APPLIANCES 

4.  Surface  Inspection. — Material  must  be  free  from  all  injurious  defects,  clean, 
smooth,  must  lie  flat,  and  be  within  the  gauge  and  weight  tolerances. 

5.  Trimming. — Plates  and  sheets  will  be  cut  to  the  required  dimensions  and  will 
be  ordered  in  as  narrow  widths  as  can  be  used. 

(a)  The  following  will  be  considered  stock  lengths  for  commercial  brass  sheets  when 
ordered  in  10-foot  lengths: 

40  per  cent  in  weight  may  be  in  8-  to  10-foot  lengths. 
30  per  cent  in  weight  may  be  in  6-  to  8-foot  lengths. 
20  per  cent  in  weight  may  be  in  4-  to  6-foot  lengths. 
10  per  cent  in  weight  may  be  in  2-  to  4-foot  lengths. 

No  lengths  less  than  2  feet  will  be  accepted,  and  the  total  weight  of  all  pieces  on 
lengths  less  than  10  feet  must  not  exceed  40  per  cent  in  any  one  shipment. 

(b)  Rods  and  bars,  when  ordered  to  any  length,  will  be  received  in  stock  lengths, 
unless  it  is  specifically  stated  that  the  lengths  are  to  be  exact.     Stock  lengths  will  be  as 
follows: 

When  ordered  in  12-foot  lengths,  no  lengths  less  than  8  feet. 

When  ordered  in  10-foot  lengths,  no  lengths  less  than  6  feet. 

When  ordered  in  8-foot  lengths,  no  lengths  less  than  6  feet. 

When  ordered  in  6-foot  lengths,  no  lengths  less  than  4  feet. 

When  ordered  to  the  lengths  given  above,  the  weight  of  lengths  less  than  length 
ordered  shall  not  exceed  40  per  cent  of  any  one  shipment. 

This  applies  to  all  rods  from  £  to  1  inch  diameter  or  thickness,  whether  round,  rec- 
tangular, square,  or  hexagonal.  Above  1  inch  to  and  including  2  inches  the  lengths 
will  be  random  lengths  from  4  feet  to  10  feet.  Above  2  inches  the  lengths  are  special, 
but  no  length  will  be  less  than  4  feet. 

6.  Tolerances. — No  excess  weight  will  be  paid  for,  and  no  single  piece  that  weighs 
more  than  5  per  cent  above  the  calculated  weight  will  be  accepted. 

UNDERWEIGHT  AND  GAUGE  TOLERANCES 


WIDTH  01 

-  SHEETS  OR  PLATES 

Up  to  48  Inches, 
Inclusive 

48  to  60  Inches, 
Inclusive 

Over  60  Inches 

Tolerance  

5  per  cent 

7  per  cent 

8  per  cent 

Material  shall  not  vary  throughout  its  length  or  width  more  than  the  given  tolerance. 

7.  Fracture. — The  color  of  the  fracture  section  of  test  pieces  and  the  grain  of  the 
material  must  be  uniform  throughout. 

8.  Purposes  for  Which  Used. — The  material  is  suitable  for  the  following  purposes: 
Sheet  brass :  For  liners,  trim,  etc. 

Brass  pipe:  Handrails. 
Distributing  oil  tubes  and  water  pipes. 

Commercial  brass  rod  for  trim  and  purposes  where  strength  and  incorrodibility  are 
not  required. 


BRASS   CASTINGS   FOR   ELECTRICAL   APPLIANCES   OR 
COMPOSITION  BE 

,  NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General    Instructions. — General    instructions    or    specifications    issued    by    the 
bureau  concerned  shall  form  part  of  these  specifications. 

2.  Scrap. — Scrap  will  not  be  used,  except  such  as  may  result  from  the  process  of 
manufacture  of  articles  of  similar  composition. 

[550J 


ADMIRALTY  METAL 
3.  Chemical  Properties. — The  chemical  requirements  shall  be  as  follows: 


Copper 

Tin 

Zinc 

Iron,  Maximum 

Lead,  Maximum 

Per  Cent 
80-88 

Per  Cent 
2  min. 

Per  Cent 
Remainder 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 
2 

4.  Workmanship. — The  castings  must  be  made  in  accordance  with  the  drawings 
and  specifications — sound,  clean,  free  from  blow-holes,  porous  places,  cracks,  or  any 
other  defects  which  will  materially  affect  their  strength  or  appearance  or  which  indicate 
an  inferior  quality  of  metal. 

5.  Fracture. — The  color  of  the  fracture  section  of  test  pieces  and  the  grain  of  the 
metal  must  be  uniform  throughout. 

6.  Purposes  for  Which  Used. — The  material  is  suitable  for  electrical  fittings,  such 
as  junction  boxes,  switches,  distribution  boxes,  connection  boxes,  water-tight  belte. 
and  buzzers,  etc. 

ADMIRALTY  METAL,  CAST,  OR  COMPOSITION  A 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General    Instructions. — General    instructions    or    specifications    issued    by    the 
bureau  concerned  shall  form  part  of  these  specifications. 

2.  Designation. — Material    under    these    specifications    shall    be    designated    as 
"Admiralty  Metal"  or  "Composition  A." 

3.  Scrap. — Scrap  will  not  be  used,  except  such  as  may  result  from  the  process  of 
manufacture  of  articles  of  similar  composition. 

4.  Chemical  Properties. — The  chemical  requirements  shall  be  as  follows: 


Copper  per  Cent, 
Minimum 

Tin,  per  Cent, 
Minimum 

Zinc,  per  Cent, 

Iron   per  Cent, 
Maximum 

Lead   per  Cent, 
Maximum 

70 

1 

Remainder 

0.06 

0.075 

5.  Workmanship. — The  castings  must  be  made  in  accordance  with  the  drawings  and 
specifications — sound,  clean,  free  from  blow-holes,  porous  places,  cracks,  or  any  other 
defects  which  will  materially  affect  their  strength  or  appearance  or  which  indicate  an 
inferior  quality  of  metal. 

6.  Fracture. — The  color  of  the  fracture  section  of  test  pieces  and  the  grain  of  the 
metal  must  be  uniform  throughout. 

7.  Purposes  for  Which  Used. — The  material  is  suitable  for  the  following  purposes: 
Condenser  tubes. 

Distiller  tubes. 
Feed-water  heater  tubes. 
Evaporator  tubes. 


BRAZING  METAL  OR  COMPOSITION  F 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General    Instructions. — General    instructions    or    specifications    issued    by    the 
bureau  concerned  shall  form  part  of  these  specifications. 

2.  Scrap. — Scrap  will  not  be  used  expect  such  as  may  result  from  the  process  of 
manufacture  of  articles  of  similar  composition. 

3.  Chemical  Properties. — The  chemical  requirements  shall  be  as  follows:    , 

[551] 


MELTING-POINTS  OF  COPPER  ALLOYS 


Copper 

Tin 

Zinc 

Iron, 
Maximum 

Lead, 
Maximum 

Per  Cent 
84-86 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 
Remainder 

Per  Cent 
0  06 

Per  Cent 
0  3 

4.  Workmanship. — The  castings  must  be  made  in  accordance  with  the  drawings 
and  specifications — sound,  clean,  free  from  blow-holes,  porous  places,  cracks,  or  any 
other  defects  which  will  materially  affect  their  strength  or  appearance  or  which  indicate 
an  inferior  quality  of  metal. 

5.  Fracture. — The  color  of  the  fracture  section  of  test  pieces  and  the  grain  of  the 
metal  must  be  uniform  throughout. 

6.  Supersedes. — These  specifications  supersede  specifications  for  brazing  metal  in 
Steam  Engineering  Specifications  Part  II,  Revised  July  1,  1910. 

7.  Purposes  for  Which  Used.— The  material  is  suitable  for  the  following  purposes: 
All  flanges  for  copper  pipe  and  other  fittings  that  are  to  be  brazed. 

MELTING-POINTS  OF  COPPER  ALLOYS 

BUREAU  OF  MINES 

Non-ferrous  alloys  occur  so  frequently  in  machine  construction  that,  in  the  investi- 
gation of  current  melting  practice  in  American  brass  foundries,  H.  W.  Gillett  and  A.  B. 
Norton,  acting  under  the  direction  of  the  Bureau  of  Mines,  found  it  necessary  to  deter- 
mine with  approximate  exactness  the  true  relation  between  the  pouring  and  melting 
points  of  various  copper  alloys;  the  available  literature  on  the  subject  being  incomplete 
and  not  always  trustworthy.  The  results  of  their  investigations  are  incorporated  in 
the  Bureau's  Technical  Paper  60,  from  which  the  following  memoranda  are  taken. 

METHODS  USED  IN  THE  TESTS 

The  alloys  were  melted  in  a  gas  furnace.  Instead  of  crucibles  of  the  ordinary  shape, 
which  exposes  too  large  a  surface  to  volatilization  and  oxidation,  the  crucibles  used  were 
made  from  bonded  carborundum  tubes  about  4.5  cm.  inside  ^diameter  and  had  walls 
about  S  mm.  thick. 

The  temperatures  were  measured  by  a  platinum,  platinum-rhodium  thermocouple 
used  with  a  single-pivot  galvanometer.  The  calibration  was  checked  and  found  correct 
within  the  error  of  reading. 

About  600  grams  of  metal  were  used  in  making  the  tests.  The  metals  were  weighed 
in  the  proper  proportions  to  form  the  alloy  desired,  a  slight  excess  of  zinc,  increased 
with  increasing  zinc  content,  being  allowed  to  compensate  for  volatilization.  Electro- 
lytic copper,  Bertha  zinc,  and  chemically  pure  lead  and  tin  were  used.  The  copper 
was  melted  first,  and  then  covered  with  granular  carbon  and  a  little  salt.  When  the 
copper  was  melted  the  tin,  the  lead,  and  lastly  the  zinc,  were  added,  and  the  alloy 
was  well  stirred  with  a  graphite  rod. 

When  the  alloy  was  fully  melted  and  mixed  the  pyrometer  was  inserted  and  so 
clamped  that  the  graphite  boot  did  not  touch  the  bottom  or  sides  of  the  crucible.  The 
gas  flame  was  lowered  and  the  temperature  read  every  15  seconds,  the  melt  being 
stirred  between  each  reading.  When  the  alloy  had  frozen,  the  gas  was  turned  up  and 
a  heating  curve  was  taken.  This  procedure  was  repeated  several  times.  Zinc  was 
continually  volatilized  from  the  melts  containing  zinc,  but  not  in  sufficient  quantity 
to  have  appreciable  effect  on  the  melting  point,  as  duplicate  runs  agreed  within  5°  C. 
in  all  cases.  After  a  run  was  completed,  the  melt  was  usually  poured  into  an  ingot 
mold,  sampled,  and  analyzed.  As  the  analyses  of  the  samples  analyzed  agreed  well 
with  the  composition  desired,  the  melts  containing  zinc  were  not  analyzed.  Duplicate 
analyses  of  the  same  sample  agreed  within  0.1  per  cent/ 

All  the  melts  were  made  from  virgin  metals  except  a  sample  of  manganese  bronze 
which  was  in  the  form  of  test-bar  ends  from  a  previous  investigation.  It  had  shown 

[552] 


RESULTS  OF  TESTS 


a  tensile  strength  of  76,000  to  77,000  pounds  per  square  inch  and  an  elongation  of 
24  to  35  per  cent  in  the  standard  brick-form  test  bar.  The  bronze  had  approximately 
the  following  composition:  Copper,  56  per  cent;  zinc,  41  per  cent;  iron,  1.5  per  cent; 
tin,  0.9  per  cent;  aluminum,  0.45  per  cent;  and  manganese,  0.15  per  cent. 

The  melting  point  given  is  the  liquidus,  or  point  at  which  freezing  begins  on  cooling 
and  liquefaction  ends  on  heating.  This  is  more  strongly  marked  than  the  solidus, 
or  point  at  which  freezing  ends  on  cooling  and  liquefaction  begins  on  heating. 

RESULTS  OF  TESTS 

The  data  obtained  in  the  determination  of  the  melting  points  of  several  alloys 
were  as  follows: 

MELTING-POINT  DETERMINATION  FOR  10  ALLOYS 


Alloy 

COMPOSITION 
DESIRED 

COMPOSITION 
BY  ANALYSIS 

Number 
of  Dupli- 
cate De- 
termina- 
tions 

Melting 
Point 
(Liquidus) 

Cu. 

Zn. 

Sn. 

Pb. 

Cu. 

Zn. 

Sn. 

Pb. 

Gun  metal          

P.Ct. 

88 
85£ 
85 
82 
80 

85 
75 
67 
61f 

P.Ct. 

2 
2 
5 
10 

5 
20 
31 
37 

P.Ct. 

10 
0* 

5 
3 
10 

10 
2 

iV 

P.Ct. 

P.Ct. 

P.Ct. 

P.Ct. 

P.Ct. 

4 
6 

18 
4 
3 

4 
3 

4 
5 
6 

°C. 

995 
980 
970 
980 
945 

980 
920 
895 
855 
870 

°F. 
1,825 
1,795 
1,780 
1,795 
1,735 

1,795 
1,690 
1,645 
1,570 
1,600 

Leaded  gun  metal  

3 
5 
5 
10 

3 
2 

85.4 

1.9 

9.7 

3.0 

Red  brass 

Low-grade  red  brass  .  .  . 
Leaded  bronze 

81.5 

10.4 

3.1 

5.0 

Bronze  with  zinc  

84.6 
75.0 
66.9 
61.7 

5.0 
20.0 
30.8 
36.9 

10.4 
2.0 

1.4 

3.0 
2.3 

Half  yellow,  half  red.  .  . 
Cast  yellow  brass 

Naval  brass    

IManganese  bronze. 

1  Two  Samples. 

As  the  results  all  checked  within  5°  C.,  an  allowance  of  ±10°  C.  or  ±20°  F.  is 
probably  ample  to  cover  all  errors  in  reading,  calibrating,  and  using  the  pyrometer. 

PREVIOUSLY    DETERMINED    MELTING    POINTS    OF    BINARY    ALLOYS 

For  comparison,  the  melting-point  (liquidus)  figures  for  binary  systems  of  copper- 
tin,  copper-zinc,  and  copper-lead  alloys  for  the  range  covering  the  common  industrial 
alloys  are  given  below.  As  the  curves  are  small,  the  figures  are  only  accurate  to  within 
about  =±=10°  C.  or  ±20°  F. 

MELTING  POINTS  OF  BINARY  ALLOYS 
COPPER-TIN  ALLOYS  COPPER-ZINC  ALLOYS 


Parts  by  Weight 

Melting  Point 

Copper 

Tin 

°C 

°p 

95 

5 

1,050 

1,920 

90 

10 

1,005 

1,840 

85 

15 

960 

1,760 

80 

20 

890 

1,635 

COPPER-LEAD    ALLOYS 


Copper 

Lead 

°e 

cp 

95 

5 

1,065 

1,950 

90 

10 

1,050 

1,920 

85 

15 

1,035 

1,895 

Parts  by  Weight 

Melting  Point 

Copper 

Zinc 

°c 

°F 

95 

5 

1,070 

1,960 

90 

10 

1,055 

1,930 

85 

15 

1,025 

1,880 

80 

20 

1,000 

1,830 

75 

25 

980 

1,795 

70 

30 

940 

1,725 

65 

35 

915 

1,660 

60 

40 

890 

1,635 

[553] 


SPELTER  SOLDER 


Although  the  melting  points  of  only  11  alloys  were  determined,  the  alloys  chosen 
represent  a  large  proportion  of  the  non-ferrous  alloys  in  use  in  the  ordinary  foundry. 
The  composition  of  many  of  the  other  common  alloys  is  near  enough  to  these  or  to  the 
binary  alloys  whose  melting  points  are  given  to  allow  the  melting  point  being  obtained 
by  interpolation  closely  enough  for  most  technical  purposes. 

ANTI-FRICTION  METAL,  CAST,  OR  COMPOSITION  W 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General   Instructions. — General   instructions   or   specifications    issued   by   the 
bureau  concerned  shall  form  part  of  these  specifications. 

2.  Scrap. — Scrap  will  not  be  used,  except  such  as  may  result  from  the  process  of 
manufacture  of  articles  of  similar  composition. 

3.  Chemical  Properties. — The  chemical  requirements  shall  be  as  follows: 


Copper 

Tin 

Zinc 

Iron, 
Maximum 

Lead, 
Maximum 

Regulus  of 
Antimony 

Per  Cent 
3  7 

Per  Cent 
88  8 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

7  5* 

Banca 

*  To  be  well  fluxed  with  borax  and  rosin  in  mixing. 

4.  Workmanship. — Material  must  be  in  accordance  with  detail  specifications  and 
free  from  all  injurious  defects. 

5.  Brand  of  Tin. — If  by  reason  of  scarcity  Banca  tin  cannot  be  procured,  another 
standard  brand  of  tin  may  be  proposed,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Bureau  of  Steam 
Engineering. 

6.  Fracture. — The  color  of  the  fracture  section  of  test  pieces  and  the  grain  of  the 
metal  must  be  uniform  throughout. 

7.  Supersedes. — This   specification   supersedes   Composition   W   in   Specifications 
Part  II,  Steam  Engineering  (Revised  July  1,  1910). 

8.  Purposes  for  Which  Used. — The  material  is  suitable  for  the  following  purposes: 
All  white  metal  liner  bearings  and  bearing  surfaces. 

SPELTER  SOLDER 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  General. — To  be  made  of  high-grade  material,  of  good  manufacture,  and  be  suit- 
able for  the  purpose  intended. 

2.  Composition. — To  be  of  the  following  compositions,  as  may    be    specified  in 
requisition : 

(a)  LONG-GRAIN  SOLDER. — To  consist  of  not  less  than  52  per  cent  of  copper,  not 
more  than  0.2  per  cent  of  lead,  not  more  than  0.1  per  cent  of  iron,  and  the  remainder 
zinc. 

(b)  GRAY  SPELTER  SOLDER,  QUICK  RUNNING. — To  consist  of  49  to  52  per  cent  of 
copper,  3  to  3.5  per  cent  of  tin,  not  more  than  0.5  per  cent  of  lead,  and  the  remainder 
zinc. 

3.  Containers. — Long-grain  solder  shall  be  delivered  in  well-made  wooden  boxes, 
each  containing  100  pounds  net  weight.     Gray  spelter  solder  shall  be   delivered  in 
1-pound  packages. 

4.  Marking. — Packages  and  boxes  shall  be  marked  with  the  name  of  the  material, 
the  weight,  and  the  name  of  the  manufacturer. 

5.  Deliveries. — Deliveries  shall  be  marked  with  the  name  of  the  material,  the  name 
of  the  contractor,  and  the  requisition  or  contract  number  under  which  delivery  is  made. 

[554] 


CRUCIBLES 


SOLDER 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

1.  Solder  to  consist  of  practically  equal  amounts,  by  weight,  of  lead  and  tin,  and  be 
made  from  new  tin,  Straits,  Malacca,  or  Australian,  and  commercially  pure  new  lead; 
and  be  in  bars  branded  " half-and-half"  and  average  about  1  pound. 

2.  Any  bar  selected  at  random  from  a  delivery  of  solder  must  show  an  analysis: 
Total  tin  and  lead,  not  less  than  99.8  per  cent. 

Tin,  between  49  and  51  per  cent. 
Antimony,  not  more  than  0.10  per  cent. 
Zinc,  none. 


CRUCIBLES 

NAVY  DEPARTMENT 

Crucibles  to  be  of  best  plumbago  or  graphite,  suitable  for  melting  composition. 
Workmanship  to  be  of  the  best.  To  be  delivered  in  perfect  shapes. 

Samples  will  be  selected  and  must  stand  a  test  of  at  least  20  heats  successfully 
before  acceptance.  Payment  will  be  made  for  test  crucibles  that  do  not  stand  20 
heats  in  the  course  of  inspection  at  a  price  bearing  the  same  proportion  to  the  contract 
price  that  the  number  of  heats  the  crucibles  stand  before  breaking  bears  to  20  heats, 
the  number  required,  i.e.,  if  the  crucibles  stand  15  heats  and  then  break,  payment 
of  three-fourths  of  the  contract  price  will  be  made  for  such  crucibles. 

The  shapes  and  outside  dimensions  to  be  in  accordance  with  the  following  dimensions: 


Nos. 

Holding  Capacity, 
Liquid  Measure 

Height 
Outside 

Diameter  at 
the  Top 
Outside 

Diameter  at 
the  Bulge 
Outside, 

Diameter  at 
the  Bottom 
Outside 

Gals. 

Qts. 

Pts. 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

0 

.  .  . 

2 

H 

If 

H 

00 

.  .  . 

2| 

U 

H 

If 

000 

2? 

li 

2i 

1^ 

0000 

.  . 

.  .  . 

3 

2f 

2* 

If 

1 

31 

3* 

3 

2| 

2 

.. 

.. 

... 

41 

3f 

3f 

2f 

3 

5J 

4? 

4| 

3 

4 

.  .  . 

5f 

4| 

4| 

3i 

5 

.  . 

li 

6 

41 

4f 

3^ 

6 

1 

&l 

5* 

5i 

3| 

7 

1 

i 

6! 

51 

5| 

4 

8 

.  . 

1 

i 

7* 

5f 

5f 

4J 

9 

1 

I 

71 

6 

6? 

4* 

10 

1 

i 

8 

6 

6^ 

4f 

12 

2 

... 

8 

6i 

61 

5 

14 

.. 

2 

i 

8i 

6f 

7| 

5| 

16 

2 

i 

8| 

7 

7| 

18 

3 

i 

9i 

71 

8 

5f 

20 

1 

m 

7! 

8| 

6 

25 

1 

1                 10i 

8 

8f 

6i 

[555] 


CRUCIBLE  FURNACE,  TILTING  TYPE 
CRUCIBLES — Cont. 


NOB. 

Holding  Capacity, 
Liquid  Measure 

£g 

Diameter  at 
the  Top 
Outside 

Diameter  at 
the  Bulge 
Outside 

Diameter  at 
the  Bottom 
Outside 

Gals. 

Qts. 

Pts. 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

30 

1 

1 

1 

•     11 

81 

9* 

6* 

35 

1 

2 

1 

111 

9J 

9| 

7 

40 

2 

.  .  . 

12| 

9* 

101 

71 

45 

2 

I 

13 

9f 

10| 

71 

50 

2 

3 

... 

13| 

10* 

ill 

71 

60 

3 

... 

14 

10f 

ill 

8 

70 

3 

1 

14| 

101 

12 

8| 

80 

3 

2 

1 

15f 

HI 

12f 

8f 

90 

4 

151 

11* 

12| 

9 

100 

4 

2 

1 

16 

HI 

13i 

9f 

125 

4 

3 

1 

16f 

12| 

13! 

91 

150 

6 

3 

18* 

131 

14f 

10f 

175 

7 

3 

1 

19f 

14J 

15! 

10! 

200 

9 

3 

1 

20£ 

15 

16| 

m 

225 

10 

1 

1 

20f 

16* 

16! 

12* 

250 

10 

3 

20£ 

m 

17 

ii! 

275 

11 

3 

22| 

15 

16f 

12| 

300 

12 

2 

22 

161 

17* 

12* 

SECTION    A~A 


KROESCHELL-SCHWARTZ  CRUCIBLE  FURNACE,  TILTING  TYPE 

This  furnace  relates  to  that  class  of  crucible-furnaces  in  which  the  fuel  (gas  or  oil) 
and  the  air  for  its  combustion  are  introduced  into  the  furnace-chamber  at  or  near  its 
base;  the  hot  gases  of  combustion  are  given  a  gyratory  motion  causing  them  to  com- 
pletely envelop  the  crucible  supported  in  the  chamber,  thus  heating  and  melting  its 
contents.  In  a  furnace  of  this  construction  the  greatest  intensity  of  heat  is  generated 
about  the  lower  portion  of  the  crucible  and  causes  its  contents  to  melt  from  the  bottom 
upwardly,  with  the  advantage  of  employing  the  heat  of  conduction  from  the  lower 

[556] 


CRUCIBLE  FURNACE,  TILTING  TYPE 

molten  portion  of  the  mass  to  the  upper  solid  portion;  it  thus  expedites  the  melting 
operation  and  greatly  reduces  oxidation,  important  considerations  in  melting  metals. 

The  engravings  from  designs  by  Kroeschell  Brothers  Company,  440  W.  Erie  Street, 
Chicago,  111.,  show  a  cylindrical  metal  casing  with  refractory  lining,  as  also  a  raised 
base  formed  with  a  circular  concave  seat  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  a  special  crucible 
having  a  convex  bottom  conforming  to  the  seat;  it  is  also  provided  with  a  spout  for 
pouring.  The  crucible  is  held  in  place  in  the  furnace  by  this  concave  seat  and  by 
adjustment  of  two  fire-bricks  along  the  sides  and  near  the  top;  when  the  furnace,  is 
tipped  to  pour  the  metal,  the  crucible  is  in  no  wise  displaced,  in  fact,  the  crucible  is 
never  removed  until  it  has  to  be  replaced  by  a  new  one. 

This  bottom  lining  also  forms  an  annular  gutter  having  a  discharge  outlet  at  the 
bottom  of  the  casing  from  which  slag  or  spilled  metal  discharges  automatically,  a  detail 
not  shown  in  the  engraving. 

Two  covers  are  provided,  the  main  cover  hinged  to  top  of  casing,  and  a  smaller 
cover  arranged  to  swivel  on  the  main  cover  as  shown  in  the  engraving;  both  covers 
are  lined  with  refractory  material.  The  main  cover  is  provided  with  a  central  charging 
opening;  the  smaller  cover  is  also  provided  with  an  opening,  the  purpose  of  which  is 
to  form  an  outlet  for  the  escape  of  spent  gases  from  the  furnace.  A  hood  placed  above 
the  furnace  conveys  these  gases  to  the  chimney. 

To  operate  the  furnace  the  small  cover  is  swung  aside  for  charging  the  metal  to  be 
melted  through  the  main  cover-opening  into  the  crucible.  The  main  cover  need  never 
be  opened  except  for  introducing  and  removing  a  crucible  and  for  repairing  purposes, 
so  that  the  furnace  remains  closed  while  in  operation  and  also  while  pouring. 

The  furnace  is  provided  with  trunnions  which  rest  on  two  cast-iron  supports,  the 


trunnions  being  placed  below  the  center  to  insure  the  easy  tilting  of  the  furnace  by 
means  of  a  hand  wheel  and  gearing  when  the  crucible  is  filled  with  metal. 

The  tilting  function  of  the  furnace  is  advantageous  in  facilitating  pouring  the  molten 
metal,  and  as  the  crucible  is  not  removed  from  the  furnace,  there  is  no  loss  of  heat 
through  radiation. 

Pouring  metal  from  a  crucible  in  a  completely  closed  furnace,  far  above  the  tem- 
perature of  the  molten  metal,  insures  not  only  hot  metal  but  greatly  reduces  the  time 
required  for  making  the  next  heat. 

The  location  of  fuel  valve  and  air  inlet  is  shown,  as  also  the  construction  of  lining 
in  the  combustion  zone,  in  Section  A-A. 

[557] 


COMPOSITION  OF  SOME  ALLOYS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

This  tilting  furnace  is  made  in  one  size  with  melting  capacity  per  heat  of  400  pounds 
of  metal.  The  oil  consumption  per  100  pounds  of  brass  or  bronze  melted  is  2  gallons; 
when  melting  iron  5  gallons  of  oil  are  required  per  100  pounds.  The  gas  consumption 
per  100  pounds  of  brass  or  bronze  is  300  cubic  feet;  for  iron  600  cubic  feet  of  gas 
are  required.  The  air  pressure  required  is  from  20  to  24  ounces.  The  air  required 
per  minute  is  from  125  to  140  cubic  feet. 

Melting  copper,  brass,  or  bronze,  the  furnace  has  a  capacity  of  from  six  to  seven 
400-pound  heats  per  day.  The  oxidation  of  the  non-ferrous  metals  melted  in  this 
furnace  is  very  low;  on  bronze  it  is  less  than  1%,  while  on  yellow  brass  it  is  less  than 
2%.  The  furnace  is  especially  well  adapted  for  melting  borings,  turnings,  etc.,  be- 
cause the  metal  melts  first  at  the  bottom  of  the  crucible;  this  insures  a  low  melting  loss. 

When  used  for  Lmelting  gray  iron,  the  output  averages  about  400  pounds  per  heat, 
and  four  heats  can  readily  be  taken  off  in  a  day.  The  results  thus  far  obtained  with 
iron  have  been  gratifying.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  iron  does  not  come  in  contact 
with  coke  or  other  melting  medium,  as  in  the  cupola,  there  is  no  increase  in  the  sulphur 
content,  and  the  other  metalloids,  such  as  manganese,  silicon,  and  carbon  are  under 
absolute  control.  For  this  reason,  clean  iron  is  insured  and  no  change  occurs  in  the 
mixture  as  a  result  of  the  melting  operation,  owing  to  the  low  percentage  of  oxidation. 

COMPOSITION   OF  SOME   ALLOYS   USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

ALPHABETICALLY  ARRANGED 

Admiralty  Metal. — Cast.  United  States  Navy.  Composition  A:  70.0%  copper 
(minimum);  1.0%  tin  (minimum);  0.06%  iron  (maximum);  0.075%  lead  (maximum); 
zinc  =  remainder.  Uses.  Condenser  tubes,  distiller  tubes,  feed-water  heater  tubes, 
evaporator  tubes. 

Aich's  Metal. — Composition:  60.0%  copper;  38.2%  zinc;  1.8%  iron.  To  which 
is  sometimes  added  1.0%  tin.  Properties:  Specific  gravity,  8.42.  Yellow-gold  color. 
Resists  action  of  sea  water;  it  is  hard  and  tenacious.  At  red  heat  it  is  as  malleable 
as  wrought  iron.  At  20°  C.  (68°  F.)  its  tensile  strength  is  57,300  pounds  per  square 
inch;  at  450°  C.  (842°  F.)  the  tenacity  is  reduced  to  11,430  pounds  per  square  inch. 
Melting  point  about  894°  C.  (1641°  F.)  , 

Alloy — Non-Oxidizable.— Composition,  Lemarguand:  38.66%^  copper;  7.22% 
nickel;  7.73%  cobalt;  9.28%  tin;  37.12%  zinc.  The  metals  must  be  pure. 

Aluminum  Alloy '.— Composition:  3.0%  copper;  82.0%  aluminum;  15.0%  zinc. 
Specific  gravity,  3.1  =  0.11  pound  per  cubic  inch.  Suitable  for  castings. 

Aluminum  Alloy. — Composition:  8.0%  copper;  92.0%  aluminum.  Specific  grav- 
ity, 2.8  =  0.10  pound  per  cubic  inch.  Tensile  strength  about  18,000  pounds  per 
square  inch.  Suitable  for  automobile  castings,  crank  cases,  etc. 

Aluminum  Alloys. — Note — Zinc  alone  confers  strength  to  the  alloys  with  aluminum. 
Copper  hardens  without  strengthening.  Annealing  lowers  the  strength.  Rolling 
strengthens  the  material.  Strength  of  castings  increases  with  magnesium  content, 
the  copper  and  zinc  content  ranging  10  to  15%  combined. 

Aluminum  Brass. — Cowles.  Composition:  33.33%  copper;  33.33%  zinc;  33.33% 
A-No.  1  aluminum  bronze  (89.0%  copper;  11.0%  aluminum).  The  copper  and  the 
bronze  are  first  thoroughly  melted  together,  then  add  the  zinc.  This  alloy  will  show 
about  80,000  pounds  tensile  strength  per  square  inch. 

Aluminum  Bronze. — Composition:  87.0%  aluminum;  8.0%  copper;  5.0%  tin. 
Used  in  the  automobile  industry. 

Aluminum  Bronze.  Composition,  Cowles:  A-No.  1  =  89.0%  copper;  11.0% 
aluminum. 

A-No.  2  =  90.0%  copper;  10.0%  aluminum.  These  alloys  are  used  in  mixtures 
when  preparing  aluminum  brasses. 

Aluminum  Copper. — Aluminum  with  less  than  7.0%  copper  will  form  malleable 
alloys.  In  the  automobile  industry  alloys  containing  3  to  5.0%  copper  are  sometimes 
used.  An  alloy  94.0%  aluminum;  6.0%  copper  was  used  in  the  hull  construction  of 
a  torpedo  boat,  but  the  excessive  corrosion  of  this  alloy  by  sea  water  prevented  its. 

[558] 


COMPOSITION  OF  SOME  ALLOYS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 


further  use.  The  highest  tenacity  is  obtained  with  the  alloy  containing  about  4.0% 
copper;  beyond  this  the  strength  diminishes.  Only  those  alloys  which  contain  but 
small  percentages  of  copper  are  of  any  industrial  value. 

Aluminum  and  Manganese. — Alloys  may  be  made  by  mixing  these  two  metals 
while  in  a  state  of  fusion;  the  resultant  alloy  will  have  the  property  of  being  attracted 
by  the  magnet.  Alloys  containing  2  to  3.0%  manganese  are  used  in  the  automobile 
industry.  The  effect  of  small  quantities  of  manganese  is  to  increase  the  tenacity, 
but  when  as  much  as  10.0%  is  reached  the  alloys  are  hard  and  brittle. 

Aluminum  and  Nickel. — The  effect  of  nickel  on  aluminum  is  similar  to  that  of  copper, 
but  it  is  only  such  alloys  as  contain  small  percentages  of  nickel  that  possess  any  pracr 
tical  value;  the  limit  appears  to  be  at  about  2.0%  nickel,  which  hardens  aluminum. 
At  5.0%  nickel  the  alloy  is  very  brittle. 

Aluminum  and  Zinc. — Alloys  containing  less  than  50.0%  zinc  consist  of  homo- 
geneous solid  solutions,  and  those  containing  less  than  4.0%  aluminum  are  also  solid 
solutions.  Alloys  with  1  to  15%  zinc  can  be  rolled,  and  drawn,  but  with  more  zinc 
they  become  hard  and  can  only  be  used  for  castings. 

Anti-Friction  Metal. — Admiralty.  Plastic.  Composition:  5.0%  copper;  85.0% 
tin;  10.0%  antimony.  For  heavy  load  (special):  8.0%  copper;  83.0%  tin;  9.0% 
antimony. 

Anti-Friction  Metal. — Cast.  United  States  Navy.  Composition  W:  3.7%  copper; 
88.8%  tin  (Banca);  7.5%  regulus  of  antimony  (to  be  well  fluxed  with  borax  and  rosin 
in  mixing).  Uses.  All  white  metal  liner  bearings  and  bearing  surfaces. 

Argentan. — Composition:    52.0%  copper;  26.0%  nickel;  22.0%  zinc. 

Arsenic  Bronze. — Composition  by  analysis,  Dudley.  89.20%  copper;  10.0%  tin; 
0.8%  arsenic. 

Babbitt  Metal. — A  composition  for  lining  journal  boxes  was  patented  by  Isaac 
Babbitt  in  1839.  In  his  patent  he  claimed  50  parts  tin;  5  of  antimony;  and  1  of 
copper,  but  did  not  intend  to  confine  himself  to  this  particular  composition.  This  is 
the  basic  formula  for  all  so-called  babbitt  metals. 

Commercial  Babbitt  metals  range  from  the  so-called  genuine  Babbitt  down  through 
a  great  variety  of  mixtures  to  that  of  simply  hardened  lead.  With  a  view  to  reducing 
the  number  of  commercial  mixtures  and  yet  meet  the  requirements  of  machine  and 
engine  builders,  a  sub-committee  of  the  American  Society  for  Testing  Materials  has 
proposed  5  specific  grades,  as  given  below. 


Number 

Tin 

Antimony 

Copper 

Lead 

1  

83  33% 

8  33% 

8  33% 

2  

89  00 

7  00 

4  00 

3.  .  . 

50  00 

15  00 

2  00 

33  00% 

4  

5  00 

15  00 

80  00 

5 

10  00 

90  00 

A  Babbitt  metal  recommended  in  the  Metal  Industry  Handbook  (1916)  is  made 
as  follows:  Melt  together  4  pounds  copper,  8  pounds  antimony,  and  24  pounds  tin. 
Cast  this  in  thin  strips  in  an  iron  mold.  Melt  in  an  iron  pot  72  pounds  tin,  and  add 
the  hardening  mixture  to  it  and  stir  well.  Cast  the  resulting  metal  into  small  ingots 
for  use.  The  Handbook  says  this  is  one  of  the  best  white  metals  for  lining  bearings 
known,  when  it  is  made  according  to  the  above  formula. 

Note. — The  above  composition  is  almost  identical  to  that  used  in  the  United  States 
Navy. 

Bell  Metal. — Composition:  80.0%  copper;  20.0%  tin.  This  metal  when  slowly 
cooled  after  fusion,  is  dingy  gray  in  appearance,  and  very  brittle.  If  suddenly  chilled 
in  cold  water  from  a  low  red  heat  it  becomes  moderately  soft  and  capable  of  being 
worked;  it  may  be  hardened  after  working  by  heating  tcJ  redness  and  slowly  cooled. 

Brass  with  Aluminum. — The  useful  addition  of  aluminum  to  brass  composed  wholly 
of  copper  and  zinc  is  restricted  to  small  percentages,  not  over  4%.  Guillet's  experi- 

[559] 


COMPOSITION  OF  SOME  ALLOYS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

ments  relating  to  two  types  of  brass  known  as  70-30  and  60-40  composition  show  that 
an  alloy  containing  38.0%  zinc  and  2.0%  aluminum  has  the  structure  of  a  brass  con- 
taining 45.0%  zinc;  and  this  holds  good  with  all  the  intermediate  alloys;  indicating 
that  1.0%  aluminum  is  probably  equivalent  to  3.5%  zinc.  With  more  than  4.0% 
aluminum  the  alloys  are  difficult  to  work.  It  is  probable  that  the  action  of  aluminum 
in  small  quantities  in  compositions  of  copper  and  zinc  is  that  of  a  deoxidizer. 

Brass  with  Aluminum. — Castings.  Mechanical  tests  by  Guillet  show  that  60.0% 
copper;  40.0%  zinc,  has  a  tensile  strength  of  44,800  pounds  per  square  inch  with  47.0% 
elongation.  With  0.8%  aluminum  the  tensile  strength  was  about  43,000  pounds,  elon- 
gation 45%.  With  2.9%  aluminum  the  tensile  strength  was  nearly  65,000  pounds, 
elongation  14%.  With  4.7%  aluminum  the  tensile  strength  was  62,720  pounds,  elon- 
gation 2%.  For  engineering  purposes  the  4.7%  alloy  is  inferior  to  that  containing 
2.9%  aluminum  because  of  its  brittleness. 

A  brass  alloy,  70.0%  copper;  30.0%  zinc,  showed  a  tensile  strength  of  about  19,264 
pounds  per  square  inch  with  50.0%  elongation.  An  alloy,  70.0%  copper;  29.1% 
zinc;  0.9%  aluminum,  had  tensile  strength  31,800  pounds  with  67.0%  elongation. 
With  3.1%  aluminum;  70.5%  copper;  26.4%  zinc,  the  tensile  strength  was  47,488 
pounds  with  50.0%  elongation.  Increasing  the  aluminum  to  5.2%,  with  70.0%  copper; 
24.8%  zinc,  the  tensile  strength  was  71,232  pounds  with  but  11.0%  elongation. 

Brass  with  Aluminum.  Rolled  and  annealed  bars.  Mechanical  tests  by  Guillet 
show  that  an  alloy  61.4%  copper;  37.9%  zinc;  0.7%  aluminum,  had  a  tensile  strength  of 
about  49,000  pounds  per  square  inch  with  45.0%  elongation.  An  alloy,  61.0%  copper; 
37.6%  zinc;  1.4%  aluminum,  had  51,520  pounds  tensile  strength  with  45.3%  elongation. 
With  60.0%  copper;  38.0%  zinc;  2.0%  aluminum,  the  tensile  strength  was  56,000 
pounds  with  17.0%  elongation.  Increasing  the  aluminum  to  3.9%  aluminum  with  60.0% 
copper;  36.1%  zinc,  the  tensile  strength  was  about  67,000  pounds  with  13.0%  elongation. 

Brass  Castings. — United  States  Navy.  Composition  B-c:  62.0%  copper  (mini- 
mum); 30.0%  zinc  (minimum);  2.0%  iron  (maximum);  3.0%  lead  (maximum); 
tin  =  remainder,  normally,  3.0%.  Uses:  Name  and  number  plates.  Cases  for 
instruments.  Oil  cups.  Distribution  boxes. 

Brass  Castings  for  Electrical  Appliances. — United  States  Navy.  Composition  BE: 
80-88%  copper;  2.0%  tin  (minimum);  2.0%  lead  (maximum);  zinc  =  remainder. 
Uses:  For  electrical  fittings,  such  as  junction  boxes,  switches,  distribution  boxes 
connection  boxes,  water-tight  bells,  and  buzzers,  etc. 

Brass  Castings.  —  Not  to  stand  high  pressure  steam.  Composition:  85.0% 
copper;  15.0%  zinc;  3.0%  tin;  2.0%  lead.  Melting  point  about  1032°  C.  (1890°  F.). 

Brass,  Castings,  Yellow. — Composition:  70.0%  copper;  1.0%  tin;  27.0%  zinc; 
2.0%  lead.  Tensile  strength,  about  29,000  pounds  per  square  inch.  Casts  satisfactorily, 
works  easily,  takes  a  fine  finish. 

Brass,  Commercial.  —  Compositions  B-r  and  B-p.  United  States  Navy.  Com- 
position B-r:  60-63%  copper;  0.5%  tin  (maximum);  38-35.5%  zinc;  3.0%  lead 
(maximum)  0.06%  iron  (maximum).  Uses:  For  rods,  bars,  shapes. 

B-p:  60-70%  copper;  40-30%  zinc;  0.5%  lead  (maximum);  0.06%  iron  (maxi- 
mum). Uses:  For  sheets,  plates,  and  piping. 

Brass  Condenser  Tubes. — Admiralty.  Composition:  70.0%  copper;  1.0% 
tin  (minimum);  29.0%  zinc. 

Brass  with  Lead. — The  addition  of  lead  to  brass  improves  its  lathe-working  qualities. 
Lead  exists  in  brass  in  a  free  state  and  tends  to  segregate  in  patches  according  to  the 
amount  present  and  the  rate  of  cooling.  Quick  cooling  lessens  segregation.  High 
grade  brass  should  never  contain  more  than  0.10%  lead  or  its  ductility  will  be  impaired. 
The  presence  of  2.5  to  3.0%  lead  cannot  be  detected  by  the  eye  in  a  polished  surface. 
Alloys  of  brass  with  lead  are  rolled  cold,  because  of  liability  to  crack  if  rolled  hot,  and 
the  limit  of  lead  is  about  2.0%  for  rolling.  The  alloy  most  commonly  used  contains 
about  60.0%  copper;  38.0%  zinc;  2.0%  lead. 

Brass  with  Manganese. — The  so-called  manganese  bronze  is  in  reality  a  manganese 
brass;  the  principal  metals  in  the  alloy  being  copper  and  zinc.  The  action  of  man- 
ganese in  a  copper  and  zinc  alloy  is  to  strengthen  and  harden  it;  it  is  equivalent  to 
reducing  the  copper  and  increasing  the  zinc.  As  the  addition  of  the  manganese  is 

[560] 


COMPOSITION  OF  SOME  ALLOYS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

commonly  in  the  form  of  ferro-manganese  such  alloys  contain  traces  of  iron,  and  upon 
analysis,  very  often,  only  traces  of  manganese  are  found,  in  which  case  the  manganese 
probably  acted  as  a  deoxidizer  and  did  not  enter  into  the  alloy  at  all.  When  manganese 
does  enter  into  solution,  the  micro-structure  is  the  same  as  that  of  copper-zinc  alloys. 
Manganese  bronzes  or  brasses  containing  more  than  60%  copper  are  suitable  for  forg- 
ing; alloys  containing  less  than  60%  copper  are  suitable  only  for  castings.  A  feature 
of  brass-manganese  alloys  is  instanced  by  Hiorns  in  which  an  alloy:  54%  copper; 
40%  zinc;  6%  manganese,  has  practically  the  same  structure  as  brass  with  57%  copper 
and  43%  zinc.  Again,  an  alloy  of  55%  copper;  10%  manganese;  35%  zinc,  has  the 
same  structure  as  60-40  brass. 

Brass.  Naval.  Admiralty. — Composition:  62.0%  copper;  1.0%  tin;  37.0%  zinc. 
Tensile  strength  for  round  bars,  f  inch  and  under  58,240  pounds  per  square  inch;  round 
bars  above  f  inch  and  square  bars,  49,280  pounds.  Bars  to  be  capable  of  (a)  being 
hammered  hot  to  a  fine  point;  (b)  being  bent  cold  through  an  angle  of  75°  over  a  radius 
equal  to  the  diameter,  or  the  thickness  of  the  bars. 

Brass  Pipe  Fittings. — United  States  Navy.  Composition  S-c:  77-80%  copper; 
4.0%  tin;  13-19%  zinc;  3.0%  lead;  0.10%  iron. 

Brass.  Red.  Commercial. — Composition:  83.0%  copper;  4.0%  tin;  7.0  zinc; 
6.0%  lead.  Tensile  strength  about  30,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Brass.  Rolled.  High  Brass. — Composition:  61.5%  copper;  38.5%  zinc.  For 
spinning,  drawing,  etc. 

Brass.     Rolled.    Low  Brass. — Composition:    80.0%  copper;  20.0%  zinc. 

Brass.  Spring  Wire. — Composition:  65.7%  copper;  32.8%  zinc;  1.5%  tin,  or, 
commonly,  66%%  copper;  33  H%  zinc,  with  1^%  tin  added. 

Brass  with  Tin. — A  small  percentage  of  tin  renders  brass  less  liable  to  corrosion  by 
sea  water  when  in  contact  with  gun  metal.  An  alloy  of  brass  with  tin  is  known  as 
Naval  Brass,  the  approximate  composition  being  62.0%  copper;  37.0%  zinc;  1.0%  tin; 
beyond  this  percentage  of  tin  the  alloy  increases  in  brittleness  and  hardness;  and  with 
more  than  2.0%  tin  the  alloy  loses  its  useful  properties. 

Brass  Tubes  for  Locomotives. — British  Standard.  Composition:  70-30  alloy 
to  contain  not  less  than  70.0%  copper,  and  not  more  than  a  total  of  0.75%  of  materials 
other  than  copper  and  zinc. 

Composition:  2-1  alloy  to  contain  not  less  than  66.7%  copper,  and  not  more  than 
a  total  of  0.75%  of  materials  other  than  copper  and  zinc. 

Bulging  test:  The  tubes  must  stand  bulging  or  drifting  without  either  crack  or 
flaw,  until  the  diameter  of  the  bulged  or  drifted  end  measures  not  less  than  25.0% 
greater  than  the  original  diameter  of  the  tube. 

Flanging  test:  The  tubes  must  stand  flanging,  without  showing  either  crack  or 
flaw,  until  the  diameter  of  the  flange  measures  not  less  than  25.0%  greater  than  the 
original  diameter  of  the  tube. 

Flattening  and  doubling  over  test:  Tubes  must  be  capable  of  standing  the  follow- 
ing test,  when  cold,  without  showing  either  crack  or  flaw.  A  piece  of  the  tube  shall 
be  flattened  down  until  the  interior  surfaces  of  the  tube  meet,  and  then  be  doubled 
over  on  itself,  i.e.,  bent  through  an  angle  of  180°,  the  bend  being  at  right  angles  to 
the  direction  of  length  of  the  tube. 

Hydraulic  test:  All  brass  boiler  tubes  shall  be  tested  by  an  internal  hydraulic 
pressure  of  at  least  750  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Brass,  Yellow.  —  Composition:  60.0%  copper;  40.0%  zinc.  Tensile  strength: 
Castings  =  16,000  pounds  per  square  inch.  Annealed  sheet  =  60,000  pounds.  Hard 
rolled  sheet  =  107,000  pounds.  A  possible  reduction  of  92.0%  in  rolling  is  given  by 
E.  S.  Sperry.  This  composition  is  perfectly  homogeneous;  the  chips,  being  long  and 
tenaceous,  necessitate  a  slow  speed  in  cutting. 

Brass,  Yellow. — Composition:  60.0%  copper;  35.0%  zinc;  5.0%  lead.  Tensile 
strength:  Castings  =  33,000  pounds  per  square  inch.  Annealed  sheets  =  42,000 
pounds.  Hard  rolled  sheets  =  61,000  pounds.  This  composition  makes  good  castings 
with  good  cutting  qualities.  This  alloy  cracked  on  rolling.  A  possible  reduction  of 
61.0%  in  rolling  is  given  by  E.  S.  Sperry. 

Brazing.  Aluminum  Bronze. — This  metal  will  braze,  using  25.0%  brass  solder 

[561] 


COMPOSITION  OF  SOME  ALLOYS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

(50.0%  copper;    50.0%  zinc)  and  75.0%  borax,  or,  better  perhaps,  75.0%  cryolite, 
a  double  fluoride  of  aluminum  and  sodium. 

Brazing  Metal. — Composition:  84.2%  copper;  15.8%  zinc.  For  flanges  for  copper 
pipes.  Brazing  solder  for  the  above  alloy,  50.0%  copper;  50.0%  zinc. 

Brazing  Metal. — United  States  Navy.  Composition  F:  84-86%  copper;  0.06% 
iron  (maximum) ;  0.3  %  lead  (maximum) ;  zinc  =  remainder.  Used  on  all  flanges  for 
copper  pipe  and  other  fittings  that  are  to  be  brazed. 

Bronze.  Acid  Resisting. — Composition:  90.0%  copper;  10.0%  tin.  Tensile 
strength,  37,500  pounds  per  square  inch.  Suitable  for  mine  pumps. 

Bronze,  Ajax. — Composition  by  analysis,  Dudley:  81.2%  copper;  10.9%  tin; 
7.2%  lead;  0.4%  phosphorus. 

Bronze,  Castings. — Admiralty.  Composition:  87.0%  copper;  8.0%  tin;  5.0% 
zinc.  For  parts  of  engines  on  Naval  vessels. 

Bronze,  Deoxidized.— Composition:  82.42%  copper;  12.25%  tin;  3.14%  zinc; 
2.08%  lead;  0.10%  iron;  0.03%  silver;  0.005  phosphorus. 

Bronze,  Journal. — United  States  Navy.  Composition  H:  82-84%  copper; 
12.5-14.5%  tin;  2.5-4.5%  zinc;  0.06%  iron  (maximum);  1.0%  lead  (maximum). 
Normal:  83  —  13.5  —  3.5.  Uses:  Suitable  for  bearings,  journal  boxes,  bushings, 
and  sleeves,  slides,  slippers,  guide  gibs,  wedges  on  water-tight  doors,  and  all  parts 
subject  to  considerable  wear,  for  reciprocating  engines  in  valve  stem  cross-head  bottom 
brass,  link  block  gibs,  and  suspension  link  brasses. 

Camelia  Metal. — Composition  by  analysis,  Dudley:  70.2%  copper;  4.2%  tin; 
14.7%  lead;  10.2%  zinc;  0.5%  iron. 

Car  Bearings.  Pennsylvania  Railroad. — Composition,  Dudley's  alloy  B:  76.8% 
copper;  8.0%  tin;  15.0%  lead;  0.2%  phosphorus. 

Carbon  Bronze. — Composition  by  analysis,  Dudley:  75.4%  copper;  9.7%  tin; 
14.5%  lead. 

Constantin. — Composition:  60.0%  copper;  40.0%  nickel.  High  electric  resistance 
properties. 

Copper  Plates  for  locomotive  fire  boxes.  English  Standard.  Composition:  Class 
A.  Not  less  than  99.25%  copper,  and  0.35  to  0.55%  of  arsenic. 

Class  B.  Not  less  than  99.25%  copper,  and  0.25  to  0.45%  of  arsenic.  Tensile 
strength  not  less  than  31,360  pounds  per  square  inch  with  35%  elongation  in  8  inches. 
Bending  test  both  red  and  cold  through  180°  without  showing  either  crack  or  flaw  on 
the  outside  of  the  bend. 

Copper  Rods  for  locomotive  stay  bolts,  rivets,  etc.  English  Standard.  Composi- 
tion: Not  less  than  99.25%  copper,  and  0.15  to  0.35%  of  arsenic.  Tensile  strength 
not  less  than  31,360  pounds  per  square  inch  with  not  less  than  40.0%  elongation  in 
8  inches. 

Copper  Tubes  (seamless)  for  locomotive  feed  pipes  etc.  British  Standard.  Com- 
position: Tubes  must  contain  not  less  than  99.25%  copper,  and  0.25  to  0.45%  arsenic. 
Mechanical  tests  are  the  same  as  for  brass  tubes. 

Cupro-Nickel. — For  cartridge  cases:  75.0  to  85.0%  copper  and  the  remainder 
nickel. 

Delta  Metal.  Composition:  57.0%  copper;  42.0%  zinc;  1.0%  iron.  Castings 
have  a  tensile  strength  of  about  45,000  pounds  per  square  inch.  Rolled  or  forged 
bars  have  a  tensile  strength  of  about  60,000  pounds  per  square  inch.  The  iron  is 
chemically  combined  by  dissolving  wrought  iron  in  the  molten  copper.  Tin,  manganese, 
or  lead  is  sometimes  introduced  into  the  alloy,  to  impart  special  properties  to  it. 
Delta  metal  can  be  forged  at  a  dark  cherry-red  heat. 

Duralumin. — Composition:  3.6%  copper;  0.5  silicon;  0.60%  iron;  0.4%  man- 
ganese; 94.9%  aluminum.  Specific  gravity,  2.79.  Tensile  strength  of  castings  about 
35,800  pounds  per  square  inch.  It  is  used  in  the  form  of  sheets  and  wire.  The  tensile 
strength  of  sheets  is  about  76,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Duralumin.  Composition  by  analysis,  Law:  4.06%  copper;  0.53%  manganese; 
0.86%  magnesium;  0.40%  silicon;  1.55%  iron;  92.60%  aluminum  (by  difference). 

Fusible  Alloy.— Charpy  gives  the  most  fusible  alloy:  52.0%  bismuth;  32.0% 
lead;  16.0%  tin.  Fusing  point,  96°  C.  (204.8°  F.).  He  calls  this  the  eutectic  alloy. 

[562] 


COMPOSITION  OF  SOME  ALLOYS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

Newton's  Fusible  Alloys.  Composition:  50.0%  bismuth;  31.25%  lead;  18.75% 
tin.  Melting  point,  95°  C.  (203°  F.). 

Rose's  alloy:  50.0%  bismuth;  28.0%  lead;  22.0%  tin.  Melting  point,  100°  C. 
(212°  F.). 

Wood's  alloy:  38.46%  bismuth;  30.77%  lead;  15.38%  tin;  15.39%  cadmium. 
Melting  point,  71°  C.  (160°  F.). 

Lipowitz's  alloy:  50.0%  bismuth;  27.0%  lead;  13.0%  tin;  10.0%  cadmium. 
Melting  point,  60°  C.  (140°  F.). 

Fusible  Alloys.  Darcet's  formulas:  A.  57.14%  bismuth;  14.29%  lead;  28.57% 
tin. 

B.  59.26%  bismuth;  14.82%  lead;  25.93%  tin. 

C.  60.0%  bismuth;  13.33%  lead;  26.67%  tin. 

Of  these  all  become  more  or  less  soft  at  100°  C.  (212°  F.);  alloy  B  becomes  softer 
than  either  A  or  C. 

D.  57.14%  bismuth;    17.85%  lead;   25.00%  tin,  becomes  nearly  fluid  at  100°  C. 
(212°  £.). 

E.  53.33%  bismuth;  20.00%  lead;  26.67%  tin,  becomes  liquid  at  100°  C.  (212°  F.), 
but  not  very  fluid. 

F.  50.0%  bismuth;  25.0%  lead;   25.0%  tin  becomes  very  liquid  at  100°  C.  (212° 
F.).    The  melting  point  of  this  alloy  is  said  to  be  93°  C.  (199.4°  F.). 

Gear  Bronze. — Hard.  Composition:  89.0%  copper;  11.0%  tin.  Tensile  strength, 
about  37,500  pounds  per  square  inch.  Elastic  limit,  about  21,600  pounds.  Suitable 
for  worm-wheels  with  steel  worm. 

Gear  Bronze.  Medium  hard.  Composition:  88.0%  copper;  10.0%  tin;  2.0% 
lead.  Tensile  strength,  about  32,500  pounds  per  square  inch.  Suitable  for  worm- 
wheels  with  steel  worm. 

German  Silver. — An  alloy  consisting  of  nickel,  copper,  and  zinc.  This  alloy  has  the 
properties  of  whiteness,  luster,  hardness,  tenacity,  toughness,  malleability,  and  ductility. 
The  proportions  of  the  above  metals  vary  widely,  and  to  these  are  sometimes  added: 
Tin,  iron,  cobalt,  silver,  manganese,  aluminum,  lead,  antimony,  magnesium,  according 
to  the  needs  or  the  fancy  of  the  manufacturer.  Hiorns  states  that  founders  whose 
specialty  is  German  silver  have  agreed  that  the  best  alloy  for  beauty,  luster,  and  working 
properties  is  46.0%  copper;  34.0%  nickel;  20.0%  zinc. 

German  Silver,  Notes  on. — The  metals  most  often  found  in  German  silver  and 
regarded  as  impurities  are  iron,  tin,  and  lead.  Iron  forms  a  solid  solution  with  the 
alloy;  it  increases  the  strength,  hardness,  and  elasticity  of  German  silver,  and  makes 
it  slightly  whiter.  In  general,  1  to  2%  of  iron  does  not  affect  its  working;  in  fact,  nearly 
all  commercial  castings  contain  some  iron.  In  mixtures  intended  for  rolling  and  spin- 
ning, iron  has  been  found  to  be  very  objectionable.  In  regard  to  color,  an  alloy  con- 
taining 12.0%  nickel  with  iron  is  said  to  be  equal  to  an  alloy  containing  16.0%  nickel 
in  which  no  iron  is  present,  zinc  being  the  same  in  each  case.  To  alloy  iron  with 
copper  and  nickel  by  Hiorns'  method:  Heat  together  the  best  iron  wire  with  copper 
and  nickel  in  a  covered  crucible,  add  zinc  to  the  molten  mass,  stir  vigorously  and  pour 
into  ingots;  the  metals  will  form  a  perfect  alloy  and  no  separation  of  iron  can  be  de- 
tected when  the  ingot  is  rolled  into  a  thin  sheet  and  highly  polished. 

Tin,  to  the  extent  of  2  to  4%,  is  much  more  injurious  to  German  silver  than  is  iron, 
the  alloy  showing  brittleness  in  rolling  and  a  decided  yellow  cast  when  polished;  there 
is,  therefore,  no  advantage  in  adding  tin  to  German  silver.  Tin  does  not  enter  into 
solid  solution  in  the  alloy,  but  forms  a  eutectic  which  renders  the  metal  brittle.  For 
use  in  ornamental  castings,  1  to  2%  tin  is  sometimes  used. 

Lead,  to  the  extent  of  1  to  3%,  is  sometimes  added  in  castings  to  facilitate  lathe  and 
hand  fitting. 

Arsenic  injures  the  working  qualities  of  German  silver  and  should  never  be  present. 

Cobalt  frequently  accompanies  nickel  and  alloys  readily  with  it;  it  exerts  no  in- 
jurious influence  in  German  silver  alloys. 

Graphite  Bearing  Metal. — Composition  by  analysis,  Dudley:  15.0%  tin;  68.0% 
lead;  17.0%  antimony.  No  graphite  present. 

Gun  Metal.  Admiralty.  Composition:  88.0%  copper;  10.0%  tin;  2.0%  zinc 

[563] 


COMPOSITION  OF  SOME  ALLOYS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

(maximum).    Tensile  strength,  31,360  pounds  per  square  inch.    Castings  must  be 
sound,  clean,  and  free  from  blow-holes. 

Gun  Metal.  Bearings.  Composition:  88.0%  copper;  10.0%  tin;  2.0%  zinc. 
Tensile  strength  about  35,000  pounds  per  square  inch.  Suitable  for  heavy  pressures 
and  high  speeds. 

Gun  Metal.  Cast.— Composition  G.  United  States  Navy.  87-89%  copper; 
9-11%  tin;  1-3%  zinc;  0.06%  iron  (maximum);  0.2%  lead  (maximum).  Uses:  All 
composition  valves  4  inches  in  diameter  and  above;  expansion  joints,  flanged  pipe 
fittings,  gear  wheels,  bolts  and  nuts,  miscellaneous  brass  castings,  all  parts  where 
strength  is  required  of  brass  castings  or  where  subjected  to  salt  water,  and  for  all  pur- 
poses where  no  other  alloy  is  specified. 

Gun  Metal.  English. — Composition:  87.0%  copper;  8.0%  tin;  5.0%  zinc.  For 
general  engine  fittings. 

Gun  Metal.  Good  alloy  for  general  use.  English. — Composition:  88.0%  copper; 
8.0%  tin;  2.0%  zinc;  .0%  lead.  Melts  about  950°  C.  (1742°  F.). 

Lead-Bronze  Bearing  Metal.  Composition:  77.0%  copper;  10.5%  tin;  12.5% 
lead.  The  wear  is  comparatively  low  with  lead  bronze,  but  the  friction  is  higher  than 
with  bronzes  containing  less  lead.  A  nickel  alloy  consisting  of  64.0%  copper;  5.0%  tin; 
30.0%  lead;  1.0%  nickel  is  given  by  Hiorns  as  being  largely  in  use,  as  it  allows  a  much 
greater  proportion  of  lead  with  the  consequent  diminished  wear. 

Lumen  Bearing  Metal. — Composition:    10.0%  copper;  85.0%  zinc;  5.0%  aluminum. 

Macadamite. — Composition:  72.0%  aluminum;  24.0%  zinc;  4.0%  copper.  This 
alloy  has  been  used  to  replace  brass  where  lightness  is  desirable. 

Magnalium. — This  alloy,  by  Dr.  Ludwig  Mach,  consists  of  100  parts  aluminum 
and  10  to  30  parts  of  magnesium.  It  is  very  light  in  weight,  and  can  be  made  hard 
or  soft  as  desired.  It  is  pure  white,  takes  a  higher  polish  than  silver,  and  is  said  to 
have  all  the  merits  and  none  of  the  defects  of  pure  aluminum.  The  alloys  containing 
more  than  15.0%  magnesium  at  one  end  of  the  series  or  more  than  15.0%  aluminum  at 
the  other  are  brittle.  Magnesium  has  the  power  of  freeing  aluminum  from  dissolved 
oxide.  The  three  chief  magnalium  alloys  are  termed  by  the  makers  X,  Y,  and  Z.  X  is 
used  for  very  strong  castings,  Y  for  ordinary  castings,  and  Z  for  rolling  and  drawing. 

X  contains  1.76%  copper;  1.16%  nickel;  1.6%  magnesium;  and  95.48%  aluminum. 

Y  is  similar  to  X,  but  contains  no  nickel  and  a  small  quantity  of  tin  and  lead. 

Z  contains  3.15%  tin;  0.21%  copper;  0.72%  lead;  1.58%  magnesium;  and  94.34% 
aluminum.  Hiorns. 

Magnalium. — Composition  by  analysis:  94.5%  aluminum;  2.0%  zinc;  2.0% 
copper;  1.0%  iron;  0.6%  magnesium.  Tensile  strength  (rolled),  20,832  pounds  per 
square  inch,  with  25%  elongation. 

Magnolia  Metal.— Composition  by  analysis,  Dudley:  83.55%  lead;  16.45% 
antimony;  with  traces  of  copper,  zinc,  and  iron. 

Composition  by  analysis,  R.  H.  Smith:    78.0%  lead;   16.0%  antimony;   6.0%  tin. 

Note. — Magnolia  metal  is  a  trade  name;  it  is  not  confined  to  a  single  composition. 

Manganese  Bronze. — Composition:  For  castings,  56.0%  copper;  41.0%  zinc; 
0.9%  tin;  1.5%  iron;  0.15%  manganese;  0.45%  aluminum.  Specific  gravity,  8.39. 

For  rods,  56.0%  copper;  40.6%  zinc;  0.9%  tin;  0.25%  iron;  2.0%  manganese; 
0.25%  aluminum. 

Manganese  Bronze.  Cast. — United  States  Navy.  Composition  Mn-c:  56.58% 
copper;  1.0%  tin  (maximum);  40-42%  zinc;  1.0%  iron  (maximum);  0.2%  lead 
(maximum);  0.5%  aluminum  (maximum);  0.3%  manganese  (maximum);  Uses: 
Propeller,  hubs,  propeller  blades,  engine  framing,  castings  requiring  great  strength, 
such  as  main  gearing  in  steering  engine;  worm-wheels  in  windlass  or  turning  gear 
for  turrets. 

Manganese  Copper. — Composition:  70.0%  copper;  30.0%  manganese.  Used  for 
electric  resistances. 

Manganese-Vanadium  Bronze. — Composition,  Law:  58.56%  copper;  38.54% 
zinc;  1.48%  aluminum;  0.48%  manganese;  1.00%  iron;  0.03%  vanadium.  Tensile 
strength,  about  81,500  pounds  per  square  inch;  elastic  limit,  about  50,600  pounds, 
elongation,  12%  in  2  inches.  Reduction  of  area,  14%. 

[564] 


COMPOSITION  OF  SOME  ALLOYS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

Manganin. — Composition:  84.0%  copper;  12.0%  nickel;  4.0%  manganese.  Used 
for  electrical  resistance. 

Monel  Metal. — Cast.  United  States  Navy.  Composition  Mo-c:  60.0%  nickel; 
6.5%  iron  (maximum);  0.5%  aluminum;  33.0%  copper  (remainder).  Uses:  Valve 
fittings,  plumbing  fittings,  boat  fittings,  propellers,  propeller  hubs,  blades,  engine 
framing,  pump  liners,  valve  seats,  shaft  nuts  and  caps,  and  composition  castings  requir- 
ing great  strength. 

Monel  Metal.— Rolled.  Sheets,  plates,  rods,  etc.  United  States  Navy.  Com- 
position Mo-r:  60.0%  nickel  (minimum);  3.5%  iron  (maximum);  0.5%  aluminum 
(maximum);  36.0%  copper  (remainder).  Uses:  Rolled  rounds,  used  principally 
for  propeller-blade  bolts,  air-pump  and  condenser  bolts,  and  parts  requiring  strength 
and  incorrodibility,  and  pump  rods. 

Muntz  Metal. — Composition,  English:  For  plates,  60.0%  copper;  40.0%  zinc. 
Specific  gravity,  8.40  =  524  pounds  per  cubic  foot  =  0.33  pound  per  cubic  inch.  Melt- 
ing point,  about  886°  C.  (1627°  F.). 

For  sheets,  61.0%  copper;  39.9%  zinc. 

For  rods,  62.0%  copper;  38.0  zinc.  This  alloy  is  very  ductile  and  can  be  forged 
when  hot.  It  has  an  ultimate  tensile  strength  of  about  49,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Muntz  Metal. — Cast.  United  States  Navy.  Composition  D-c:  59-62%  copper; 
38-41%  zinc;  0.6%  lead  (maximum). 

Muntz  Metal. — United  States  Navy.  Sheets,  plates,  rods,  bars,  etc.  Non-ferrous 
metal  D-r:  59-62%  copper;  38-41%  zinc;  0.6%  lead  (maximum).  Tensile  strength, 
40,000  pounds  per  square  inch.  Yield  point,  20,000  pounds  per  square  inch.  Elonga- 
tion, 25%  in  2  inches. 

Naval  Brass. — Cast.  United  States  Navy.  Composition  N-c:  60-63%  copper; 
0.5-1.5%  tin;  0.06%  iron  (maximum);  0.3%  lead  (maximum);  zinc  =  remainder. 
Normal,  62  —  1  —  37.  Uses  (C.  and  R.):  Hatch  frames,  door  frames,  scuttle  frames; 
rail  and  ladder  stanchions;  brass  valves  and  fittings  for  ventilation  system;  belaying 
pins,  brass  pipe  flanges.  (S.E.):  Valve  handwheels,  hand-rail  fittings,  ornamental  and 
miscellaneous  castings,  and  valves  in  water  chests  of  condensers. 

Naval  Brass. — Rolled.  Sheets,  plates,  rods,  etc.  United  States  Navy.  Composi- 
tion N-r:  59-63%  copper;  0.5-1.5%  tin;  0.06%  iron  (maximum);  0.2%  lead  (maxi- 
mum); zinc  =  remainder.  Uses:  Bolts,  studs,  nuts,  and  turnbuckles,  especially  if 
subject  to  corrosion  or  salt  water,  rolled  rounds  used  principally  for  propeller  blade 
bolts,  air  pump,  and  condenser  bolts  and  parts  requiring  strength  and  incorrodibility, 
and  pump  rods,  tube  sheets,  supporting  plates,  and  shafts  for  valves  in  water  heads. 

Nickel  Silver.— Composition:  40.0%  copper;  30.0%  nickel;  30.0%  zinc.  This 
mixture  is  suitable  for  castings  only. 

Nickel  Silver.— Sheffield.  Composition:  57.0%  copper;  24.0%  nickel;  19.0% 
zinc. 

Nickelin. — Composition:  68.0%  copper;  32.0%  nickel.  A  copper-nickel  alloy 
for  electrical  resistances.  Another  alloy  analyzed  55.3%  copper;  31.1%  nickel;  13.1% 
zinc. 

Non-Ferrous  Metal  D-r. — United  States  Navy.  Muntz  metal  sheets,  plates,  rods, 
bars,  etc.  Composition:  59-62%  copper;  38-41%  zinc;  0.6%  lead  (maximum). 

Phosphor  Bronze. — Castings.     United  States  Navy.     Composition  P-c: 

Grade  1.  85-90%  copper;  6-11%  tin;  8.44%  zinc  (remainder);  0.06%  iron  (maxi- 
mum); 0.2%  lead  (maximum);  0.3%  phosphorus  (maximum). 

Grade  2.  78-81%  copper;  9-13%  tin;  4.3%  zinc  (remainder);  8-11%  lead  (maxi- 
mum); 0.7-1.0%  phosphorus  (maximum). 

Uses,  Grade  1:  Valve  stems  and  fittings,  etc.,  exposed  to  the  action  of  salt  water; 
sheathing,  gears,  and  driving  or  main  nuts  for  steering  gears;  castings  where  strength 
and  incorrodibility  are  required.  Grade  2:  Gun  fittings  (ordnance). 

Phosphor   Bronze. — Rolled  or  drawn.     United   States   Navy.     Composition   P-r: 

Grade  1.  94-96%  copper;  5-4%  tin;  0.10%  phosphorus  (maximum);  zinc,  iron, 
or  lead,  when  present  as  impurities  must  not  exceed  0.10%  as  a  total  for  the  three. 

Grade  2.  85-95%  copper;  10-5%  tin;  4.0%  zinc  (maximum);  0.06%  iron  (maxi- 
mum); 0.2%  lead  (maximum);  0.15%  phosphorus  (maximum). 

[565] 


COMPOSITION  OF  SOME  ALLOYS  USED  IN  ENGINEERING 

Uses,  Grade  1:  Rods,  pins,  spring  wire,  etc.  Grade  2:  Pump  rods,  valve  stems, 
objects  exposed  to  salt  water. 

Phosphor  Bronze. — Dudley's  Standard.  Composition:  79.7%  copper;  10.0%  tin; 
9.5%  lead;  0.8%  phosphorus. 

Phosphor  Bronze. — Pennsylvania  Railroad.  Composition:  79.7%  copper;  10.0% 
.tin;  9.5%  lead;  0.8%  phosphorus.  Rejections  will  occur  if  deliveries  fail  to  show 
between  9.0  and  11.0%  tin;  8.0  and  11.0%  lead;  0.7  and  1.0%  phosphorus. 

Plastic  Bronze. — Composition:  65.0%  copper;  5.0%  tin;  30.0%  lead.  The  lead 
does  not  alloy  with  the  copper  but  separates  out  in  the  form  of  globules,  which  ought 
to  be  uniformly  distributed  throughout  the  mass.  In  this  alloy  the  soft  particles  of 
lead  are  embedded  in  the  harder  matrix  of  copper  and  tin;  the  addition  of  lead  increases 
the  plasticity  of  the  alloy. 

Platinoid. — Composition:  60.0%  copper;  14.0%  nickel;  24.0%  zinc;  1.0  to  2.0% 
tungsten.  This  alloy  has  high  electric  resistance,  not  changing  with  temperature. 
Note:  Many  samples  of  so-called  platinoid  failed  to  show  even  traces  of  tungsten  on 
analysis. 

Rheotan. — Composition:  84.0%  copper;  4.0%  zinc;  12.0%  manganese.  Used  for 
electrical  resistance. 

Rheotan. — Guillett's  formula.  Composition:  54.0%  copper;  25.0%  nickel;  17.0% 
zinc;  4.0%  iron. 

Silicon  Bronze. — Composition,  Guillemin:  89.0%  copper;  9.0%  tin;  1.5%  zinc; 
0.5 %  lead;  silicon,  traces.  Tensile  strength,  about  38,000  pounds  per  square  inch 
with  20%  elongation.  Cupro-silicon  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  silicon  bronze.  The 
hardness  and  strength  of  alloys  can  be  increased  or  decreased  at  will  by  increasing 
or  decreasing  silicon. 

Solder. — Aluminum.  Composition:  69.0%  tin;  26.2%  zinc;  2.4  phosphor  tin 
(10.0%  P.);  2.4%  aluminum.  Richards.  This  solder  is  said  to  be  capable  of  being 
used  with  a  soldering  iron,  and  not  to  disintegrate  after  exposure  to  air. 

Solder.— Half  andrhalf. ;  United  States  Navy.  To  be  made  from  new  tin,  Straits, 
Malacca,  or  Australian,  and  commercially  pure  lead.  Total  tin  and  lead  =  99.8%. 
Tin  between  49  and  51%.  Antimony  not  more  than  0.10%;  zinc,  none. 

Solder. — Hard  for  copper  and  brass.  Composition:  66.67%  copper;  33.33%  zinc. 
Flux;  Borax. 

Other  compositions:  Good  tough  brass,  83.33%,  and  16.67%  zinc.  Flux:  Borax. 
A  more  fusible  solder  consists  of  equal  parts  copper  and  zinc. 

Solder. — Nickel  silver.  Composition:  47.0%  copper;  11.0%  nickel;  42.0% 
zinc. 

Solder.— Tinmen's.  Composition:  60.0%  tin;  40.0%  lead.  Flux:  Rosin  or  zinc 
chloride.  Fluxing  temperature,  334°  F.  (168°  C.). 

For  fine  solder:  66.67%  tin;  33.33%  lead.  Flux:  Rosin  or  zinc  chloride.  Fluxing 
temperature,  340°  F.  (171°  C.). 

Spelter  Solder. — United  States  Navy.  Composition  A:  Long-grain  solder.  To 
consist  of  not  less  than  52.0%  copper,  not  more  than  2.0%  lead;  not  more  than  0.1% 
iron,  and  the  remainder  zinc. 

B:  Gray  spelter  solder.  Quick  running.  To  consist  of  49-52%  copper;  3-3.5% 
tin;  not  more  than  0.5%  lead,  and  the  remainder  zinc. 

Steam  Metal.  —  Brass.  High  grade.  Composition:  85.0%  copper;  5.0%  tin; 
5.0%  zinc;  5.0%  lead.  Tensile  strength,  about  30,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Sterro  Metal.— Composition :  60.0%  copper;  38.0  to  38.5%  zinc;  and  1.5-2.0% 
iron.  The  proportion  of  iron  is  found  to  vary  somewhat  and  tin  is  sometimes  added 
to  the  alloy.  Baron  Rosthorn's  analysis  of  sterro  metal  indicated  55.04%  copper; 
42.36%  zinc;  0.83%  tin;  1.77%  iron;  this  alloy  yielded  60,480  pounds  per  square 
inch  tensile  strength  for  castings;  76,160  pounds  for  forgings;  85,120  pounds  when 
cold  drawn.  The  presence  of  iron  in  this  alloy  imparts  to  it  a  strength  equal  to  that 
of  mild  steel.  It  is  recommended  as  an  alloy  for  sheathing  for  ships  and  other  objects 
which  are  subjected  to  the  continued  action  of  salt  water. 

Tobin  Bronze. — Composition:  58.22%  copper;  2.30%  tin;  39.48%  zinc.  Specific 
gravity,  8.379.  Weight  per  cubic  inch,  0.302  pounds.  Tensile  strength,  about  60,000 

f566] 


NOTES  ON   BEARING  METALS 

pounds  per  square  inch,  with  yield  point  about  one-half  the  tensile  strength."  Used  for 
bolts,  nuts,  pump  rods,  condenser  tube  plates,  etc. 

Tobin  Bronze. — Composition  by  analysis,  Dudley:  59.0%  copper;  2.1%  tin; 
0.3%  lead;  38.4%  zinc;  0.1%  iron. 

Torpedo  Bronze. — United  States  Navy.  Composition:  59-62%  copper;  0.5-1.5% 
tin;  0.3%  lead  (maximum);  0.1%  iron  (maximum);  the  remainder  zinc.  To  contain 
no  aluminum.  Tests:  Must  stand  hammering  hot  to  a  fine  point  and  bending  cold 
through  120°  with  inner  radius  equal  to  diameter  or  thickness  of  bar. 

Valve  Bronze. — United  States  Navy.  Composition  M:  87.0%  copper;  7.0%  tin; 
4.94%  zinc  (remainder);  0.06%  iron  (maximum);  1.0%  lead  (maximum).  Uses: 
Valves  below  4  inches  for  steam  and  general  purposes  for  which  the  material  is  not 
otherwise  specified,  manifolds  and  cocks,  relief  valves,  composition  lug  sockets,  and 
pad  eyes  not  requiring  special  strength,  hose  couplings,  and  fittings. 

Vanadium  Bronze. — Cast.  United  States  Navy.  Composition  Vn-c:  61.0% 
copper  (minimum);  38.0%  zinc  (maximum);  remainder  not  to  exceed  1.0%  tin,  with 
lead,  bismuth,  aluminum,  vanadium,  and  nickel.  Tensile  strength,  55,000  pounds 
per  square  inch  as  a  minimum. 

White  Brass. — Alloys  known  as  white  brass  are,  in  general,  German  silver  alloys. 
The  composition  of  German  silver  varies  widely  in  its  proportions  of  the  metals  copper, 
zinc,  and  nickel.  Nickel  will  vary  from  18  to  25%;  zinc  from  20  to  30%;  the  remainder 
copper.  Alloys  of  copper  and  zinc  containing  less  than  45.0%  copper  are  no  longer 
yellow;  when  the  percentage  of  copper  is  below  40.0%,  but  above  30.0%,  the  alloy  is 
white.  Nickel  whitens  as  well  as  strengthens  the  alloy;  it  also  makes  the  alloy  more 
non-corrodible  than  copper  and  zinc  alone.  The  term  white  brass  should  not  be  con- 
fused with  white  metal  anti-friction  alloys. 

White  Brass. — Parsons'.  Composition,  Campbell:  5.0%  copper;  65.0%  tin; 
30.0%  zinc. 

Composition,  Seaton:    5.6%  copper;  17.5%  tin;  0.8%  antimony;  76.1%  zinc. 

White  Metal. — Admiralty.  Composition:  7.0%  copper;  85.0%  tin  (minimum); 
8.0%  antimony  (minimum).  Where  bearing  brasses  are  fitted  with  white  metal,  they 
are  to  be  tinned  before  being  filled. 

White  Metal  for  Bearings. — Composition,  Seaton:  A  very  good  white  metal  is 
made  by  mixing  6  parts  of  tin  with  1  of  copper,  and  6  parts  of  tin  with  1  of  antimony, 
and  then  adding  the  two  mixtures  together. 

The  exact  Admiralty  specification  is  at  least  85%  tin,  and  not  less  than  8%  anti- 
mony, and  about  5%  copper;  zinc  or  lead  not  to  be  used. 

White  Metal. — Parsons'.  Composition,  Seaton:  58.5%  tin;  2.0%  antimony; 
39.5  zinc. 

Another  alloy:    1.0%  copper;  68.0%  tin;  30.5%  zinc;  0.5%  lead. 


NOTES  ON  BEARING  METALS 

In  a  properly  adjusted  bearing  with  proper  lubrication,  the  composition  of  the 
metal  is  of  little  importance  so  long  as  it  is  strong  enough  to  bear  the  load  without 
being  squeezed  out,  or  tough  enough  without  being  brittle. 

Compressive  Strength. — All  white  metal  alloys  intended  for  shafts  should  stand 
a  pressure  of  9,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  alloys  for  connecting  rods  should  stand 
13,000  pounds  per  square  inch  before  failing.  When  a  bearing  is  subjected,  while 
running,  to  gradually  increased  load,  there  will  come  a  point  where  the  friction  increases 
out  of  all  proportion  to  the  previous  gradual  increase;  this  is  the  cutting  point,  or 
that  at  which  the  metal  is  said  to  grip.  The  harder  the  surfaces  in  contact,  the  less 
the  friction,  and  the  higher  the  load  to  produce  gripping. 

Durability. — A  metal  cannot  at  once  possess  a  low  coefficient  of  friction  and  dur- 
ability to  a  high  degree.  Lead  is  the  best  metal  as  regards  rate  of  wear ;  owing,  how- 
ever, to  the  tendency  of  its  particles  to  stick  to  the  shaft  it  is  perhaps  the  worst  with 
regard  to  friction  resistance. 

Low  Temperature  of  Running. — In  high  speeds,  where  the  heat  generated  may  be 

(5671 


NOTES  ON  BEARING  METALS 

considerable,  an  alloy  with  low  specific  heat  and  high  thermal  conductivity,  such  as  tin, 
is  preferable  to  alloys  high  in  lead. 

Wear  on  Journal. — White  metals  do  not  score  the  shaft  as  do  other  alloys  in  case 
of  deficient  lubrication. 

Corrosion. — Tin  and  antimony  resist  the  corrosive  action  of  a  lubricant  entirely, 
iron,  copper,  lead,  and  zinc  being  corrodible  in  the  order  named,  zinc  being  quite  the 
worst. 

Rigid  Bronzes. — When  well-fitted,  bronzes  run  cooler  and  with  less  friction  than 
other  bearing  metals,  but  they  wear  most  of  all.  The  best  alloys  of  this  class  for  heavy 
loads  are  the  true  bronzes.  Both  the  rate  of  wear  and  the  hardness  of  the  bronzes 
increase  as  the  tin  increases.  The  practical  limit  for  tin  is  about  20%;  above  this  the 
alloys  are  too  brittle  to  be  safe.  Bronzes  with  over  6%  tin  consist  of  a  portion  high  in 
copper  surrounded  by  a  eutectic  high  in  tin.  As  the  tin  increases  the  proportion  of  the 
eutectic  increases;  as  this  is  very  hard,  the  hardness  of  the  alloy  also  increases.  Zinc 
is  often  added  as  a  cheapening  addition  for  common  bearings,  but  bearings  high  in 
zinc  wear  badly.  Phosphorus  used  as  a  deoxidizer  in  making  bronzes  results  in  closer- 
grained,  harder,  and  more  homogeneous  castings. 

Plastic  White  Metals. — Plasticity  should  be  such  as  to  enable  the  alloy  to  mold 
itself  round  the  shaft,  but  the  alloy  must  be  tough  enough  to  stand  the  working  pressure 
without  deformation.  Hardness  is  necessary  to  give  low  frictional  resistance.  These 
two  properties  belong  to  alloys  which  consist  of  hard  grains  embedded  in  a  plastic 
matrix;  a  characteristic  of  all  the  best  anti-friction  alloys.  The  hard  grains  in  service 
are  slightly  in  relief,  and  perform  most  of  the  bearing  duty  with  a  minimum  of  frictional 
resistance. 

Lead-antimony  alloys  are  the  cheapest  white  lining  metals  in  use,  and  quite  good 
eno.ugh  for  many  purposes,  but  their  compressive  strengths  are  low.  Lead  and  anti- 
mony alloy  in  all  proportions;  the  eutectic  alloy  contains  13%  antimony,  but  most 
alloys  have  antimony  in  excess  of  13%;  when  a  limit  of  about  25%  is  reached  the 
alloy  becomes  too  brittle  for  safe  use. 

Alloys  of  Tin,  Antimony,  and  Copper. — In  this  class  is  included  the  original  Babbitt 
metal,  the  highest-priced  alloy  in  common  use,  because  of  the  high  content  of  tin,  but 
these  alloys  generally  give  most  satisfaction. 

Alloys  of  Lead,  Antimony,  and  Tin. — The  introduction  of  tin  to  lead-antimony 
alloys  modifies  the  brittleness  of  the  hard  antimony  grains  by  the  presence  in  solid 
solution  of  a  greater  or  less  amount  of  the  antimony-tin  compound,  which  also  enters 
into  the  antimony  of  the  eutectic  matrix,  increasing  its  compressive  strength.  Their 
heat-dissipating  capacity,  determined  by  the  combined  effects  of  specific  heat,  thermal 
conductivity,  and  radiative  capacity,  is  inferior  to  the  high-tin  alloys,  and  should  not 
be  recommended  for  high  speeds. 

Alloys  of  Tin,  Zinc,  and  Antimony. — A  remarkable  property  of  these  alloys  is  their 
high  compressive  strengths.  They  are  difficult  to  cast,  as  the  volatilization  of  zinc  is 
aggravated  in  the  presence  of  antimony. 

Deoxidizing  Agents. — Arsenic  when  not  above  1  %  produces  a  fine-grained  fracture, 
and  freedom  from  blow-holes;  but  it  does  not  improve  the  alloy's  wearing  properties. 
Phosphorus,  potassium  cyanide,  and  sodium  are  also  used  as  deoxidizing  agents. 

Plastic  Bronzes. — The  want  of  plasticity  of  the  rigid  bronzes  is  a  disadvantage; 
attempts  made  by  Dr.  Dudley,  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company,  to  secure 
higher  plasticity  by 'the  introduction  of  lead  were  successful  up  to  the  extent  of  15% 
of  lead;  after  exhaustive  tests  these  alloys  replaced  the  old  rigid  bronzes.  The  lead 
does  not  appear  to  alloy  to  any  extent  with  the  bronze,  but  to  be  mechanically  held 
by  it,  and  "forms  trails  of  a  plastic  substance  throughout  the  metal."  — A.  Hague. 


[568] 


SECTION  10 


MACHINE  DETAILS,  PRINCIPALLY  THOSE  RELATING  TO 
STEAM  ENGINES 

KEYWAYS  AND  KEYS 

One  function  of  a  key  is  to  secure  a  simultaneous  rotative  movement  of  a  shaft  and 
the  piece  keyed  to  it.  The  working  stresses  upon  a  key  sunk  into  both  shaft  and  hub 
tend  to  sheafing,  there  being  little  or  no  tendency  to  axial  movement.  A  key  by  its 
breadth  and  length  presents  an  area  of  metal  between  the  driving  and  driven  parts, 
and  must  be  sufficiently  large  to  easily  resist  the  shearing  stress.  It  is  important  that 
a  sunk  key  shall  completely  fill  the  keyway  at  its  sides  to  properly  resist  this  shearing 
effort.  The  taper  of  a  key  should  be  employed  only  for  fixing  the  key  in  place,  and  not 
in  wedging  the  shaft  and  hub  apart. 

The  taper  of  a  key  is  allowed  for  on  its  upper  side  only;  the  bottom  of  keyway  is 
always  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  shaft.  The  thickness  of  a  tapered  key  is  that  of  the 
small  end  to  which  the  allowance  for  taper  is  added.  The  usual  taper  for  keys  is  £  inch 
per  foot. 

Key  forgings  should  be  of  steel.  The  tensile  strength  of  rolled  machinery  steel  in 
medium  and  small  sizes  will  vary  from  60,000  to  70,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 
Keys  may,  therefore,  be  considered  to  be  as  hard  or  harder  than  the  shaft,  and  of  course 
much  harder  than  the  cast  iron  hub  into  which  the  key  is  to  be  fitted.  Steel  keys  have 
a  safe  working  strength  of  7,500  Ibs.  per  square  inch  of  shearing  section. 

Proportions  —  The  proportions  for  sunk  keys  as  formulated  by  Unwin  are  in  almost 
universal  use  in  this  country;  these  are  given  in  the  accompanying  table  together  with 
all  necessary  working  dimensions  for  keys  and  keyways  suitable  for  shafts  from  1  to  12 
inches  in  diameter. 

KEYWAYS  AND  SUNK  KEYS 


Unwin's  formula: 


B  =  .25D+  .125  inch 

T  =  .5B 

ti  =  depth  of  keyway  in  hub 

t2  =  depth  of  keyway  in  shaft 


.  3B 
.  2B 


SHEARING  RESISTANCE  OF 

KEY  PER  INCH  OF  LENGTH. 

FOR  WORKING  VALUES  PER 

Shaft 

Area  of 

SQUARE  INCH  OF 

Diam. 

B 

T 

ti 

t2 

Key 

D 

6000 

7500 

10,000 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

1 

.375  =    Y% 

.188  =    A 

.113 

.075 

.0703 

2250 

2812 

3750 

iy* 

.406=    H 

.203=    if 

.122 

.081 

.0825 

2438 

3047 

4063 

iy* 

.438=    & 

.219  =    A 

.131 

.088 

.0957 

2625 

3281 

4375 

iy* 

.469  =    M 

.234  =    M 

.141 

.094 

.1099 

2813 

3516 

4688 

llA 

.500=    y2 

.250  =    M 

.150 

.100 

.1250 

3000 

3750 

5000 

[569 


MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM  ENGINES 
KETWAYS  AND  SUNK  KEYS— Continued 


Shaft 
Diam. 
D 

B 

T 

ti 

tz 

Area  of 
Key 

SHEARING  RESISTANCE  OF 
KEY  PER  INCH  OP  LENGTH, 
FOR  WORKING  VALUES  PER 
SQUARE  INCH  OF 

6000 
Pounds 

7500 
Pounds 

10,000 
Pounds 

i« 

.531  =    H 

.266  =    H 

.159 

.106 

.1411 

3188 

3985 

5313 

IX 

.563  =    & 

.281  =    A 

.169 

.113 

.1670 

3375 

4219 

5625 

m 

.594  =     if 

.297  =    if 

.178 

.119 

.1763 

3563 

4454 

5938 

2 

.625  =     5/8 

.313  =    A 

.188 

.125 

.1953 

3750 

4688 

6250 

2ys 

.656=    B 

.328  =    fi 

.197 

.131 

.2153 

3938 

4922 

6563 

VA 

.688  =    tt 

.344  =    H 

.206 

.138 

.2364 

4125 

5156 

6875 

2y8 

.719  =    H 

.359  =    ft 

.216 

.144 

.2583 

4313 

5391 

7188 

2y* 

.750  =    M 

.375  =  ys 

.225 

.150 

.2813 

4500 

5625 

7500 

2% 

.781  =    ff 

.391  =     ff 

.234 

.156 

.3052 

4688 

5860 

7813 

2H 

.813=    if 

.406=    if 

.244 

.163 

.3301 

4875 

6094 

8125 

2% 

.844=    H 

.422=    H 

.253 

.169 

.3560 

5063 

6329 

8438 

3 

.875  =     J4 

.438=    A 

.263 

.175 

.3828 

5250 

6563 

8750 

3K 

.906  =    f| 

.453  =    ft 

.272 

.181 

.4106 

5438 

6797 

9063 

3M 

.938  =    tt 

.469=    |f 

.281 

.188 

.4395 

5625 

7031 

9375 

3M 

.969  =     fi 

.484=    fj 

.291 

.194 

.4693 

5813 

7266 

9688 

3H 

.000  =  1 

.500  =    H 

.300 

.200 

.5000 

6000 

7500 

10000 

3^ 

.031  =  l-h 

.516  =    fi 

.309 

.206 

.5317 

6188 

7735 

10313 

m 

.063  =  1& 

.531  =    M 

.319 

.213 

.5645 

6375 

7969 

10625 

VA 

.094  =  1& 

.547=    ft 

.328 

.219 

.5982 

6563 

8204 

10938 

4 

.125  =  -1^ 

.563  =    ^ 

.338 

.225 

.6328 

6750 

8438 

11250 

4^ 

.188  =  1A 

.594=    if 

.356 

.238 

.7051 

7125 

8906 

11875 

4^ 

.250  =  1% 

.625  =    5/8 

.375 

.250 

.7813 

7500 

9375 

12500 

4% 

.313  =  1& 

.656  =     fi 

.394 

.263 

.8614 

7875 

9844 

13125 

5 

.375  =  iys 

.688  =    tt 

.413 

.275 

.9453 

8250 

10313 

13750 

5M 

.438  =  1A 

.719  =    ff 

.431 

.288 

1.0333 

8625 

10781 

14375 

5H 

.500  =  iy2 

.750  =    M 

.450 

.300 

1  .  1250 

9000 

11250 

15000 

&A 

.563  =  1A 

.781  =    ff 

.469 

.313 

1.2208 

9375 

11719 

15625 

6 

.625  =  1% 

.813  =    tt 

.488 

.325 

1.3203 

9750 

12188 

16250 

6^ 

.688  =  Itt 

.844=     ff 

.506 

.338 

1.4239 

10125 

12656 

16875 

6^ 

.750  =  1% 

.875  =    J4 

.525 

.350 

1.5313 

10500 

13125 

17500 

6^ 

.813'=  1H 

.906=     ff 

.544 

.363 

1.6427 

10875 

13594 

18125 

7 

.875  =  1% 

.938  =    tt 

.563 

.375 

1.7578 

11250 

14063 

18750 

7M 

.938  =  1H 

.969  =     fi 

.581 

.388 

1.8771 

11625 

14531 

19375 

7^ 

2.000  =2 

.000  =  1 

.600 

.400 

2.0000 

12000 

15000 

20000 

754 

2.063  =  2& 

.031  =  1& 

.619 

.413 

2.1271 

12375 

15469 

20625 

8 

2.125  =2>i 

.063  =  1& 

.638 

.425 

2.2578 

12750 

15938 

21250 

VA 

2.188  =2& 

.094  =  1& 

.656 

.438 

2.3927 

13125 

16406 

21875 

81A 

2.250  =  2% 

.125  =  iy8 

.675 

.450 

2.5313 

13500 

16875 

22500 

m 

2.313  =  2A 

.156  =  1^ 

.694 

.463 

2.6739 

13875 

17344 

23125 

9 

2.375  =  2% 

.188  =  1A 

.713 

.475 

2.8203 

14250 

17813 

23750 

[570] 


MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM  ENGINES 
KEYWAYS  AND  SUNK  KEYS — Continued 


SHEARING  RESISTANCE  OF 

KEY  PER  INCH  OP  LENGTH,, 

FOR  WORKING  VALUES  PER 

Shaft 

Area  of 

SQUARE  INCH  OF 

Diam. 

B 

T 

ti 

tz 

Key 

D 

6000 

7500 

10,000 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

VA 

2.438  =  '2& 

.219  =  1& 

.731 

"."488 

2.9708 

14625 

18281 

24375 

$1A 

2.500  =  2l/2 

,250  =  1M 

.750 

.500 

3.1250 

15000 

18750 

25000 

&A 

2.563  =  2& 

.281  =  1& 

.769 

.513 

'3.2833 

15375 

19219 

25625 

10 

2.625  =  2% 

.313  =  1A 

.788 

.525 

3.4453 

15750 

19688 

26250 

10M 

2.688  =  2H 

.344  =  1H 

.806 

.538 

3.6115 

16125 

20156 

26875 

10^ 

2.750  =2^ 

1.375  =  l^g 

.825 

.550 

3.7813 

16500 

20625 

27  500, 

IOM 

2.813  =  2H 

1.406  =  1H 

.844 

.563 

3.9552 

16875 

21  094 

28125 

11 

2.875  =  2^ 

1.438  =  1& 

.863 

.575 

4.1328 

17250 

21563 

28750 

IIJ4 

2.938  =  2H 

1.469  =  1H 

.881 

.588 

4.3146 

17625 

22031 

29375 

11^ 

3.000  =3 

1.500  =  1H 

.900 

.600 

4.5000 

18000 

22500 

30000 

11M 

3.063  =3^ 

1.531  =  1H 

.919 

.613 

4.6896 

18375 

22969 

30625 

12 

3.125  =  3H 

1.563  =  1& 

.938 

.625 

4.8828 

18750 

23438 

31  250 

Length  of  Key. — Apart  from  resistance  to  crushing,  a  key  should  have  length  enough 
to  hold  it  securely  in  place  under  any  conditions  of  service.  Pulley  hub  proportions 
are  influenced  by  those  of  the  rim,  but  in  any  case  the  length  of  hub  is  seldom  less  than 
twice  the  diameter  of  shaft;  this  provides  a  little  more  length  than  is  needed  to  resist 
crushing  of  key.  Short  hubs,  for  any  service,  are  seldom  less  than  one  shaft  diameter 
in  length;  if  a  key  is  proportioned  D  -r  4  +  .125  in.,  the  shortest  limit  of  length  is 
reached  when  the  length  of  key  equals  the  diameter  of  shaft  for  which  it  is  proportioned, 
as  above.  The  proper  length  closely  approximates  1.6  diameter  of  shaft. 

Square  Sunk  Key — Largely  used  in  machine  construction  in  resisting  shearing 
strains  only,  any  tendency  to  lateral  movement  being  prevented  by  one  or  more  set 
screws  in  the  hub,  as  shown  in  the  illustration.  A  common  proportion  for  square  keys 
is  one-fourth  the  diameter  of  the  shaft  for  sizes  from  2  to  4  inches,  for  smaller  shafts 


ibsssssss^l 

_?_ 


D  -f-  4  +  .0625  is  often  used.  In  general,  square  keys  are  simply  cut  to  length  from 
cold  drawn  polished  rods,  and  used  without  further  preparation,  unless  it  may  be  case- 
hardening.  Two  set  screws  are  shown  in  hub;  except  for  hubs  of  unusual  length  this 
is  not  always  necessary.  The  screw  should  have  a  flat  point  and  casehardened  to  prevent 
distortion  of  thread. 

Special  Keys. — Key  on  a  flat,  Fig.  1,  has  the  same  breadth  B  for  shaft  diameter  A 
as  has  a  sunk  key.  The  flat  should  be  parallel  to  the  axis  of  shaft  and  a  little  wider 
than  the  key.  Its  thickness  C,  measured  at  the  small  end  is  one-third  its  breadth;  the 
taper  is  commonly  one-eighth  inch  per  foot,  for  which  allowance  is  made  in  the  hub, 

[571] 


MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM  ENGINES 


If  the  piece  to  be  keyed  is  in  a  confined  space,  the  key  should  have  a  gib  head  to 
facilitate  its  withdrawal. 

Saddle  Key  — This  key,  Fig.  2,  is  wholly  included  in  the  hub,  no  preparation  of 
shaft  being  necessary  for  its  use.  In  breadth  D  it  follows  the  same  proportions  relative 
to  shaft  diameter  as  for  a  sunk  key.  Thickness  E,  measured  at  the  small  end,  is  one- 
third  its  breadth.  The  usual  taper  is  one-eighth  inch  per  foot,  for  which  a  correspond- 
ing taper  is  included  in  the  hub.  The  under  side  of  key  is  made  concave  to  fit  the 


shaft.  To  facilitate  its  removal,  the  key  should  have  a  gib  head.  As  this  key  lies 
wholly  outside  the  circumference  of  shaft,  and  drives  by  friction  only,  it  is  not  well 
adapted  for  important  power  transmission. 

Round  Key. — This  method  of  fastening,  Fig.  3,  is  sometimes  employed  instead  of 
a  sunk  key.  For  practical  reasons  it  is  limited  to  fastening  a  hub  at  the  end  of  a  shaft. 
The  diameter  of  pin  may  be  one  quarter  the  shaft  diameter;  the  hole  reamed  for  either 
a  straight  or  taper  pin.  The  location  oHiole  is  such  that  one-half  the  pin  is  in  the  hub, 
the  other  half  in  the  shaft.  A  pin  key  resists  working  stresses  in  the  same  manner  as  a 
sunk  key,  that  is,  by  resistance  to  shearing.  Pin  keys  are  occasionally  used  in  large 
work,  but  their  use  is  practically  confined  to  small  details  in  machine  construction. 

Taper  Pin  Key  — In  fastening  a  hub  other  than  at  the  end  of  a  shaft  a  pin  is  mode  to 
pass  diametrically,  or  nearly  so,  through  the  hub  and  shaft  as  shown  in  sketch.  In  this 
case  a  taper  pin  is  used,  the  usual  taper  being  |  inch  per  foot.  The  pin  is  in  double  shear. 

TAPER  PINS  AND  REAMERS 
Commercial  Sizes 

Alf F "; 


Taper  of  pins 


PIN 

REAMER 

SHAFT 

HUB 

Trade 
Number 

Diameter 
Large  End  B 

Longest 
Length 

c 

Inches 

Diam. 
Small 
End 
E 

Length 
Cutting 
Edge 
F 

Diam. 
Large 
End 
G 

Diameter  A 

Diameter  D 

Pin 
X3 

Pin 

X  4 

Pin 
X  3 

Pin 
X4 

Dee. 

Frac. 

1  

.172 
.193 
.219 
.250 
.289 

.341 
.409 
.492 
.591 
.706 

it 

A 
& 
H 
if 

tt 
H 
H 
tt 
H 

1H 

m 

IK 

2 

VA 

*y* 

4 

4^ 
51A 
6 

.146 
.162 
.183 
.208 
.240 

.279 
.331 

.398 
.482 
.581 

m 

2 

VA 
VA 
3 

&A 

±1A 
VA 
VA 

7 

181 

204 
230 
260 
303 

355 
425 
507 
610 

727 

.516 
.579 
.657 
.750 

.867 

1.023 
1.227 
1.476 
1.773 
2.118 

.688 
.772 
.876 
1.000 
1.156 

1.364 
1.636 
1.968 
2.364 

2.824 

1.02 
1.20 

1.41 
1.56 
1.81 

2.09 
2.35 
2.73 
3.15 
3.62 

1.19 
1.41 
1.63 

1.88 
2.16 

2.49 
2.89 
3.34 
3.86 
4.45 

2 

3  

4  

5,  

6 

7  

8 

9  .  .  

10 

[572 


MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM  ENGINES 

Taper  pin  dimensions  coincide  with  those  of  the  reamer  used  in  fitting  the  hole. 
Certain  sizes  of  pins  are  commonly  accepted  as  standard,  the  larger  sizes  of  which  are 
tabulated  herewith. 

Shaft  diameters  are  given  in  the  table  merely  to  show  what  diameters  result  from 
multiplying  the  several  pin  diameters  by  3  and  4  respectively.  The  tabular  sizes  for 
shafts  are  exact  multiples  of  the  standard  pin  diameter,  these  are  to  be  changed  to  the 
nearest  common  fractional  measurement  the  design  may  suggest. 

The  designer  must  determine  how  much  of  the  shaft  area  can  be  allotted  to  the  pin. 
Suppose  a  design  calls  for  a  shaft  about  1J  inches  diameter;  the  nearest  shaft  diameter  in 
the  table  under  Pin  X  3  is  1.227,  for  which  a  No.  7  pin  will  be  required.  In  the  column 
Pin  X  4  the  choice  lies  between  1.156  and  1.364  for  shaft  diameter,  the  former  calls  for 
a  No.  5  pin,  the  latter  a  No.  6  pin,  which  size  would  probably  be  selected  together  with 
an  average  shaft  diameter  of  lj  inches. 

Shaft  diameters  as  given  in  the  table  are  subject  to  increase  or  decrease  in  diameter, 
to  conform  to  the  next  nearest  working  unit,  suited  to  the  standard  parallel  reamer 
used  for  the  hub;  thus,  1.227  inches  would  be  increased  to  1.25  inches,  similarly  1.156 
inches  would  be  advanced  1.1875  inches. 

Reamer  flutes,  as  well  as  overall  lengths  of  standard  taper  pins,  are  of  sufficient 
length  that  a  moderate  increase  in  shaft  diameter  is  permissible. 

Gib  Head  Key. — This  form  of  key  is  useful  in  supplying  a  fixed  projection,  or  an 
abutment,  against  which  a  wedge  may  be  driven  in  order  to  loosen  a  key  preparatory  to 
its  withdrawal.  A  table  of  sizes  up  to  and  including  4  inches  in  breadth  is  given.  The 
breadth  and  thickness  follow  Unwin's  proportions  for  sunk  keys;  knowing  the  breadth 
of  a  key,  suitable  working  dimensions  for  a  gib  head  may  be  taken  from  the  table. 


TAPFRflNCH  PFR  FOOT 


k- A—* 


GIB  HEADS  FOR  KEYS 


H 


°/8 
A 


K 
H 

4 


IK 

IK 

IK 


A 
% 


tt 

7* 
« 

1 

1A 


?4 

H 
H 


H 


3^ 

M 


H 
H 

K 
A 

K 

y* 

H 
H 


¥ 

B 

% 
H 


l 

IK 

1A 


1A 


2 

•2M 


1 
1A 

1A 
1A 


3^ 
4 


1H 


1A 


1*1 


2M 


H 

K 
K 


l 
l 
l 

IK 
IK 
IK 
1M 


IK 

2 

2K 


2K 

3K 


[573] 


MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM  ENGINES 

Sliding  Keys. — When  a  rotating  hub  in  a  fixed  bearing  is  required  to  rotate  a  shaft 
passing  through  it,  the  shaft  having  an  end  movement  as  well,  the  driving  key  included 
in  the  hub  is  then  provided  with  gib  heads,  or  other  form  of  fastening,  to  prevent  the 
key  sliding  out  of  place. 

A  sliding  key,  such  as  included  in  the  feed  works  of  a  machine  tool,  has  but  little 
work  to  do,  and  one  key  will  suffice;  but  if,  as  in  the  case  of  a  large  boring  machine 
spindle,  it  may  be  required  to  transmit  nearly  the  whole  power  of  the  machine,  two 
keys  are  recommended,  to  be  placed  diametrically  opposite  each  other  in  the  spindle. 

For  light  and  medium  work  the  breadth  of  key  may  be  one-fourth  the  shaft  di- 
ameter; the  thickness  of  key  following,  usually,  0.25  shaft  diameter  +  0.125  inch. 

For  heavy  work  the  breadth  of  key  diminishes  somewhat,  because  two  keys  are 
commonly  employed,  the  proportionate  rate  for  thickness  of  key  remaining  as  above. 

To  increase  the  surface  of  key  subject  to  wear,  0.4  of  the  key  may  be  placed  in  the 
hub  and  0.6  in  the  keyway  in  shaft. 

The  gib  head  details  for  a  sliding  key  will  depend  upon  the  clearance  at  end  of 
traverse.  Should  the  hub  have  little  or  no  clearance  the  gib  will  be  included  within 
the  hub  as  in  Fig.  2,  if  plenty  of  clearance,  the  ends  may  then  project  as  in  Fig.  3. 


SLIDING  KEYS 


A 

B 

c 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

i 

1 

H 

H 

.150 

.225 

% 

H 

A 

H 

1M 

A 

& 

.175 

.263 

1A 

H 

A 

l/s 

m 

« 

% 

.200 

-    .300 

ft 

a 

K 

A 

1% 

A 

A 

.225 

.338 

A 

A 

H 

A 

2 

1A 

H 

.250 

.375 

H 

A 

A 

A 

VA 

A 

H 

.275 

.413 

1A 

A 

A 

A 

VA 

M 

X 

.300 

.450 

H 

A 

A 

A 

&A 

H 

H 

.325 

.488 

X 

H 

H 

H 

3 

ZA 

H 

.350 

.525 

A 

H 

y* 

1A 

3^ 

if 

ft 

.375 

.563 

A 

IA 

y* 

H 

&A 

% 

i 

.400 

.600 

A 

li 

A 

1A 

3M 

tt 

l* 

.425 

.638 

A 

M 

A 

1A 

4 

i 

1H 

,450 

.675 

H 

A 

A 

A 

To  facilitate  fitting,  the  hub  at  F  G,  Fig.  2,  can  be  notched  through;    the  gib  ends  at  G  to  extend  to 
outside  of  hub  and  finished  with  it. 

Maximum  Load  on  Key  — Crank  pin  pressures  in  automatic  cut-off  engines  will  vary 
from  that  due  to  full  boiler  pressure  at  the  beginning,  to  a  fourth  or  less  at  the  end  of 
stroke.  In  cross  compound  engines  the  high  pressure  steam  is  confined  to  one  cylinder 

[5741 


MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM  ENGINES 

the  crank  and  reciprocating  mechanism  of  the  low-pressure  side  is  commonly  a  duplicate 
of  the  high-pressure  side,  the  crank  keys  are  somewhat  larger  than  necessary  for  the 
work  but  need  not  be  considered  here. 

Starting  a  single  or  compound  engine  from  a  state  of  rest,  the  crank  pin  being  at  or 
near  half  stroke  it  may,  and  probably  does,  receive  the  maximum  load  due  to  full  boiler 
pressure  upon  piston  area  which  may  equal  1,500  pounds  per  square  inch  of  projected 
crank  pin  area,  the  crank  shaft,  meanwhile,  being  at  a  state  of  rest.  The  maximum 
effort  of  the  steam  is  transmitted  through  the  crank  directly  upon  the  crank  shaft  keys 
which,  in  turn,  must  resist  the  shearing  effort  and  permit  rotation  of  shaft.  Mean 
effective  pressures  cannot  be  used  in  determining  key  proportions. 

Keys  forged  from  medium  steel  have  a  tensile  strength  from  65,000  to  70,000  pounds 
per  square  inch;  7,500  pounds  per  square  inch  of  section  subject  to  shearing  stress  is 
taken  as  the  working  load  for  a  sunk  key. 

Example.     Crank  keys  for  steam  engine. 
20  inch  cylinder  =  314.16  sq.  in.  area. 
Steam  pressure  =  160  Ibs.  per  sq.  in. 
P  =  50,266  pounds  =  314.16  X  160. 
R  =  18  inches, 
r  =  5  inches. 
2  keys.     B  —  If  inches. 
L  =  6f  inches. 
D  =  10  inches. 

Then 
P  XR       50,266  X  18 


r  5 

2B  X  L  X  7500 


180,958 
180,469 


The  pressure  exerted  by  the  steam  piston  upon  the  crank  pin  is  180,958  pounds.  The 
resistance  of  the  two  keys  in  the  crank  shaft  is  180,469  pounds,  they  thus  practically 
balance  each  other. 

Example.     Pulley  driving  a  shaft. 

P   =  4,000  pounds. 

R  =  24  inches,  radius  of  pulley. 

r    =2  inches,  radius  of  shaft. 

B    =  1|  inches,  key  breadth.     • 

L   =  6  inches,  key  length. 

D  =  4  inches,  shaft  diameter. 
Then 


B  X  L  X  7500  =  1.125  X  6  X  7500  =  50,625. 
In  this  example  there  is  a  margin  of  2625  pounds  in  favor  of  the  key.     The  breadth 
of  key  is  by  Un win's  formula:  B  =  —  +  i  inch. 

Keyways  for  Minor  Attachments. — Keyways  in  engine  shafts  are  much  too  large 
for  the  needs  of  minor  attachments  sometimes  carried  by  it,  such  as  pulleys,  gears, 
eccentrics,  etc.,  transmitting  but  a  fraction  of  the  total  power.  No  general  rule  can 
be  given  for  such  minor  fastenings  other  than  to  select  a  hub  suited  to  the  pulley  or 
gear  and  employ  its  corresponding  size  of  key  for  which  an  additional  keyway  should 
be  made  in  the  shaft.  A  small  pulley  thus  placed  on  an  engine  shaft  would  in  all  prob- 
ability be  made  in  halves,  in  which  case  the  small  keyway  in  shaft  need  not  be  longer 
than  the  pulley  hub. 

[575] 


MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM  ENGINES 

Double  Keys. — A  limit  so  the  breadth  of  a  single  key  is  quickly  reached  in  large 
shafts  transmitting  full  power.  By  Unwin's  formula  the  breadth  of  a  single  key  for  a 
24-inch  shaft  would  be  6|  inches,  its  depth  STS  inches.  The  shearing  resistance  of  a 
key  varies  as  its  breadth;  we  can,  therefore,  divide  this  breadth  into  two  or  more  keys 
without  loss  of  strength.  Referring  to  the  accompanying  table  of  double  keys,  a  24-inch 
shaft  would  have  two  keys  4  inches  in  breadth.  Two  thicknesses  are  given  for  double 
keys  according  to  the  severity  of  service.  For  a  crank  the  key  thickness  would  be  3 
inches;  for  a  pulley  the  thickness  would  be  2  inches.  The  crank  would  have  its  keys 
placed  90°  apart;  the  pulley  would  have  its  keys  diametrically  opposed,  one  key  in  each 
half  of  the  hub. 

The  liberal  proportions  of  double  as  compared  with  single  keys  is  to  favor  the  exacting 
conditions  under  which  double  keys  are  commonly  used.  The  stresses  upon  a  crank  and 
shaft  are,  in  general,  more  severe  than  those  in  a  pulley  or  gear  so  that,  for  the  same 
breadth  of  key,  its  thickness  may  be  increased  for  the  crank  connection,  thereby  pre- 
senting a  larger  area  opposing  deformation  of  key  and  keyway  through  crushing. 

Double  keys  are  commonly  set  at  an  angle  of  90°  when  placed  in  cranks  and  solid 
hubs.  An  incidental  advantage,  outside  the  real  function  of  a  key,  occurs  in  the  90° 
keyways  in  a  pulley  hub,  in  making  three  points  of  support,  thus  taking  up  any  lost 
motion  between  the  shaft  and  hub,  should  the  bore  of  pulley  be  sufficiently  large  to  make 
a  loose  fit.  Keys  and  keyways  are  placed  diametrically  opposite  when  employed  in  split 
hubs,  driving  each  half  separately;  the  bolts  passing  through  a  hub  will  securely  clamp 
it  to  the  shaft. 

Kennedy  Double  Keys. — These  keys  have  been  satisfactorily  used  in  rolling  mills 
for  the  transmission  of  heavy  loads  subject  to  periodical  reversal.  Key  dimensions  for 
any  shaft  may  be  found  thus: 

Draw  a  semicircle  in  which  the  diameter  A  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  shaft  for  which 
the  key  is  desired.  From  its  center  draw  45°  angle  lines  beyond  the  circumference  as 

at  B  and  C.  Bisect  each  half  diameter  as  at  D 
and  E.  From  each  of  these  points  D  and  E  erect 
a  perpendicular  extending  to  the  circumference  as 
at  E  G.  Where  the  perpendicular  crosses  the  45° 
diagonal  as  at  F  draw  F  H  parallel  to  A.  Then 
F  H  and  F  G  being  equal  represent  two  sides  of  a 
square  key  F  H  B  G. 

Dimensions    for  keys  suited  to  shafts  from  6 
inches  to  24  inches  diameter  are  given  in  table  of 
Double  Keys  for  Cranks  and  Engine  Pulleys. 

The  keyways  in  the  hub  and  the  upper  side  of  the  key  are  tapered  |  inch  per  foot. 
The  sides  of  key  are  parallel  and  closely  fitted  into  shaft  and  hub.  It  will  be  noted  that 
the  key  is  wholly  in  compression. 

Peters'  Double  Key  — This  key  is  designed  to  have  its  breadth  of  bearing  located 
on  a  radial  line  in  the  shaft,  and  to  transmit  the  rotary  motion  of  the  shaft  to  a  diag- 
onally opposite  bearing  in  the  hub;  or,  the  reverse,  in  case  motion  is  to  be  transmitted 
through  the  hub  to  the  shaft.  In  either  case  an  equal  breadth  of  key  is  had  in  both 
shaft  and  hub.  The  working  stresses  upon  the  key  tend  to  compression. 

In  designing  a  key  of  this  kind,  lay  down  that  portion  of  hub  and  shaft  in  which 
the  keys  are  to  be  located,  as  in  the  accompanying  diagram,  in  which  A  is  equal  to  the 
shaft  diameter.  From  the  shaft  center,  draw  two  opposite  radial  lines  at  an  angle  of 
22£°  each,  above  the  horizontal,  the  complemental  angle  being  135°.  From  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  projected  shaft,  lay  off  on  one  of  the  diagonal  lines  the  desired  breadth 
of  key  B,  and  erect  a  perpendicular  C,  intersecting  the  shaft  circumference.  The  lines 
B  C  form  two  sides  of  a  parallelogram  which,  when  completed,  represents  the  key  area. 
Repeat  for  the  opposite  side. 

The  keyways  in  both  shaft  and  hub  are  parallel.  Each  key,  as  shown  in  the  diagram, 
is  made  up  of  two  halves  with  central  inclined  faces;  the  outer  faces  of  the  key  are 
parallel  and  machined  to  slide  freely  into  place  in  the  keyways.  After  the  preliminary 
adjustment  each  pair  of  keys  is  firmly  fixed  in  place,  by  driving  the  tapering  keys  to 
the  desired  tension.  Any  increase  of  breadth  B  has  the  effect  of  lengthening  C,  there- 

[576] 


MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM  ENGINES 


DOUBLE  KEYS  FOB  CRANKS  AND  ENGINE  PULLEYS 


Sunk  Key 


Kennedy  Key 


SUNK  KEY 

KENNEDY 

** 

For  Cranks 

For  Pulleys 

g?iS 

Shaft 

rQ 

Shearing 

Shearing 

SJSo  ^ 

Diam. 

'^« 

Area 

Load  per 

Area 

Load  per 
Inch  on 

A 

B 

C 

Area 
1  Key 

Ijs  1 

A 

1 

C 

IKey 

1  Key  at 

C 

IKey 

1  Key  at 

i^^w 

W 

7500  Lbe 

7500  Lbs 

O  ft 

perSqln 

perSqln 

6     ... 

Ik 

K 

1.09 

9375 

k 

0.94 

9375 

6 

1A 

3 

1.13 

7968 

6K... 

1A 

H 

1.23 

9844 

k 

.98 

9844 

6K 

IK 

3k 

1.27 

8441 

7     ... 

IK 

l 

1.38 

10313 

H 

1.12 

10313 

7 

ik 

3K 

1.56 

9375 

7K... 

i& 

l 

1.44 

10781 

It 

.17 

10781 

7K 

i& 

3k 

1.72 

9844 

8     ... 

IK 

i& 

1.59 

11250 

K 

.31 

11  250 

8 

1A 

4 

2.07 

10781 

8K... 

i& 

IK 

1.76 

11  719 

K 

.37 

11719 

8K 

IA 

4k 

2.44 

11719 

9     ... 

IK 

IK 

1.83 

12188 

H 

.52 

12  188 

9 

IK 

4K 

2.64 

12  187 

9K... 

1H 

1A 

2.00 

12656 

if 

.58 

12656 

9K 

ik 

4k 

3.06 

13  125 

10     ... 

IK 

2.19 

13  125 

1 

.75 

13  125 

10 

IK 

5 

3.52 

14062 

IOK... 

1H 

l& 

2.38 

13594 

1 

.81 

13594 

IOK 

1H 

5k 

3.75 

14531 

11    ... 

IK 

m 

2.58 

14063 

l 

1.88 

14063 

11 

2 

5K 

4.00 

15000 

UK... 

1H 

2.66 

14531 

1A 

2.06 

14531 

UK 

2K 

5k 

4.52 

15937 

12     ... 

2 

lp 

2.88 

15000 

iA 

2.13 

15000 

12 

2k 

6 

5.06 

16875 

13     ... 

2K 

3.19 

15938 

IK 

2.39 

15938 

13 

2K 

6K 

5.64 

17812 

14     ... 

IK 

3.76 

17344 

1A 

2.75 

17344 

14 

2K 

7 

6.89 

19687 

15     ... 

2JL 

1H 

4.11 

18281 

ik 

3.05 

18281 

15 

2M 

7K 

7.56 

20625 

16     ... 

2K 

1H 

4.76 

19688 

1A 

3.45 

19688 

16 

3 

8 

9.00 

22500 

17     ... 

1H 

5.45 

21  094 

IK 

3.87 

21094 

17 

3K 

8K 

9.77 

23437 

18     ... 

31 

2K 

6.38 

22500 

IK 

4.50 

22500 

18 

3K 

9 

11.39 

25312 

19     ... 

3K 

2k 

7.03 

23438 

1A 

4.88 

23438 

19 

3K 

9K 

12.25 

26250 

20     ... 

3rV 

2K 

7.87 

24844 

1H 

5.38 

24844 

20 

3k 

10 

14.06 

28125 

21     ... 

3K 

2A 

8.97 

26250 

6.13 

26250 

21 

3K 

IOK 

15.02 

29062 

22     ... 

2ii 

9.74 

27  188 

*T* 

6.57 

27188 

22 

4K 

11 

17.02 

30937 

23     ... 

3H 

2K 

10.96 

28594 

7.15 

28594 

23 

4k 

UK 

18.06 

31875 

24     ... 

4 

3 

12.00 

30000 

2 

8.00 

30000 

24 

4K 

12 

20.25 

33750 

fore  B  must  be  kept  down  to  a  close  working  limit.  As  the  crushing  strength  of  steel 
is  practically  the  same  as  its  tensile  strength,  7,500  pounds  per  square  inch  gives  a  safe 
working  value  to  the  key, 

[577] 


MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM  ENGINES 


T 

t> 


B  = 


shaft  radius. 


PETERS'  DOUBLE  KEY 
C  =  nearest    shop    measurement. 


Graphic   Determination 


KEY 

Com- 
pression 
Load  per 

KEY 

Compres- 
sion Load 
per  Inch 

Shaft 

Area 

Inch  on 

Shaft 

Area 

on  1  Key 

A 

1  Key 

1  Key  at 
7500 

A 

1  Key 

at  7500 
Lbs.  per 

B 

c 

Lbs.  per 
Sq.  In. 

B 

c 

Square 
Inch 

4 

N 

1* 

0.66 

3750 

7y2 

if 

2K 

2.34 

7031 

4M 

H 

iy* 

.73 

3985 

8 

1 

2% 

2.63 

7500 

4/^ 

A 

I'M 

.84 

4219 

8^2 

llV 

2{f 

2.99 

7969 

4^ 

$ 

iA 

.93 

4454 

9 

l/^ 

3 

3.38 

8438 

5 

1% 

1.02 

4688 

9K 

14 

3H 

3.71 

8906 

5M 

Jl 

W 

1.15 

4922 

10 

IK 

3A 

4.14 

9375 

5^ 

H 

^ 

1.25 

5156 

10H 

i« 

3K 

4.59 

9844 

5% 

0 

1.35 

5391 

11 

i/^ 

3% 

4.98 

10313 

6 

M 

2 

1.50 

5625 

11^ 

i^ 

3H 

5.48 

10781 

§1A 

H 

2A 

1.78 

6094 

12 

iH 

4 

6.00 

11250 

7 

2A 

2.02 

6563 

Keys  for  Screw  Propellers — These  are  always  subject  to  violent  changes  of  load 
through  racing  of  mam  engines  in  a  rough  sea,  not  overlooking  the  frequent  and  full 
powered  reversals  which  occur  during  maneuvers.  To  meet  this  service  the  outboard 
end  of  tail  shaft  is  tapered,  the  propeller  boss  is  bored  to  fit  the  tapered  shaft,  the  keys 
are  thicker  to  resist  crushing,  and  extend  the  whole  length  of  boss. 

Single  key  proportions  by  Seaton  and  Rounthwaite  are: 
Breadth  of  key  =  0.22  X  largest  diameter  of  shaft  +  0.25. 
Thickness  of  key  =  0.55  X  breadth. 

The  thickness  of  a  single  key  is  limited  to  about  one-eighth  the  shaft  diameter;  should 
this  thickness  be  insufficient,  two  keys  must  be  used. 

The  breadth  of  key  is  less  than  in  stationary  practice  by  reason  of  the  greater  length 
and  consequent  area  which  the  key  offers  in  resisting  compression  or  shearing.  The 
breadth  of  key  need  not  greatly  exceed  once  and  a  half  its  total  thickness. 

The  length  of  a  propeller  boss  may  vary  according  as  the  propeller  is  cast  in  one 
piece  or  whether  the  boss  and  blades  are  cast  separately.  The  former  will  include  all 
small  propellers,  especially  those  of  cast  iron,  for  which  Seaton  and  Rounthwaite's  rule 
=  2.7  X  diameter  of  tail  shaft.  Thus  an  8-inch  tail  shaft  would  have  a  taper  and  boss 
with  key  21.6  inches  long.  A  boss  having  separate  blades  will  vary  between  2.25  and 
2.5  diameters  in  length,  averaging  the  latter  figure  nearly;  in  this  case,  the  keyway  of 
the  taper  end  of  a  16-inch  tail  shaft  would  be  40  inches  long. 

A  propeller  shaft  of  carbon  steel  will  have  an  elastic  limit  of  about  35,000  pounds 

[578] 


MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM  ENGINES 

per  square  inch.  If  the  maximum  working  stress  be  fixed  at  one-half  this,  a  maximum 
working  limit  is  reached  at  17,500  pounds  per  square  inch.  When  this  limit  is  reached 
two  keys  must  be  used,  and  these  should  be  placed  diametrically  opposite  each  other. 

The  bearing  surface  of  a  key  is  important  in  preventing  deformation.  The  shearing 
"of  a  key  of  ordinary  proportions  is  quite  unlikely  to  occur.  In  general,  the  depth  of 
keyway  in  a  propeller  shaft  is  0.0625  that  of  its  diameter. 

The  aggregate  area  of  two  keys  for  a  given  shaft  diameter  is  greater  than  for  a  single 


BOLT  END  WITH  COLLAR  AND  COTTER 
For  Rigid  Frame  Connection 


BAR 

COLLAR 

SHANK 

SLOT 

Kf 

Diam. 
A 

Area 

Diam. 
B 

Thickness 
C 

Diam. 
D 

Length 

Width 
E 

Depth 
F 

1 

.785 

H 

f 

U 

1 

A 

Ii 

H 

II 

.994 

1H 

H 

H 

1& 

A 

m 

1* 

t| 

1.227 

2 

f 

if 

H 

f 

H 

if 

If 

1.485 

2A 

H 

H 

H 

f 

2& 

lit 

ii 

1.767 

2| 

1 

Hi 

if 

A 

2i 

2 

u 

2.074 

2^ 

1 

Itt 

I& 

& 

2^r 

2i 

if 

2.405 

21 

H 

1H 

H 

i 

2f 

2A 

H 

2.761 

2H 

1 

2^ 

if 

1 

2H 

2^ 

2 

3.142 

3| 

1A 

2i 

m 

A 

3 

2H 

2i 

3.976 

3* 

1A 

2^ 

H 

f 

3f 

3 

2| 

4.909 

31 

!& 

2! 

2 

H 

31 

3f 

2f 

5.940 

*i 

I* 

3^6 

2i 

1 

4i 

3! 

3 

7.069 

4| 

ii 

3A 

2A 

H 

41 

4i 

H 

8.296 

5 

U 

3f 

2^ 

H 

41 

4^ 

3£ 

9.621 

5f 

H 

31 

2H 

5i 

4H 

3f 

11.05 

5| 

H 

4i 

21 

If 

5f 

5i 

4 

12.57 

61 

2 

4^ 

3 

i 

6 

5| 

[579] 


MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM   ENGINES 

key,  a  result  of  greater  thickness,  relatively,  of  double  keys  over  a  single  one.  When 
the  thickness  of  a  double  key  is  determined,  its  breadth  may  be  one  and  a  half  times 
that  thickness. 

The  central  core  in  a  propeller  boss  is  commonly  one-third  of  its  length,  therefore 
only  two-thirds  of  the  tapered  length  of  a  tail  shaft  is  available  for  driving  through  the 
key. 

No  taper  is  given  the  keys  used  in  fastening  a  propeller  boss  on  the  tapered  end 
of  a  tail  shaft.  The  boss  slides  over  the  key  or  feather  (both  terms  are  in  use)  until 
taper  surfaces  are  in  contact;  the  boss  is  followed  up  by  a  nut  on  the  outer  end  of  the 
tail  shaft.  Taper  of  tail  shaft  in  the  boss  of  propeller  =  1  inch  per  foot. 


BOLT  EXD  FOE  RIGID  FRAME  CONNECTION— Countersunk  Head  and  Cotter 


BAR 

COLLAR 

SHANK 

Kfy 

FRAME 

Dia. 
A 

Area 

Diam. 
B 

Thick- 
ness 
C 

Diam. 
D 

Length 

Slot 
Width 
H 

K 

L 

M 

E 

F 

G 

1 

.785 

If 

f 

1| 

1 

H 

1 

A 

H 

1| 

11 

2| 

U 

.994 

m 

H 

H 

it 

I» 

*ft 

A 

i* 

2A 

1H 

2f 

H 

1.227 

2 

1 

if 

H 

H 

U 

f 

if 

2J 

H 

3 

H 

1.485 

2& 

H 

H 

if 

2^ 

H 

f 

lit 

2A 

2A 

81 

il 

1.767 

2f 

1 

1H 

H 

21 

if 

A 

2 

2f 

2i 

8| 

if 

2.074 

2& 

1 

Itt 

If 

2A 

1* 

A 

2| 

2H 

2A 

31 

i! 

2.405 

21 

if 

IJt 

If 

2f 

H 

i 

2& 

3 

2f 

3f 

U 

2.761 

2H 

l 

2A 

if 

2H 

if 

i 

2* 

3A 

2H 

4 

2 

3.142 

31 

1& 

2* 

2 

3 

1H 

A 

2H 

3f 

3 

4i 

2i 

3.976 

8f 

1A 

2| 

2i 

3f 

U 

f 

3 

3H 

8| 

4f 

2* 

4.909 

3| 

I* 

2| 

2| 

3f 

2 

H 

8| 

4A 

3f 

5 

21 

5.940 

4* 

1* 

8& 

2| 

4| 

2i 

f 

8| 

4A 

*t 

5| 

3 

7.069 

4f 

U 

3A 

3 

4| 

2A 

H 

4i 

5 

4f 

51 

3i 

8.296 

5 

U 

3f 

3| 

41 

2^ 

H 

4A 

5f 

41 

6t 

3* 

9.621 

5f 

U 

31 

3* 

5i 

2H 

1 

4H 

51 

5i 

6f 

3f 

11.05 

51 

if 

41 

3f 

5f 

21 

if 

5| 

6i 

5f 

71 

4 

12.57 

6* 

2 

4* 

4 

6 

3 

l 

5^ 

6^ 

6 

n 

580] 


MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM  ENGINES 
VALVE  ROD  END  WITH  BUSHING 


IK 


IK 


K 
K 
H 

K 


IK 

IK 


IK 

2 

2K 

2K 


2K 
2K 
2K 


3K 
3K 
3K 


IK 
IK 

2 

2K 

2K 


H 

K 


IK 


H 


2 

2K 

2K 


2K 

3  4 


2K 
2K 

3 

3K 


4K 

4K 

5K 


2K 

2K 


2K 
3 

3K 


IK 


H 

K 
H 

if 

1 

IK 


VALVE  ROD  END  WITH  COUPLING 


1 

IK 


IK 


IK 

IK 
IK 


2 

2K 


1K2K 


\N\QO\Tf\00 
-H\  10\  C0\  t-\ 

^-  —  —  — 


4K 
4K 
4K 
5K 


H 


IK 

IK 
IK 


i-t 


K 


M 


N 


K 


IK 


IK 
2 


[581 


MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM  ENGINES 
VALVE  ROD  END  WITH  COUPLING — (Continued) 


A   B   C   D 


IX 

IK 

2 

2K 


2K 
2K 
2K 


2K 


K 


2 

2K 

2K 

2K 


2K 

3 

3K 


3K 


3K 

3K 
3K 

3x 

4 


4K 
4K 

5K 

5K 


H 


2K 
2K 


2H 
2H 


IK 
1A 


1A 

IK 

IK 


K 


l 

i^ 

IK 
1A 


i& 

IK 
1A 
IK 


itt 


IK 
IA 

IA 

IK 

^ 

IK 
l& 
l& 


itt 


l^ 
l^ 

IK 
l& 


1A 

IK 
IK 
1A 


1A 

IK 


M   N 


K 
if 

l 

1^ 

IK 

IA 

1M 
IA 
IA 

IK 

1A 

IK 


if 
if 
K 
if 

l 
l 

i^ 

IK 


1A 
IK 


2K 

2K 
2K 


2K 

3 

3K 


M 


Valve  rod  socket  and  key  taper  Y^,  in.  per  foot.  g  =  K  +  L  +  N  +  0.125. 

VALVE  ROD  END.    GUN  METAL  BOXES  WITH  SET  SCREW  ADJUSTMENT  AND  LOCK  NUT 


K 


M 


1 

IK 


IK 
IK 

2 

2K 

2K 
2K 

2K 

2K 


2K 
3 


IK 
1A 
1A 

IK 


IK 

2 

2K 

2A 
2A 

2A 

2if 

3 

3K 

3K 

3K 


2K 

2M 


2K 
2K 

3K 

3K 
3K 


3K 
4K 

4M 


1 

IK 

IK 


IK 


2 
2 

2K 

2K 
2K 
2K 


2K 


K 
H 

if 

K 


IK 
IK 


IK 
iA 

IX 

IK 


2K 


A 
K 

H 


if 

K 
if 
if 
l 

1A 

1A 

IK 


3K 

3K 


4K 

4H 


5K 
5K 


IK 
IK 
IK 

IK 

2 

2K 

2K 

2K 


2K 
3 

3K 


3K 


1A 
1A 

IK 
IK 

IK 


2 
2 

2M 


2K 

2K 


IX 

IK 

2 

2A 

2K 
2K 

2K 
3 

3K 


3K 
4 


K 
K 

3// 


X 
K 
K 
K 
l 

l 

l 

IK 
IK 
IK 


IX 


3K 

4 

4K 
5  4 


6K 


^ 
if 


1A 

IK 
1A 

IX 
IK 
1A 

IK 
IK 
itt 
IX 
itt 

IK 

2 


[582] 


MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM  ENGINES 


VALVE  ROD  END.    GUN  METAL  BOXES  WITH  KEY  ADJUSTMENT 


PTQ 


IK 
IK 


IK 
IK 

2 

2K 

2K 
2K 

2K 
2K 

2K 

2K 
3 


B 


IK 
1A 
1A 

IK 
IK 

IK 

2 

2K 

2A 


2K 

2if 
3 

3K 

3K 

3K 


IK 
IK 

2 

2K 

2K 

2K 


2K 


2K 


1A 

IK 
1A 
1A 


1A 
itt 

IK 


A 


IK 
IK 

2 

2K 

2K 

2K 

2K 
2K 

2K 

3 

3K 

3K 
3K 


K 

if 

K 

if 

1A 

IK 
1A 
IK 
1A 
1A 

IK 

1P 

IK 


IK 
2 


1H 


2K 


3K 
3K 

3tt 

3K 

4K 
4K 

4H 

4K 
5K 


3 

3K 
3K 
3H 


4K 

4K 

4tt 

5K 

5K 

6K 
6K 
6tt 


IK 
itt 


2K 

2K 
2K 


3K 

4K 
4K 

4K 
4K 


u 


IK 
K 
K 
tt 
tt 

K 
K 
if 
if 
K 

K 
if 

l 

l 

1A 

1A 

IK 


N 


K 
K 
K 
A 


K 
K 
K 
K 

K 

K 

K 


K 


K 
if 
K 
l 

1A 

IK 
1A 

IK 
IK 
1A 

IK 
IK 
itt 
IK 
itt 

IK 

2 


Key  tapers  1  in.  per  foot. 


[583] 


MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM  ENGINES 


VALVE  ROD  KNUCKLE 


ii 


1 
IN 

IN 

IK 


IK 
IN 

ill 

2 


3 

3K 


N 

K 
ift 
ift 

IK 


K 
tt 

H 

i 
ift 


ift 


H 

% 

if 


ift 


IN 
lit 


2N 


N 

K 
N 

H 
H 


H 

i 

ift 

ift 

IK 
ift 


1H 

2 


N 

A 


N 


K 
K 


» 

H 


l 
l 
l 
l 
l 

ift 
ift 
ift 


i* 

ift 
ift 


lit 

2M 


^e 

\6 

X 

K 

K 
K 
N 


[5841 


MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM  ENGINES 


VALVE  ROD  KNUCKLE 


1 
IK 


IK 

9 


IK 


2 
2A 

2K 

2K 

2K 


3K 


IK 

2 


2K 

3 

3K 
4 

4K 


6K 
7  8 


K 
K 
A 
H 
H 

K 
l 

IK 

IK 

IK 

IK 


K 


K 


H 
H 

K 
H 


K 
IK 


IK 

2K 


3K 


l 

IK 


2K 

2A 
2K 
2H 


K 
A 
A 


A 
A 

K 
K 

A 
A 

K 


A 
H 


l 
IK 


IK 


IK 
1A 

lil 

2 
2A 


4 
4A 


A 
A 
A 
A 
K 

K 

K8 
A 
A 

A 

A 


[585] 


MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM  ENGINES 


STRAP  JOINT  WITH  GUN  METAL  BODY  AND  STEEL  STRAP 
For  operating  balanced  parts.     Not  suitable  for  heavy  work 


M 


K. 
l 

IK 
IK 


2A 

2K 
2A 
2K 


3 

3A 


3H 

4K 


1 
IK 


1H 
Ij 

2 
2K 


K 

A 


H 
K 
A 


IK 
IK 

24 

2% 
3 

3K 


ft 

ii 
i 

IK 
ift 
ift 
ift 

IK 


if 
l 

IK 


ift 
ift 
IK 


l 

IK 


ift 

IK 
IK 
itt 
itt 


5* 

K 
H 


if 


IK 
ift 

ift 
ift 
IK 

IK 


IK 
ift 
ift 

i3^ 

IK 


y* 

y8 

7 
T6 


K 


A 


ift 

IK 


1M 
IK 
IK 


K 


K 


K 
K 
K 


A 


1ft 

1K1K 
1ft 

IK 


IK 


2 
2> 

2K 


1 
1 

IK 


H 


IK 
IK 


IK 


[586] 


MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM  ENGINES 
ROD  COUPLING  WITH  COLLAR  AND  COTTER 


ROD 

B 

c 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

I 

J 

K 

L 

M 

N 

o 

Diam. 
A 

Area 

1 

.785 

li 

i 

H 

3 

4 

11 

7 
8 

H 

i 

2| 

1 

1J 

1 

f 

3f 

li 

.994 

itt 

A 

H 

1 

1A 

1 

li 

A 

2£ 

1 

1A 

1 

H 

41 

H 

1.227 

if 

f 

1A 

if 

1A 

u 

ll3. 

A 

21 

U 

1A 

H 

f 

4A 

if 

1.485 

2^ 

H 

1A 

1A 

U 

1A 

1A 

f 

3| 

H 

if 

H 

H 

5A 

I| 

1.767 

2j 

i 

1H 

H 

H 

1A 

itt 

f 

3f 

if 

11 

if 

1 

5^ 

if 

2.074 

2A 

H 

lit 

H 

2^ 

H 

11 

A 

31 

li 

2A 

11 

i 

6A 

if 

2.405 

2f 

1 

1H 

1A 

2A 

li 

2 

A 

4 

if 

2^ 

1A 

1A 

6^ 

11 

2.761 

2H 

if 

2^6 

1A 

2| 

H 

21 

i 

4| 

H 

2| 

1H 

H 

6H 

2 

3.142 

3 

i 

2i 

li 

2i 

1H 

2| 

i 

4^ 

itt 

2| 

1H 

1A 

7A 

21 

3.976 

3f 

11 

2i 

1H 

2H 

U 

2A 

9 

5| 

2^6 

2H 

2A 

1A 

8i 

2£ 

4.909 

3! 

U 

2f 

if 

3| 

21 

2H 

f 

5| 

2A 

3| 

2A 

1A 

9A 

2| 

5.940 

*i 

H 

3A 

2^ 

3A 

2& 

3| 

H 

6£ 

2A 

3A 

2| 

if 

10i 

3 

7.069 

4* 

H 

3A 

2| 

3f 

2£ 

3f 

i 

4 

6f 

2| 

3f 

2f 

if 

11 

ROD  COUPLING  WITH  SINGLE  TAPER  SOCKET  AND  COTTER 


Diam. 
A 

B 

c 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

i 

j 

K 

L 

M 

N 

0 

1 

H 

H 

1 

2tt 

2i 

1 

f 

H 

f 

1A 

If 

li 

i 

3A 

H 

f 

1A 

1A 

3i 

2| 

1 

1 

1A 

H 

if 

2 

H 

A 

^ 

H 

1 

1A 

1A 

3f 

2| 

H 

1 

1A 

f 

H 

2A 

if 

A 

4A 

if 

if 

if 

U 

3H 

21 

H 

1A 

if 

1 

21 

2A 

1A 

A 

4H 

H 

IA 

H 

if 

4A 

31 

if 

1A 

11 

if 

21 

2f 

1H 

f 

5A 

[587] 


MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM  ENGINES 
ROD  COUPLING  WITH  SINGLE  TAPER  SOCKET  AND  COTTER — (Continued) 


Diam. 
A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

I 

J 

K 

L 

M 

N 

o 

If 

U 

2A 

ii 

4H 

31 

ii 

H 

2^ 

1 

2& 

21 

1H 

f 

51 

If 

1A 

2A 

1A 

4H 

3| 

if 

If 

2T% 

IA 

21 

2rs 

2 

T6 

6fk 

U 

n 

2f 

if 

4 

if 

1A 

1A 

2H 

3A 

2| 

A 

6f 

2 

1A 

2* 

if 

5& 

41 

1H 

IA 

2$ 

H 

3i 

3| 

21 

1 

7A 

21 

ii 

2H 

11 

6& 

41 

2^ 

if 

2H 

if 

3^ 

3H 

2^ 

A 

8A 

2* 

1H 

3* 

21 

6H 

5f 

2A 

1H 

31 

1A 

31A 

4f 

2H 

f 

9 

21 

1H 

3A 

21 

71 

51 

2A 

2i 

3^ 

if 

4f 

2H 

H 

9H 

3 

2 

31 

2* 

81 

6* 

2f 

2f 

3f 

H 

4f 

51 

3f 

f 

101 

ROD  COUPLING  WITH  Two  ABUTTING  ENDS  AND  COTTERS 


ROD 

B 

c 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

I 

K 

L 

M 

Diam. 
A 

Area 

1 

.785 

f 

U 

1 

21 

2 

1 

If 

11 

1 

2| 

5f 

H 

.994 

H 

If 

1 

3A 

21 

1 

11 

H 

A 

2f 

6f 

H 

1.227 

if 

IA 

H 

3f 

2i 

H 

«i 

if 

A 

3| 

71 

if 

1.485 

IA 

if 

tA 

4 

21 

iA 

nf 

1A 

A 

3A 

8 

If 

1.767 

ii 

H 

1A 

4A 

3 

Ub 

2 

m 

f 

3f 

8| 

if 

2.074 

H 

2^ 

iA 

4f 

31 

iA 

21 

1H 

1 

4^ 

9* 

if 

2.405 

1A 

2A 

1A 

5A 

-3* 

1A 

21 

2 

A 

4f 

101 

U 

2.761 

1A 

2f 

if 

5A 

31 

if 

2^ 

21 

A 

4H 

101 

2 

3.142 

n 

2^ 

if 

5f 

4 

if 

2A 

21 

i 

5 

HI 

2i 

3.976 

itt 

2H 

2 

6^ 

4^ 

2 

21 

2| 

A 

5f 

13 

2* 

4.909 

H 

3| 

2A 

7A 

5 

2A 

3A 

2H 

f 

61 

14| 

2f 

5.940 

2A 

3A 

2f 

71 

5i 

21 

3A 

31 

H 

61 

151 

3 

7.069 

21 

3f 

21 

;«f 

6 

21 

3f 

31 

f 

7^ 

171 

[588] 


MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM  ENGINES 
ROD  COUPLING  WITH  Two  ABUTTING  ENDS.    GIB  AND  KEY 


Dia. 
A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

I 

j 

K 

L 

M 

N 

0 

1 

1 

If 

1 

3! 

11 

1 

If 

f 

f 

I 

21 

A 

1 

4 

61 

li 

1 

1A 

H 

2f 

H 

H 

ii 

H 

A 

3A 

f 

7f 

11 

H 

if 

U 

H 

2f 

H 

1H 

f 

f 

A 

3f 

f 

A 

8i 

if 

1A 

11 

if 

2f 

if 

11 

1 

1 

A 

4 

* 

A 

81 

M 

1A 

H 

41 

21 

H 

if 

if 

f 

4& 

f 

91 

if 

i^ 

2i 

if 

5jL 

3i 

if 

2i 

1 

i 

f 

41 

i 

f 

10f 

if 

i& 

%TS 

if 

51 

3f 

if 

2f 

1A 

i^ 

iSr 

A 

A 

Hi 

U 

if 

2& 

H 

U 

2A 

1A 

i& 

7 

5^ 

A 

A 

12i 

2 

if 

2f 

2 

65 

3yf 

2 

2f 

U 

U 

i 

51 

f 

1 

13 

21 

2 

3A 

2i 

7& 

4& 

2i 

3f 

if 

if 

A 

61 

H 

A 

14f 

2i 

2JL 

3JL 

2i 

81 

4f 

2| 

3JL 

1A 

i& 

f 

7A 

1 

f 

16* 

2f 

2f 

3f 

2f 

81 

5* 

2f 

3H 

if 

if 

H 

71 

H 

171 

3 

2f 

4i 

3 

9f 

5f 

3 

4f 

11 

H 

3 

4 

8f 

1 

4 

19| 

ROD  COUPLING  WITH  Two  TAPER  ENDS  AND  COTTERS 


J    RODS  TAPER*  IN.  PER  WOT 


ROD 

B 

c 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

i 

K 

L 

M 

Diam. 

A 

Area 

1 

.785 

f 

11 

f 

2f 

2 

f 

11 

i 

i 

4 

21 

5 

11 

.994 

H 

H 

2f 

21 

1 

1* 

H 

A 

2f 

5f 

U 

1.227 

f 

Ift 

3 

2* 

H 

H 

A 

3 

61 

If 

1.485 

if 

1A 

1 

3f 

2f 

1A 

1H 

if 

A 

3| 

7 

2 

1.767 

if 

if 

1A 

3H 

3 

H 

U 

H 

f 

3H 

71 

[589] 


MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM  ENGINES 
ROD  COUPLING  WITH  Two  TAPER  ENDS  AND  COTTERS — (Continued) 


ROD 

Diam. 
A 

Area 

B 

c 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

I 

K 

L 

M 

If 

2.074 

1 

if 

lA 

4 

31 

H 

•2A 

If 

i 

4 

81 

if 

2.405 

1* 

2 

H 

4fV 

31 

1A 

21 

If 

& 

4^ 

at 

If 

2.761 

i| 

2A 

i* 

4f 

3f 

ii3* 

2A 

H 

A 

4f 

9f 

2 

3.142 

iA 

2A 

if 

4M 

4 

1J 

2A 

2 

i 

4H 

10 

2t 

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SCEEW  COUPLING.    ADJUSTABLE  WITH  LOCK  NUTS 


Right  and  left  hand  threads.     United  States  Standard 


A 

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2 

3 

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3 

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6 

[590] 


MACHINE   DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM   ENGINES 


CRANKS.    CAST  IRON 


Suitable  for  Steam  Engines  up  to  24  In.  Diameter  of  Cylinder;  Steam  Pressures  No 
More  than  125  Pounds.     For  Higher  Pressures  Steel  Castings  Should  be  Used. 


CKANK  PIN  END 


IK 
IK 
2K 
2K 

2K 
2K 
3K 


4K 

4K 


5K 
6K 
6K 

6M 

7 


IK 
2K 


2K 
3K 


4K 


5K 

6K 

6K 

6& 


IK 


IK 


IK 


IK 


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3% 

4K 
4K 
4K 
4K 

5K 


6 

6K 


SHAFT  END 


3 

3K 


4K 
5 

6 


7 
8 
9 

9K 
10 


11 

UK 

12 


3% 
4K 

4K 
5K 


6 

6K 

7 
7K 


8K 
8K 


6K 

7K 


9 

10K 


12 

12K 
13K 


16 

16K 
17K 
18K 


20 


2K 

3K 


7K 

8 


K 

IK 
IK 

2 

2K 

2K 
3K 


4K 
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5 


6K 

6K 

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H 
1 

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IK 
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2 

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A 
tt 

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1A 

IK 


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2K 

2K 
2K 


N 


H 

A 

ft 

tt 

tt 

i 
it 


1A 
IK 
1A 


[591] 


MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM  ENGINES 
CRANK  PINS 


3 

,   J     , 

H-'T^ 

1    M*-"-* 

»           S....- 

•  *• 

•f 

.?. 

m 

3 

I 

i     - 

F 

>* 
*— 

For  Stationary  Engines 


Diam. 
A 

Area 
A 

Length 
B 

Project- 
ed Area 
Sq.  In. 

Pressure 
on  Pin 
at  1500 
Lbs. 
Sq.  In. 

Diam. 
C 

Area 
C 

Length 
D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

I 

1 

.7854 

IK 

1.375 

2063 

K 

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IK 

IK 

X 

K 

N 

H 

IK 

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IK 

1.688 

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IK 

X 

K 

H 

H 

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1.227 

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2.031 

3047 

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itt 

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% 

H 

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1.485 

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2.406 

3609 

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1.227 

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A 

A 

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1.767 

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2.813 

4220 

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1.485 

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2 

K 

A 

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2.074 

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2.761 

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4.219 

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3.142 

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A 

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3.547 

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5.313 

7970 

2 

3.142 

2K 

2H 

A 

A 

IK 

ft 

2N 

3.976 

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5.906 

8859 

2K 

3.547 

2K 

2K 

A 

A 

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ft 

2K 

4.430 

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6.531 

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2M 

3.976 

2^ 

3 

K 

A 

IK 

ft 

2K 

4.909 

2K 

7.188 

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K 

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H 

2K 

5.412 

3 

7.875 

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4.430 

3 

3A 

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K 

IN 

H 

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5.940 

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8.594 

12891 

2^ 

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3K 

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K 

K 

IN 

H 

2K 

6.492 

3N 

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14016 

2% 

5.412 

3M 

3^ 

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K 

IN 

H 

3 

7.069 

3K 

10.500 

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2M 

5.940 

3^ 

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12.188 

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3 

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14.438 

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8.296 

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11.045 

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16.406 

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9.621 

4K 

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N 

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IK 

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4 

12.566 

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28500 

3% 

11.045 

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N 

K 

IN 

If 

4N 

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5 

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4 

12.566 

5 

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l 

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7K 

44.179 

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8M 

8K 

H 

l 

2 

H 

[592] 


MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM  ENGINES 


CRANK  PINS.     For  Stationary  Engines — (Continued) 


Diam. 
A 

Area 
A 

Length 
B 

Project- 
ed Area 
Sq.  In. 

Pressure 
on  Pin 
at  1500 
Lbs. 
Sq.  In. 

Diam. 
C 

Area 
C 

Length 

E 

F 

G 

H 

I 

7% 

47.173 

9 

69.750 

104625 

7H 

44.179 

9 

9% 

tt 

1 

2 

H 

8 

50.265 

9% 

75.000 

112500 

7% 

47.173 

9% 

9% 

1 

1% 

2% 

H 

8% 

53.456 

9% 

79.406 

119  109 

8 

50.265 

9% 

9% 

1 

1% 

2% 

If 

%1A 

56.745 

10 

85.000 

127  500 

8% 

53.456 

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1 

1% 

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If 

8% 

60.132 

10% 

89.688 

134  532 

&A 

56.745 

10% 

10% 

1 

1% 

2% 

H 

9 

63.617 

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94.500 

141  750 

8% 

60.132 

10% 

10% 

1 

1% 

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If 

9% 

67.201 

10% 

99.438 

149  157 

9 

63.617 

10% 

10% 

1 

1% 

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If 

VA 

70.882 

11% 

105.688 

158532 

9% 

67.201 

11% 

11% 

1 

1% 

2% 

If 

9% 

74.662 

11% 

110.906 

166  359 

VA 

70.882 

11% 

11% 

1 

1% 

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If 

10 

78.540 

11% 

116.250 

174  375 

9% 

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11% 

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1 

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82.516 

12 

123.000 

184  500 

10 

78.540 

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82.516 

12% 

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1 

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134.375 

201  563 

10% 

86.590 

12% 

12% 

1 

1% 

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11 

95.033 

12% 

141.625 

212  438 

10% 

90.763 

12% 

12% 

1% 

1% 

2% 

11% 

99.402 

13% 

147.656 

221  484 

11 

95.033 

13% 

13% 

1% 

1% 

2% 

11% 

103.869 

13% 

155.250 

232  875 

11% 

99.402 

13% 

13% 

1% 

1% 

2K 

11% 

108.434 

13% 

161.563 

242  345 

ny2 

103.869 

13% 

13% 

1% 

1% 

2% 

12 

113.097 

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168.000 

252000 

11% 

108.434 

14 

14 

1% 

1% 

2^ 

CONNECTING  ROD  STUB  END,  FOR  CRANK  PIN.    Box  END  WITH  WEDGE  ADJUSTMENT 


A 

B 

C 

D 

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P 

G 

H 

i 

j 

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1 

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% 
% 

% 

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% 
if 
% 
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l% 

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[593] 


MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM   ENGINES 


CONNECTING  ROD  STUB  END,  FOR  CRANK  PIN.     Box  END  WITH  WEDGE  ADJUSTMENT 

(Continued') 


A 

B 

c 

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[594 


MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM  ENGINES 

CONNECTING  ROD  STUB  END,  FOR  CRANK  PIN.    Box  END  WITH  WEDGE  ADJUSTMENT 

(Continued) 


A 

L 

M 

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CONNECT 

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X      _1 

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CRANK  PIN 

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K 
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[595] 


MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM  ENGINES 


CONNECTING  ROD  STUB  END,  FOR  CRANK  PIN.    STRAP  JOINT  WITH  GIB  AND  KEY 

(Continued) 


B 


E 


IK 
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2K 


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[596] 


MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM  ENGINES 
STRAP  JOINT  WITH  GIB  AND  KEY — (Continued) 


A 

M 

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CONNECTING  ROD  STUB  END,  FOR 

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[597] 

MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM   ENGINES 
STRAP  JOINT  WITH  GIB  AND  KEY — (Continued) 


2K 


3 
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MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM  ENGINES 


CONNECTING  ROD  STUB  END  FOR  CRANK  PIN.    STRAP  JOINT  WITH  GIB  AND  KEY 

(Continued) 


u 


w 


4 

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CONNECTING  ROD  STUB  END  FOR  CRANK  PIN  WITH  BOLTED  STRAP,  WEDGE  BLOCK 

AND  KEY 


Adapted  from  American  Locomotive  Practice 


A 

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599] 


MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM  ENGINES 

CONNECTING  ROD  STUB  END  FOR  CRANK  PIN  WITH  BOLTED  STRAP,  WEDGE 
BLOCK  AND  KEY — Continued 


A 

B 

b 

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D 

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p 

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H 

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Distance  U  is  subject  to  slight  correction  due  to  fractional  quantities  being  expressed  in  the  nearest 
working  fraction.  In  no  case  will  the  difference  exceed  V«  inch.  Fractional  differences  in  column  V  may 
be  adjusted  in  column  U. 


[600 


MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM  ENGINES 

CONNECTING  ROD  STUB  END  FOR  CRANK  PIN,  WITH  BOLTED  STRAP,  WEDGE  BLOCK, 

AND  KEY 


Adapted  from  American  Locomotive  Practice 


5M 
6 


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3 


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4 


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2K 


MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM  ENGINES 

CONNECTING  ROD  STUB  END  FOR  CRANK  PIN,  WITH  BOLTED  STRAP,  WEDGE  BLOCK, 

AND  KEY — Continued 


6% 

7 

7% 

7K 

7% 

8 


9K 

lOK 


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UK 


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16%  |12% 
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26K 

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[602] 


MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM  ENGINES 

CONNECTING  ROD  STUB  END  FOR  CRANK  PIN,  WITH  BOLTED  STRAP,  WEDGE  BLOCK, 

AND  KEY — Continued 


7 
7% 

7% 
8 


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17 


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19% 


20 


3% 
3% 
3% 
3% 

4K 

4% 
4K 
4K 

4% 

4% 


S 


2K 
2% 

2^ 

2% 
2% 
2K 
2K 


** 


2 

2 

2% 
2% 
2% 


2% 
2% 
2K 
2K 
3 


1A 
1A 


itt 
itt 
1% 
1% 
itt 

itt 


IK 

2 
2 


U 


12tt 

ISA 


14 

14% 

14% 
15 


ISA 

16% 


16** 

16% 
17% 

17% 
18 


3K 


4% 
4% 
4% 
4% 
5% 

5% 
5% 
5% 
5% 
i 
5% 


32% 


34M 
35^ 
35M 


38A 

41A 

41% 

42^ 
42H 
45^ 

45& 
46 


W 


8% 

8% 

8% 

9 

9% 

9K 
9% 

10 

10% 


10% 

11 

11% 


11% 

12 


4% 
5 

5% 
5% 


5% 
5K 
6 

6% 
6% 
6% 
6% 

6K 

7 


4% 
5 

5% 
5% 


5% 

5% 

5K 

6 

6% 


6% 

6% 
6K 


[603] 


MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM  ENGINES 


CONNECTING  ROD  STUB  END  FOR  CRANK  PIN.    FORKED  DESIGN  WITH  BACK  BLOCK, 
ADJUSTING  WEDGE  AND  LINER 


Adapted  from  American  Locomotive  Practice 


M 


3M 


7K 
8 


2ii 

3 


3H 
4 


4K 


4% 


634 

7 


1A 
1A 


1A 


itt 
lit 

2 


2H 


3M 

3A 


4A 

4H 


?4 

N 


8H 


IK 

IN 

IK 


IN 

2 

2 

2K 


2H 
3 


3H 
4 

4A 


2A 


3A 


3A 


[604] 


MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM  ENGINES 

CONNECTING  ROD  STUB  END  FOR  CRANK  PIN.    FORKED  DESIGN  WITH  BACK  BLOCK, 
ADJUSTING  WEDGE  AND  LINER — Continued 


9 
9% 

9^ 
9K 
9K 
10 


4.K 

4A 
4tt 
4H 
4tt 


7% 

8 

8% 

8K 

8% 


8K 

8K 

8% 

9 

9K 


67/8 

7K 

7% 

7K 
8% 


10% 
10% 


11 

11% 


6% 

7 
7% 

7% 


9 

9% 
9% 
10 

10% 
IOK 


2A 

2% 

2A 

2% 

2A 


6 

6A 

6A 


IK 


2% 


M 


4% 
5 


N 


W 


3% 
4 


5% 
6 


6% 

7 


7% 
8 


4% 
5 


3% 


5% 
6 


7K 


4% 
4H 


5% 

5% 


7% 


Itt 
Itt 


2K 
2A 


2% 
2K 
2% 

2H 

2H 

2K 

3 
3% 

3% 


4K 
4K 


5K 

5% 


7 
7K 

8 

8K 
9  * 


1 

IK 


IK 
1A 


2% 
2K 

3% 


% 
tt 

1 
1 

IK 


1A 
1% 

IK 


itt 

itt 
1% 

2 

2K 
2K 


6 

6K 
6K 
7K 


8K 
9K 
9K 


11% 

12% 


13% 
13K 
14 

14K 
14% 
15% 


4% 


6K 


6H 


10% 

IOA 

lOtt 

"A 
ntt 

12 

12% 

12% 


8% 

10% 
10% 


12A 
13 


14tt 


15% 
16  A 
17% 
18 

18% 

19A 

20K 


21tt 
22% 
23 


4 

4% 

4A 
4H 

4K 
5K 


5% 

6 

6% 


6% 

7 

7% 

7K 

7% 

8 


IK 

2% 


2% 
2tt 

3K 


3% 


4K 

4% 

4K 
4K 
4% 
4% 


2% 


2% 


2% 


2% 

3 

3K 

3^ 

3A 

3% 

4K 

4K 


[605] 


MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM   ENGINES 


CONNECTING  ROD  STUB  END  FOR  CRANK  PIN.     FORKED  DESIGN  WITH  BACK  BLOCK, 

ADJUSTING  KEY  AND  LINER 


Adapted  from  American  locomotive  Practice 


53^ 
6 


7^ 
8 

83/1 


2H 
3 


3H 

3H 


3 

33^ 

3M 


3^ 

43^ 


H 

i 

1^1 


33^ 


6 


43/4 

5? 
6 


7^6 


8H 


33^ 
3H 


4H 


6M 


9% 
19?4 

1034 


UK 


11 


12 
12A 


Itt 


4H 


3 

3% 


43^ 


43^ 
5 


4M 


5% 


63^ 


M 


3K 


[606] 


MACHINE  DETAILS  RELATING  TO  STEAM  ENGINES 

CONNECTING  ROD  STUB  END  FOR  CRANK  PIN.     FORKED  DESIGN  WITH  BACK  BLOCK, 
ADJUSTING  KEY  AND  LINER — Continued 


7 

7% 

7% 

7% 

8 


10 
10% 


4H 

5 

5K 

5A 

5K 


7% 

7K 
8K 

8K 
8% 


6% 


7K 
8% 
8K 
8% 
9 


1H 


6% 

7 

7% 


10% 

11% 

11% 

12 

12% 

12% 


5A 
5% 
5A 


12 

12K 

13 

13% 


I2tt 
13A 
13% 
14% 
14tt 
15% 


2A 

2H 

2% 
2K 
3 

3K 


8A 

8K 

8M 


7% 


M 


4K 

4% 
4K 


5K 
5% 
6 


6% 
7 


N 


11 
11% 


12% 
13% 

14% 
14% 
15% 


16% 

17% 
18% 
18% 
19% 
20K 
20K 


IK 

IK 


1% 


IK 


4H 

5% 
6 

6% 


10% 


10% 

11 

11% 

UK 


5 
6 

6K 
7% 


10 

10% 

10% 

11% 

UK 
11% 

12% 
12% 


13% 


2H 

2K 


3% 


3% 


4H 
4K 


5%' 


H 


IT 


4 

4% 


6 

6% 


7% 

8  8 
8% 


9 

9% 

10 
10% 


if 
l 

1A 


1% 
1A 
1% 
1A 


1H 
itt 


lit 

2 

2A 

2A 

2% 


H 

l 

1A 

IK 

IK 
1A 
1% 
1A 


1A 
1A 
IK 
1A 

1H 


w 


3 

3% 
3K 
3% 
4 

4% 

4K 

4% 

5 

5% 


5% 

6 

6% 


6% 

7 

7% 

7K 

7% 

8 


2 

2A 

2A 

2K 
2H 


3 

3K 

3A 

3K 

3H 

41 

4K 
4% 


4K 
4K 

4K 
5 


IK 


2% 

2K 


2% 
2K 
3 

3K 
3^ 

3A 

3% 

4% 
4A 
4K 


[607] 


INDEX 


Acceleration,  7 
Acetylene,  properties,,  199 
Acid  open-hearth  furnace,  230 

oxides,  200 

properties^  199 
Acidic  oxides,  510 
Acme  thread  screws,  358 
Activity,  C.  G.  S.,  5 
Admiralty  metal,  A,  U.  S.  N.,  551, 558. 
Aich's  metal,  558 
Air  as  a  standard,  12 

properties,  200 

specific  heat,  14 
Ajax  bronze,  562 
Alabama  pine,  298 
Alcohol,  industrial,  201 

properties,  201 
Alkali  metals,  509 

properties,  202 
Alkaline-earthy  metals,  508 
Allotropic  theory,  hardening  steel,  482 
Allotropy,  202 
Alloy,  non-oxidizable,  558 

properties,  202 
Alloy-steels,  245 

Alloy-steels,  heat  treatment,  263 
Alloys,  aluminum,  517 

chemical  nature  of,  511 

copper,  tin,  zinc,  U.  S.  N.,  539 

copper,  uses,  U.  S.  N.,  539 

eutectic,  512 

fusibility,  512 

liquation  in,  512 

non-ferrous,  510 

non-ferrous,  porosity  of,  514 

occlusion  in,  512 

physical  properties,  511 

specific  gravity,  511 

specific  heat  of,  512 

used  in  engineering,  558 
Aluminum  alloys,  516,  558 

alloys  improved  by  zinc,  518 

and  chromium,  517 

and  copper,  518 

and  manganese,  517,  559 

and  nickel,  518,  559 

and  tin,  517 

and  titanium,  517 

and  tungsten,  518 


Aluminum  alloys,  brass,  Cowles,  558 

bronze,  558 

copper,  558 

fluxes  for,  516 

ingots,  properties,  U.  S.  N.,  525 

magnesium  alloys,  508 

melting  point,  517 

physical  properties,  516 

properties,  203,  508 

working  and  annealing,  517 
Amalgams,  205,  518 
American  wire  gauge,  73 
Ammonia,  properties,  206 
Angle,  7 

Angular  velocity,  7 
Annealing  carbon  tool  steel,  494 

mild  steel,  494 

wought  iron,  469 
Anti-friction  metal,  U.  S.  N.,  559 

Admiralty,  559 

Comp.  W,  U.  S.  N.,  541,  554 
Antimony,  properties,  207 
Apothecaries'  weight,  43 
Arc  of  a  circle,  124,  126 
Arcs,  circular,  lengths  of,  126 
Area,  7 

of  circles,  94 

of  irregular  figure,  135 

of  segment  of  circle,  125,  129 
Areas  of  circular  segments,  129 
Argentan,  composition,  559 
Armor  plate,  255 
Arsenic,  bronze,  559 

properties,  207,  506 
Asbestos,  properties,  207 
Attraction,  intensity  of,  8 
Austenite,  208 
Avoirdupois  weights,  42 

Babbitt  metal,  559 

Barium  chloride  bath,  disadvantages,  490 

bath  for  steel,  490 

properties,  208,  508 
Basic  Bessemer  process,  211 

open-hearth  furnace,  230 

oxides,  510 

Bastard  thread  screws,  U.  S.  N.,  360 
Baths  for  heating  steel,  489 
Bell,  David,  478 
[609] 


INDEX 


Bell  metal,  composition,  559 

Belting,  rubber,  testing,  435 

Benedict  nickel,  Comp.  Be-r,  535 

Bessemer  process,  208 

Billets  and  blooms,  classed,  474 

Binary  alloys,  melting  point,  55? 

Birmingham  wire  gauge,  74 

Bischof's  refractory  quotient,  290 

Bismuth  amalgam,  519 
properties,  214,.  506 

Blister  steel,  214 

Blooms  and  billets,  classed,  474 

Board  measure,  40 

Boiler  braces,  strength,  U.  S.  N.,  350, 
plates  for  U.  S.  Navy,  304 
tubes,  nickel  steel,  253 

Bolt  end  for  rigid  connection,  580 
end  with  collar  and  cotter,  579 
end  with  gib  and  key,  413 
end  with  slot  and  cotter,  412 
head  and  nut,  Frank.  Inst.,  347 
head  and  nut,  U.  S.  Std.,  348 
head,  length  for  upset,  399 

Bolts  and  nuts,  deck,  tests,  382 
and  nuts,  dimensions,  385 
and  nuts,  dimensions,  U.  S.,  381 
and  nuts,  iron,  U.  S.  N.,  380 
and  nuts,  steel,  U.  S.  N.,  372 
and  nuts,  tensile  test,  374 
and  nuts,  U.  S.  Std.,  349,  350 
and  nuts,  weight  per  100,  375 
and  washers,  foundation,  408 
composition  rods  for,  384 
eye,  proportions,  409,  411 
for  gun  mounts,  U.  S.  N.,  383 
heads  and  nuts,  weight,  352 
hook  proportions,  397 
length  of  thread,  386 
manganese,  strength,  350 
non-corrosive  rods,  379 
of  composition,  U.'S.  N.,  384 
of  uniform  strength,  391 
square  head  weight,  391 
steel,  nickel  or  carbon,  376 
strength  of,  350 
taper,  Loco.  Std.,  389 
Tobin  bronze,  strength,  350 
working  load  for  U.  S.  N.,  351 

Bone  for  case  hardening,  501 

Borax  properties,  215 

Boron,  properties,  215,  509 

Box  wrench  for  hex.  nuts,  418 

Brass  castings,  B-c.,  U.  S.  N.,  549 
BE,  U.  S.  N.,  550 
chem.  prop.,  549 
elec.  work,  550,  560 
porosity  of,  513 
U.  S.  Navy,  560 


Brass  castings,  yellow,  560 

Brass,  commercial,  560 
condenser  tubes,  560 
fluxes  for,  515 
high,  rolled,  561 
inspection  of,  U.  S.  N.,  536 
low,  rolled,  561 
Naval,  Admiralty,  561 
naval,  properties,  U.  S.  N.,  545 
pipe  fittings,  U.  S.  N.,  561 
pipe,  hydraulic  tests,  543 
pipe,  seamless,  tests,  544 
pipe,  seamless,  weight,  544 
red,  commercial,  561 
rods,  B-r,  U.  S.  N.,  549 
rolled  rods  for  bolts,  379 
sheets,  B-p,  U.  S.  N.,  549 
spring  wire,  composition,  561 
tubes,  British  standard,  561 
washers,  U.  S.  N.,  405 
with  aluminum,  559 
with  lead,  560 
with  manganese,  560 
with  tin,  561 
yellow,  composition,  561 

Brasses,  constituents,  505 

Brazing  aluminum  bronze,  561 
metal,  562 

metal,  F.,  U.  S.  N.,  551 
metal,  F.,  U.  S.  N.  uses,  540 

Brick,  fire,  285 

British  Ass'n  Std.,  screw,  368 
thermal  unit,  6 

Bronze,  acid  resisting,  562 
Ajax,  562 
arsenic,  559 
carbon,  562 

castings,  Admiralty  5j62 
deoxidized,  562 
fluxes  for,  515 
inspection  of,  U.  S.  N.,  536 
journal,  H.,  U.  S.  N.,  527 
journal,  U.  S.  N.,  562 
manganese,  Mn-c,  528 
phosphor,  P-r,  U.  S.  N.,  530 
plates  and  bars,  spec.,  532 
plates,  tensile  tests,  532 
Torpedo,  U.S. -N.,  528 
valve,  Comp.  M.,  U.  S.  N.,  527 

Bronzes,  constituents,  505 
proprietary,  529 

Bushel,  legal  weights,  80 
U.  S.  standard,  42 

Cadmium,  properties,  215,  507 
Calcium  carbide,  properties,  216 

oxide  in  alloys,  509 

properties,  216,  508 
[610] 


INDEX 


Calcium  sulphate  as  a  flux,  510 
Calorie,  major  and  minor,  5 
Calorific  value  of  coke,  450 
Camelia  metal,  562 
Cap  nuts,  371 

screw,  394 

Capacity,  measures  of,  41 
Car  bearings,  Penna.  R.  R.,  562 
Carbon  and  alloy  steels,  Comp.,  498 

and  alloy  steels,  heat  treatment,  498 

and  low-tungsten  steel,  hardening,  496 

bronze,  562 

chrome-nickel  steel,  498 

chrome-vanadium  steel,  499 

in  alloys,  509 

in  pig  iron,  443 

properties,  216 

steel  for  forgings,  471 

steel,  heat  treatment,  480 

steel,  other  than  tool,  495 

steel,  tempering  and  annealing,  481 

steel  tools,  color  scale,  485 

steel,  requirements,  275 

theory  of  hardening  steel,  482 

tool  steel,  484 

tool  steel,  quenching  of,  493 

tool  steel,  U.  S.  N.  requirements,  284 
Case-hardening,  500 

carburizing  gas,  501 

carburizing  materials,  500 

chrome  steel,  500 

cooling,  reheating,  503 

cyanide  process,  503 

effect  of  nitrogen,  501 

for  colors,  504 

method  of,  502 

mild  steel,  500 

mixture,  503 

nickel  steel,  500 

queching,  502 

temperatures,  502 
Cast  iron  for  U.  S.  N.  properties,  267 

malleable,  455 

washers,  406 
Castings,  chrome-nickel  steel,  256 

iron  and  steel,  443 

iron  comp.  and  structure,  456 

iron,  physical  properties,  454 

iron,  silicon  in  U.  S.  N.,  456 

iron,  tensile  strength,  454 

iron,  tests,  U.  S.  N.,  455 

iron,  transverse  strength,  454 

manganese  steel,  249 

semi  steel,  459 

steel,  460 
Castle  nuts,  371 
Cementation  process,  216 
Cementite,  217 


C.  G.  S.  Mechanical  units,  4 

C.  G.  S.  System,  defined,  2 

Charcoal  pig  iron,  447 

Charred  leather  for  case-hard,  501 

Chemical  changes  in  the  cupola,  449 

requirements,  pig  iron,  448 
Chemistry  of  rubber,  441 
Cheval,  C.  G.  S.,  5 
Chrome-nickel  carbon  steel,  498 

steel,  case-hardening,  500 

vanadium  carbon  steel,  499 
Chromium  hardens  aluminum,  517 

in  steel,  259 

properties,  217 

steel,  246 

vanadium  steel,  261 
Circle,  length  of  arc,  124 
Circles,  properties  of,  91 

table,  Dia.,  Cir.,  Area,  94 
Circular  arcs,  length  of,  126 

steel  plates  weight,  329 
Circumference  of  circles,  94 
Clay,  melting  point,  287 

plastic,  288 
Clays,  general  properties,  286 

refractory,  nature  of,  286 
Coach  and  lag  screws,  398 
Coals,  weight  of  American,  22 
Cobalt  in  steel,  260 

properties,  217,  507 
Coins,  values  of  foreign,  45 
Coke,  calorific  value,  450 

foundry,  characteristics,  449 
Cold-rolled  or  drawn  steel,  276 
Collar  screws,  proportions,  393 
Color  scale,  hardening  steel,  485 
Colors  in  case-hardening,  504 

of  heated  steel,  492 
Composition  A,  U.  S.  N.,  551 

B-c,  U.  S.  N.,  549 

B-p,  U.  S.  N.,  549 

B-r,  U.  S.  N.,  549 

BE,  U.  S.  N.,  550 

Be-r,  U.  S.  N.,  535 

Cu-p,  U.  S.  N.,  522 

Cu-r,  U.  S.  N.,  520 

Cu-si,  U.  S.  N.,  522 

D,  U.  S.  N.,  541 

D-c,  U.  S.  N.,  547 

D-r,  U.  S.  N.,  547 

F,  U.  S.  N.,  540,  551 

G,  U.  S.  N.,  525 
G-Ag,  U.  S.  N.,  536 
H,  U.  S.  N.,  527 
M,  U.  S.  N.,  527 
Mn-c,  U.  S.  N.,  528,  541 
Mn-r,  U.  S.  N.,  541 
Mo-c,  U.  S.  N.,  533 


[611] 


INDEX 


Composition  Mo-r,  TJ.  S.  N.,  534 
N-c,  U.  S.  N.,  540 
N-r,  U.  S.  N.,  540,  545 
P,  U.  S.  N.,  541 
P-c,  U.  S.  N.,  529 
P-r,  U.  S.  N.,  530 
rods  for  bolts,  384 
S,  U.  S.  N.,  540 
T,  U.  S.  N.,  541 
Vn-c,  U.  S.  N.,  531 
W,  U.  S.  N.,  541,  554 
Zn-r,  U.  S.  N.,  524 
Condenser  tubes,  brass,  560 
Conductivity,  10 
Cone,  mensuration,  155 
Connecting  rod  ends,  593,  607 
Constantin,  composition,  562 
Copper  alloys,  melting  point,  552 
alloys,  uses,  U.  S.  N.,  539 
amalgam,  519 
and  hydrogen,  513 
and  oxygen,  513 
castings,  porosity,  513 
deoxidizing,  513 
fluxes  for,  514 
for  sheathing,  521 
for  U.  S.  N.  alloys,  543 
hardens  aluminum,  518 
in  steel,  260 
ingot,  for  U.  S.  N.,  519 
inspection  of,  U.  S.  N.,  536 
lead  alloys,  melting  point,  553 
non-ferrous;  Cu-r,  520 
phosphor,  properties,  522 
pipes,  hydraulic  test,  543 
pipes,  material,  543 
pipes,  physical  tests,  543 
pipes,  strength  of,  543 
plates,  English  std.,  562 
properties,  218,  505 
refined,  cartridge  cases,  522 
rods,  English  std.,  562 
rods,  properties,  520 
sheets,  properties,  520 
sheets,  weight,  521 
silicon,  properties,  522 
tin  alloys,  melting  point,  553 
tubes,  British  std.,  562 
zinc  alloys,  melting  point,  553 
Corrugated  sheet  steel,  314 
Corrugation  types  for  U.  S.  N.,  315 
Cosecants  and  secants,  139 
Cosines,  sines,  139 
Cotangents  and  tangents,  139 
Couplings  for  valve  rods,  587-8-9 
Crank  phi  stub  ends,  593,  607 

pins,  table,  592 
Cranks,  cast  iron,  table,  591 


Crankshafts,  steel,  test  pieces,  475 
Crucible  furnace,  tilting,  556 

steel,  218 

Crucibles,  sizes,  555 
Cube,  mensuration,  153 

roots  of  numbers,  102 
Cubes  of  numbers,  102 
Cubic  measure,  41 
Cupola,  chemical  changes  in,  449 

excess  of  air  in,  451 

flux  to  promote  fusion,  451 

fuel  efficiency  in,  452 

heat  of  combustion,  452 

slag,  451 

temp,  melting  zone,  450 

temp,  escaping  gases,  451 

wasted  heat,  453 

Cupro-nickel,  cartridge  cases,  562 
Curvature,  8 
Cyanide  bath  for  steel,  489 

process,  case-hardening,  503 
Cyanides  for  case-hardening,  501 
Cycloid,  area  of,  133 

length  of  arc,  133 
Cylinder,  mensuration,  154 
Cylindric  rings,  mensuration,  163 

Darcet's  fusible  alloys,  563 

Decimal  wire  gauge,  74 

Deck  bolts  and  nuts,  U.  S.  N.,  382 

Delta  metal  composition,  562 

Density,  7 

Deoxidized  bronze,  562 

Deoxidizing  copper,  513 

Dodecahedron,  mensuration,  161 

Douglas  fir,  299 

Douglas  spruce,  299 

Dry  measures,  41 

Ductility  of  wrought  iron,  467 

Duralumin,  composition,  562 

Dyne,  unit  of  force,  4,  5 

Elastic  limit,  determination,  422 
limit,  manganese  steel,  249 
limit,  nickel  steel,  252 
limit,  wrought  iron,  468 

Elasticity,  modulus  of,  9 

Electric  furnace,  hardening,  488 

hardening,  high-speed  tools,  492 

Elements,  melting  point,  20 

Ellipse,  area,  133 

Elliptic  segment,  area,  133 

Emissivity,  10 

Energy,  C.  G.  S.,  5 

Engine  forgings,  476 
forgings,  steel,  475 

Entropy,  10 

Erg,  C.  G.  S.,  unit  of  work,  5 
[612] 


INDEX 


Eutectic  alloys,  512 

Expansion,  coefficient,  10 

Eye  bolt  head,  proportions,  409 

bolt  pins,  410 

bolts  for  flanges,  411 

Ferrite,  218 
Ferromanganese,  444 

properties,  506 
Fir,  Pacific  Coast,  299 
Fire  brick,  285 

analyses,  292 

composition,  291 

crushing  strength,  294-5 

hardness,  burning,  294 

load  tests,  291 

physical  tests,  294 
Fire  clay,  285 

analyses,  292 

and  alumina,  288 

and  feldspar,  289 

and  iron  oxide,  289 

and  line,  290 

and  mica,  290 

and  quartz,  288 

and  titanium  oxide,  289 

chemical  formulas,  293 

effect  of  fluxes,  290 

vitrification,  290 

Flameless  combustion,  hardening,  487 
Flint  clay,  properties  of,  287 
Floor  plates,  steel,  316 
Fluorspar  as  a  flux,  515 

used  as  a  flux,  452 
Fluxes,  effect  on  fireclays,  290 

for  copper,  514 

non-ferrous  alloys,  514 
Force,  8 

unit  of,  4 

Forging  steel,  physical  changes,  477 
Forgings,  iron  and  steel,  465 

steel,  engine,  U.  S.  N.,  475 

steel,  heat  treatment,  474 

wrought  iron,  470 
Foundation  bolts  and  washers,  408 
Foundry  coke,  characteristics,  449 

irons,  443 

pig  irons,  U.  S.  N.,  448 
Franklin  Institute  screws,  346 
Furnace,  hardening,  electric,  488 

hardening,  flameless,  487 

Kroeschell-Schwartz,  556 

muffle,  486 

oven,  486 

tempering,  gas  fuel,  487 

tempering,  oil  fuel,  487 
Furnaces,  heating,  486 
Fusible  alloy,  562 


G,  value  of,  4 

Galvanized,  corrugated  steel,  314 

sheet  steel,  313 

steel  plates,  309 
Gas,  for  case-hardening,  501 

furnace  for  tempering,  487 
Gases,  weight  and  spec,  grav.,  24 
Gear  bronze,  hard,  563 

medium  hard,  563 
Geometrical  quantities,  3 
Georgia  pine,  298 
German  silver,  563 

Comp.  G-ag,  536 

fluxes  for,  515 
Gillett,  H.  W.,  552 
Gold  amalgam,  519 

properties,  219 
Gram-degree,  5 
Graphite  bearing  metal,  563 

properties,  219 
Gravitation  units  of  work,  5 
Gun  bronze,  Comp.  G.,  539 
Gun  metal,  Admiralty,  563 

Comp.  G.,  525,  564 

English,  564 

for  bearings,  564 

for  general  use,  564 

Hammer,  Bell's  Steam,  478 
Hardening  carbon  steel,  496 

high-speed  steel,  491 

low-tungsten  steel,  496 

steel,  color  scale,  485 

steel,  critical  points,  483 
Harvey  steel,  220 
Headless  set  screws,  393 
Heat  treatment,  alloy  steels,  263 

carbon  steel,  480 

high-speed  tools,  263 

unit  of,  6,  9 

units,  conversion  factors,  12 
Heating  and  hardening  high-speed  steels, 
494 

carbon  steel,  484 
Hemlock,  Western,  300 
Hexahedron,  mensuration,  161 
Hibbard,  H.  D.,  alloy  steels,  245 
High-speed  steel,  quenching,  494 

steels,  theory,  265 

tool  steels,  258 

tools,  elec.,  hard.,  492 

tools,  hardening,  491 

tools,  heat  treatment,  263 
Holding  down  bolts,  gun  mounts,  383 
Hollow  forgings,  steel,  477 

shaft,  steel,  256 
Hook  bolts,  proportions,  397 
Horsepower,  C.  G.  S.,  5 
[613] 


INDEX 


Horsepower  and  kilowatt,  28 

Continental,  27 

English,  25 

unsuitable  unit,  28 
Horsepowers  to  kilowatts,  29 
Hose,  rubber,  requirements,  434 

steam,  pressure  test,  437 
Hydrogen  in  alloys,  509 

in  copper,  513 

properties,  221 
Hyperbola,  area  of,  134 
Hyperbolic  conoid,  mensuration,  161 
Hyperboloid,  mensuration,  160 

Icosahedron,  mensuration,  162 

Inertia,  moment,  8 

Ingot  iron,  221 
steel,  222 

Inspection  of  material,  index,  427 
of  material,  U.  S.  N.,  421 

International  standard  screw,  369 

Invar,  253 

Iridium,  properties,  222 

Iron  and  steel  castings,  443 

bolts  and  nuts,  U.  S.  N.,  380 
castings,  properties,  454 
castings,  silicon  in,  456 
castings,  structure,  456 
forgings,  465 
properties,  222,  506 
wrought,  properties,  465 

Joule's  equivalent,  6,  10 

Journal  bronze,  Comp.  H,,  527,  540 

Kaolin,  properties,  287 

Kennedy  Double  Keys,  table,  576 

Key,  double,  table,  577 

gib  head,  table,  573 

length,  569 

Peters'  double,  table,  578 

sliding,  table,  574 

sunk,  proportions,  569 

taper  pin,  table,  572 
Keys  for  screw  propellers,  578 
Keyways  and  sunk  keys,  table,  569 
Kilogram,  calorie,  5 

degree,  5 

Kilograms  per  sq.  cm.  to  pounds,  70 
Kilometers,  miles  and  knots,  68 
Kilowatt  as  unit  of  power,  28 

C.  G.  S.,  5 

Kilowatts  to  horsepowers,  34 
Knot,  Admiralty,  39 
Knots,  miles  and  kilometers,  68 
Kroeschell-Schwartz  furnace,  556 

Lag  and  coach  screws,  398 


Larch,  western,  300 
Latent  heat,  10 
Lead  amalgam,  518 

bath  for  heating  steel,  489 

bronze,  bearing  metal,  564 

pig,  properties,  525 

properties,  222,  506 
Legal  weights,  commodities,  79 
Length,  measures  of,  39 

standard,  1 
Lime  in  alloys,  509 
Limestone  used  as  a  flux,  451 
Line  measurement,  39 
Lipowitz's  fusible  alloy,  563 
Liquation,  223 

in  alloys,  512 

Liquids,  weight  and  spec,  grav.,  24 
Lithium,  properties,  223 
Loblolly  pine,  298 
Lock  nuts,  split  pins,  U.  S.  N.,  356 
Log.  sines,  cosines,  tangents,  146 
Logarithms  of  numbers,  163 
Longitude  and  time,  48 
Longleaf  pine,  297 
Lumen  bearing  metal,  564 
Lune,  area  of,  134 

Macadamite,  composition,  564 
Machine  bolts  and  nuts,  376 

bolts,  tests,  U.  S.  N.,  380 
Magnalium,  composition,  564 
Magnesia,  properties,  223 
Magnesite,  properties,  224 
Magnesium,  carbonate,  224 

properties,  224,  508 
Magnolia  metal,  composition,  564 
Malleable  cast  iron,  455 

iron  castings,  457-8 

iron  pipe  flanges,  458 
Manganese  bronze,  564 

bronze  castings,  541 

bronze,  Mn-c,  528,  541 

copper,  564 

hardens  aluminum,  517 

in  pig  iron,  444 

properties,  225,  506 

rods  for  bolts,  379 

steel,  247 

vanadium  bronze,  564 
Manganin,  composition  565 
Marble  chips  used  as  a  flux,  451 
Martensite,  226 
Mass,  2 

Materials,  chemical  properties,  421 
Materials,  physical  tests,  421 

sizes  for  test,  422 

types,  test  pieces,  422      j 
Mayari  steel,  256 
[6141 


INDEX 


Mechanical  equivalent  of  heat,  6 

quantities,  3 
Medical  signs,  43 
Melting  point,  copper  alloys,  552 

of  clay,  287 

of  elements,  20 
Mensuration,  89 

of  solids,  153 

Mercury,  properties,  226,  506 
Metals,  physical  constants,  19 

specific  gravity,  21 
Metric  and  U.  S.  measures,  50 

screw  threads,  369 

system,  1,  49 

Micrometer  wire  gauge,  .74 
Mild  steel,  case-hardening,  500 
Miles,  knots  and  kilometers,  68 
Mill  and  foundry  products,  267 
Modulus  of  elasticity,  9 
Moldenke,  Dr.  Richard,  455 
Molybdenum  in  steel,  260 

properties,  227 
Moment  of  a  couple,  8 

of  inertia,  8 
Momentum,  8 
Monel  metal  cast,  Mo-c,  553 

composition,  534 

for  bolts,  379 

physical  properties,  534 

rolled,  MO-E,  534 

U.  S.  N.,  565 
Money,  U.  S.,  44 
Muffle  furnace,  486 
Muntz  metal,  cast,  D-c,  547 

composition,  565 

comp.  D,  uses,  541 

properties,  547 

sheets,  D-r,  547 

Naval  brass,  cast,  N-c,  545 

inspection,  542 

N-c,  540,  565 

N-r,  540 

rods  for  bolts,  379 

rolled,  N-r,  545 
Newton's  fusible  alloy,  563 
Nickel  alloys,  505 

and  aluminum,  518 

chromium  steel,  253 

fluxes  for,  515 

properties,  228,  507 

silver,  565 

steel,  250 

steel,  case-hardening,  500 

steel  for  forgings,  471 

steel,  properties,  251 
Nickelin,  composition,  565 
Niter,  oxidizing  agent,  509 


Nitrogen  in  case-hardening,  501 

in  alloys,  509 

properties,  229 

Non-corrosive  rods  for  bolts,  379 
Non-ferrous  alloys,  505,  510 

metal,  D-r,  565 

metals,  505 

Non-metals  used  in  alloys,  509 
North  Carolina  pine,  298 
Norton,  A.  B.,  552 
Norway  pine,  300 
Nuts,  cap,  371 

Castle,  371 

lock  and  split  pin,  356 

round  slotted,  353 

sleeve,  dimensions,  403 

steel  and  iron,  377 

Occlusion,  229 

in  alloys,  512 

Octahedron,  mensuration,  161 
Oil  furnace  for  tempering,  487 
Open-hearth  carbon  steel,  307 

process,  230 

steel  for  U.  S.  N.,  305 
Oregon  pine,  299 
Oven  furnace,  486 
Oxides,  232 
Oxygen  and  copper,  513 

and  manganese,  444 

properties,  233,  510 

Parabola,  area  of,  133 

Parabolic  conoid,  mensuration,  160 

Paraboloid,  mensuration,  160 

Parallelepipedon,  solidity,  153 

Parallelogram,  area,  89 

Pearlite,  233 

Pennsylvania  R.  R.,  car  bearings,  562 

Penna.  R.  R.  case-hardening  mixture,  503 

Peters'  double  key  table,  578 

Phosphor  bronze,  inspection,  542 

P,  uses,  541 

P-c,  529,  565 

properties,  529 

Phosphor  copper,  properties,  522 
Phosphorus,  260 

in  alloys,  510 

in  pig  iron,  445 

properties,  234 
Physical  constants  of  metals,  19 

prop,  iron  castings,  454 
Pi,  (TT)  useful  functions,  93 
Pig  iron,  analysis,  standard,  446 

chemical  requirements,  448 

grading,  445 

Norway,  301 

Pine,  Longleaf,  297 


[615] 


INDEX 


Pig  iron,  Shortleaf,  298 

Southern  yellow,  296 
Pipe,  brass,  requirements,  543 

copper,  requirements,  543 

flanges,  malleable  iron,  458 
Piping  in  steel  ingots,  476 
Plane  trigonometry,  136 
Plaster  of  Paris,  flux,  510,  515 
Plastic  bronze,  composition,  566 
Plate  washers,  dimensions,  404 
Platinoid,  composition,  566 
Platinum,  properties,  234 
Plumbago  for  foundry  use,  464 
Polygon,  area,  90 
Porosity,  non-ferrous  alloys,  514 
Porter,  H.  F.  J.,  476 
Potassium  cyanide,  flux,  510 

nitrate,  oxidizing  agent,  509 

properties,  235,  509 
Pound-degree,  C.,  6 

F.,6 

Pound,  unit  of  mass,  6 
Poundal,  4 

Pounds  per  sq.  in.  to  kilograms,  70 
Power,  C.  G.  S.,  5 

or  activity,  9 

Pressures,  pound  to  kilograms,  70 
Prism,  solidity  of,  153 
Prismoid,  mensuration,  158 
Projectiles,  255 
Properties  of  materials,  199 
Protective  hull  plates,  273 
Puddling  iron,  465 
Pyramid,  mensuration,  156 

Quenching  baths,  493 

Reamers  for  taper  bolts,  390 

Recalescense,  477 

Reciprocals  of  numbers,  102 

Reduction,  236 

Redwood,  300 

Refractories,  manufacture,  288 

Reheating  steel  ingots,  476 

Resilience,  9 

Rheotan  composition,  566 

Ring,  to  find  area,  132 

Rivet  rods,  tests,  339 

Rivets,  manufactured,  tests,  340 
small,  sheet  metal,  344 
standard,  U.  S.  N.,  341 
steel,  for  hulls,  U.  S.  N.,  339 

Rose's  fusible  alloy,  563 

Rowland,  Professor  H.  A.,  6 

Rubber  belting,  requirements,  435 
chemistry  of,  441 
elongation,  438 
fabrics,  tension  tests,  437 


Rubber,  friction  test,  440 
goods,  compounding,  433 
goods,  definition,  436 
goods,  friction,  layers,  437 
goods,  properties,  436 
goods,  testing  of,  432 
hose,  requirements,  434 
hydraulic  test,  440 
material,  inspection,  428 
physical  testing,  436 
repeated  stretching,  439 
tensile  strength,  438 

Salt,  common,  flux  for  copper,  514 

Screw,  Acme  thread,  U.  S.  N.,  358 
Bastard  thread,  U.  S.  N.,  360 
British  Assn.  standard,  368 
buttress  thread,  363 
coupling,  valve  rod,  590 
ends,  length  for  upset,  400 
ends,  upset,  details,  401 
International,  standard,  369 
multiple  thread,  362 
propellers,  key,  578 
S.  A.  E.  standard,  365 
sharp  V-thread,  364 
square  thread,  361 
thread,  length,  bolts,  386 
threads,  Metric,  369 
threads,  Sellers,  346 
threads,  sharp  V,  346 
United  States  standard,  348 
Whitworth  standard,  365 

Screws,  cap,  proportions,  394 
collar,  393 
headless,  393 
set,  sizes,  396 

Secants  and  Cosecants,  139 

Second,  unit  of  time,  6 

Segment  of  a  circle,  125 

Segregation  in  steel  ingots,  476 

Sellers,  Wm.,  screw  threads,  346 

Semi-steel,  236 
castings,  459 

Set  screws,  sizes,  396 

Shafts,  steel,  test  pieces,  475 

Shortleaf  pine,  298 

Silica,  properties,  236 

Silicon  as  a  flux,  510 
bronze,  566 
copper,  deoxidizer,  513 
copper,  properties,  522 
effect,  yellow  brass,  513 
in  iron  castings,  456 
in  pig  iron,  443-4 
properties,  236 
spiegel,  444 
steel  properties,  257 
[616] 


INDEX 


Silver  amalgam,  519 

properties,  237 

Simpson's  rule,  irregular  figures,  135 
Sines  and  Cosines,  139 
Sleeve  nuts,  dimensions,  403 
Socket  wrench,  419 
Sodium  amalgam,  519 

properties,  237,  509 
Solder,  aluminum,  566 

half  and  half,  566 

hard  for  copper,  566 

nickel  silver,  566 

spelter,  566 

tin-lead,  555 

tinmen's,  566 

Solids,  mensuration  of,  153 
Solution  theory,  hardening  steel,  482 
Sorbite,  483 

South  Carolina  pine,  298 
Southern  yellow  pine,  297 
Space,  1 
Specific  gravity,  liquids,  24 

of  gases,  24 

of  metals,  21 

of  minerals,  21 

of  wood,  23 
Specific  heat  of  air,  14 

of  alloys,  512 

Speed,  flow,  cu.  ft.  to  cu.  meters,  72 
Spelter  solder,  554,  566 
Sperry,  E.  S.,  561 
Sphere,  mensuration,  158 
Spherical  triangle,  mensuration,  158 
Spheroid,  mensuration,  159 
Spiegeleisen,  444 
Spikes,  black  and  galv.,  420 
Spring  cotters,  U.  S.  N.,  357 

steel  for  U.  S.  N.,  280 
Spruce,  301 
Square  thread  screws,  U.  S.  N.,  361 

roots  of  numbers,  102 
Squares  of  numbers,  102 
Steam  hammer,  478 

hose,  pressure  test,  437 

metal,  brass,  566 
Steel,  allotropic  theory,  hardening,  482 

annealing,  494 

annealing  mild,  494 

as  wrought  iron  substitute,  277 

bars  for  concrete,  267 

bars,  strength  of  round,  337 

bars,  weights,  336 

Bessemer,  for  hulls,  311 

boiler  plates,  U.  S.  N.,  304 

boiler  plating,  U.  S.  N.,  267 

bolt  rods,  U.  S.  N.,  376 

bolts  and  nuts,  U.  S.  N.,  372 

carbon  and  alloy,  comp.,  498 


Steel,  carbon  chrome-nickel,  498 
carbon  chrome-vanadium,  499 
carbon,  color  scale,  485 
carbon,  heating,  484 
carbon  nickel  for  hulls,  311 
carbon,  other  than  tool,  495 
carbon,  requirements,  275 
carbon  theory,  hardening,  482 
carbon  tool,  484 
carbon  tool,  U.  S.  N.,  284 
casting  specifications,  460 
castings,  239,  460 

castings,  chemical  and  physical  prop- 
erties, U.  S.  N.,  462 
castings,  composition,  462 
castings,  heat  treatment,  462 
castings,  tensile  strength,  462 
castings,  U.  S.  N.,  461 
castings,  U.  S.  N.  properties,  267 
castings,  welding,  463 
chromium-vanadium,  261 
cold-rolled  or  drawn,  276 
colors  of  heated,  492 
common  for  hulls,  311 
common,  properties,  307 
corrugated  sheets,  314 
crankshafts,  test  pieces,  475 
double  hardening,  494 
drill  rod,  U.  S.  N.,  274 
extra  soft  for  U.  S.  N.,  277 
for  forgings,  process,  471 
for  forgings,  properties,  471 
for  forgings,  tests,  472 
for  miscell.  forgings,  278 
for  rivets,  properties,  267 
for  springs,  280 
for  tools,  281 

for  U.  S.  N.  requirements,  267 
forgings,  465 
forgings,  hollow,  477 
forgings,  U.  S.  N.,  471 
galvanized,  309 
galvanized  sheet,  312 
hardening  carbon  and  low-tungsten, 

496 

heat  treatment,  alloy,  263 
heating,  barium  chloride  bath,  490 
heating  in  cyanide  bath,  489 « 
heating  in  lead  bath,  489 
high-speed,  theory,  265 
high-speed  tool,  258 
high  tensile,  307 
hull  plating,  267 
ingots,  defects,  476 
ingots  for  U.  S.  Navy,  303 
ingots,  piping,  476 
ingots,  reheating,  476 
ingots,  segregation,  476 
[617] 


INDEX 


Steel,  ingots,  specifications,  474 

manganese,  247 

Mayari,  256 

nickel-chromium,  256 

nuts  for  U.  S.  N.,  377-8 

open-hearth  carbon  for  hulls,  311 

other  than  carbon,  482 

overweight  allowance,  306 

plates,  circular,  weight,  329 

plates  for  hulls,  306 

plates,  rectangular  weight,  318 

plates,  shapes  and  bars  for  U.  S. 
properties,  267 

plates,  special  treatment,  273 

properties,  239 

quenching  baths,  493 

reheating  boiler,  305 

rivets  for  hulls,  339 

shafts,  test  pieces,  475 

shapes  for  hulls,  310 

sheet,  black  and  galv.,  312 

silicon,  257 

silicon  for  hulls,  311 

simple  chromium,  246 

simple  nickel,  250 

simple  tungsten,  246 

slabs,  blooms,  billets,  474 

soft  or  flange,  307 

solution  theory,  hardening,  482 

terms  relating  to,  245 

tests  for  hull  plates,  308 

tungsten  tool,  requirements,  284 

variation  in  weight,  268 

wire  gauge,  73 

Sterro  metal,  composition,  566 
Strap  joint,  bolts,  key,  599,  601 

light,  table,  586 

round  end,  597 

square  end,  595 
Strength  of  round  steel  bars,  337 

uniform,  bolts,  391-2 
Stress,  intensity  of,  9 
Strontium,  properties,  508 
Structural  timbers,  296 
Stub  end,  box  pattern,  593    , 

forked,  table,  604 

strap,  gib  and  key,  597 

strap  joint,  table,  595 

strap,  key,  599,  601 
Studs,  commercial  sizes,  397 

length  of  thread,  388 
Sulphur,  260 

in  alloys,  510 

m  pig  iron,  444 

properties,  239 
Surface  measure,  40 
Surveyors'  measure,  39 


Talbot  process,  steel,  231 
Tamarack,  301 

Tangents  and  Cotangents,  139 
Tantalum,  properties,  239 
Taper  bolts,  Loco.,  Standard,  389 

reamers,  for  bolts,  390 
Temperature,  case-hardening,  502 
Tempering  and  annealing  steel,  481 
Tensile  strength,  malleable  iron,  455,  458 

phosphor  bronze,  529,  530 

steel  castings,  462 
N.,  wrought  iron,  467 

Terneplate  roofing  tin,  317 

Test  of  material,  U.  S.  N.  std.,  421 

rubber  materials,  428 
Testing  rubber  fabric,  437 

rubber  goods,  432 
Tests,  timber,  302 
Tetrahedron,  mensuration,  161 
Therm,  C.  G.  S.,  5 
Thermal  capacity,  10 
Timber,  New  England,  301 

Structural,  296 

tests,  302 

Timbers  of  Pacific  Coast,  299 
Time,  1 

and  longitude,  48       •"•  • 

between  two  dates,  47 

measures,  44 
Tin  amalgam,  519 

and  aluminum,  517 

ingot,  properties,  523 

phosphor,  523 

properties,  240,  506 

terneplate  roofing,  317 
Titanium  and  aluminum,  517 

properties,  241 
Tobin  bronze,  composition,  566 

T,  uses,  541 
Tool  steel,  carbon,  484 

requirements,  281 

tempering  furnace,  486 
Torpedo  bronze,  U.  S.  N.,  528,  567 
Torque  or  twisting,  8 
Tortuosity,  8 
Trapezium,  area,  89 
Triangle,  area,  89 
Trigonometrical  formula,  137 
Trigonometry,  plane,  136 
Troy  weight,  42 
Tungsten  and  aluminum,  518 

in  steel,  259 

properties,  242 

steel,  246 

tool  steel  requirements,  284 
Turnbuckles,  dimension,  402 

Unit  of  energy,  C.  G.  S.,  5 
(618]  ' 


INDEX 


Unit  of  force,  4 

heat,  6 

Mass,  2 

momentum,  5 

power,  C.  G.  S.,  5 

time,  1 

work,  C.  G.  S.,  5 
Units  and  standards,  1 

and  standards,  U.  S.  A.,  12 

fundamental  and  derived,  11 

geometric  and  dynamic,  11 
Useful  alloy  steels,  245 

Valve  bronze,  comp.  M,  527,  540 

bronze,  U.  S.  N.,  567 

rod  couplings,  tables,  587 

rod  end,  adjustable,  582 

rod  end,  bushed,  581 

rod  end,  key  adjustment,  583 

rod  knuckle,  584,  585 
Vanadium  bronze,  567 

bronze,  Vn-c,  531 

in  steel,  260 

properties,  242 
Velocity,  7 
Virginia  pine,  299 
Vitrification,  fire  clay,  290 
Volume,  7 

measure  of,  41 

Washers,  brass,  U.  S.  N.,  405 

cast  iron,  406 

dimensions,  U.  S.  N.,  404 
Water  as  a  standard,  15 
Watt,  C.  G.  S.,  5 
Wedge,  mensuration,  157 
Weight,  bolts  and  nuts,  375 

bolts,  square  head,  391 

metals  and  minerals,  21 

of  circular  plates,  329 

of  copper  sheets,  521 

of  square  and  round  bars,  336 

rectangular  plates,  318 

steel,  variation,  268 
Weights  and  measures,  39 

and  measures,  Metric,  49 

per  bushel,  80 
Welding  steel  castings,  463 
Western  hemlock,  300 

larch,  300 


White  brass,  567 

metal,  Admiralty,  567 

metals  for  bearings,  505,  567 
Whitworth  standard  threads,  365 
Wire  gauge,  U.  S.  standard,  77 

gauges,  American,  73 

gauges  in  use  in  U.  S.,  75 
Wood,  structural  timber,  297 

weight  and  spec,  grav.,  23 
Wood's  fusible  alloy,  563 
Work  and  energy,  9 
Work-rate,  C.  G.  S.,  5 
Wrench,  box,  hex.  nuts,  355,  418 

field,  square  nuts,  417 

socket,  419 
Wrenches,  box,  round  nuts,  354 

open  end,  413 
Wrought  iron,  analysis,  466 

annealing,  469 

blacksmith  grade,  470 

chemical  and  physical  requirements, 
470 

chemistry  of,  465 

compression,  468 

ductility,  467 

elastic  limit,  468 

for  blacksmith  use,  470 

for  U.  S.  N.,  267 

forgings,  470 

low  temperature,  469 

proof  load,  468 

safe  load,  468 

special  grade,  470 

stiffening  of,  469 

tensile  strength,  467 

texture,  466 
Wulfenite,  properties,  244 

Yard,  unit  of  length,  6 
Yellow  brass,  S.,  uses,  540 
pine,  297 

Zinc  amalgam,  518 

chloride,  flux,  aluminum,  516 
for  boilers,  U.  S.  N.,  524 
for  hulls,  U.  S.  N.,  524 
for  salt  water  piping,  524 
improves  aluminum  alloys,  518 
plates,  Zn-r,  U.  S.  N.,  524 
properties,  244,  507 
slab,  for  U.  S.  N.,  523 


[619] 


Engineering 


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